LESSON 10 : COMPUTER NETWORKS

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10.1 COMPUTER NETWORKS:

• A network is an interconnected collection of autonomous computer that can

share and exchange information.
• Following are the some of the important applications of network :
i. Sharing
ii. Access to remote database
iii. Communication facilities

10.2 EVOLUTION OF NETWORKING:

• In 1969 U.S. Department of Defense sponsored a project named ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects Agency Network).
• The goal of the project was to connect various universities and US Defense.
• In mid 80’s National Science Foundation created a new high capacity network
called NSFnet, which was more powerful than ARPANET.
• In 1990 the Internet came into picture.

10.2.1 ARPANET
The Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was one of
the worlds first operational packet switching networks, the first network to
implement TCP/IP, and the progenitor of what was to become the global
internet.

10.2.2 Internet:
• The internet is worldwide network of computer network evolved from
the first network ARPANET.
• Internet is an interconnection of large and small networks around the globe.
• The common use of internet standards allows users connected to one
network to communicate with users on another network.

10.2.3 The Interspace:

• Interspace is a client/server software program that allows multiple users
to communicate online with real-time audio, video and text chat in dy-
namic 3D environments.
• Interspace provides the most advanced form of communication available
on the Internet today.

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10.5 SWITCHING TECHNIQUES:
• Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks.
• There are three types of switching:
1.Circuit Switching
2.Message Switching
3. Packet Switching

10.5.1 Circuit Switching:

• In this technique, first the complete physical connection between two
computers is established and then data are transmitted from the source
computer to the destination computer.
• The important property of this switching technique is to setup an
end-to-end path connection between computers before any data
can be sent.

10.5.2 Packet Switching:

• Packet switching can be seen as an option that tries to combine the
advantages of circuit and message switching and to minimize the
disadvantage of both.
• In Packet switching, a message is broken into smaller parts called packets.
• A fixed size of packet which can be transmitted across the network is
specified.

10.6 DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES:

Concepts of channel:
• The word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission
between a given pair of lines.
• The information /data carry from one end to another in the network by channel.
• Measurement Units:
1 Byte = 8 bits
1 kbps = 1024 bytes
1 mbps = 1024 kbps

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Bandwidth and Data transfer rate
• Data transfer Rate: The amount of data transferred in one direction over a link divided
by the time taken to transfer it. The data rate defines the number data elements (bits)
sent in 1 second. The unit is bits per second (bps).
• Bandwidth: Bandwidth can be used in two different contexts with two different mea-
suring values. Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies contained in a composite
signal or the range of frequencies a channel can pass.

10.7 Transmission Medium:

• By transmission media or communication channels of networks, the connecting
cables or connecting media are being discussed.
• The cables that connect two or more workstations are the communication channels.
10.7.1 Twisted Pair Cable:
• One of the oldest and still most common transmission media is twisted pair.
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires.
• The wires are twisted together in helical form.
• Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna.
• Twisted pair can run several kilometers without amplification, but for
longer distance the signal becomes too week and repeaters are needed.

Types of twisted pair cables

• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable:
• UTP is the copper media inherited from telephone, which is being used for increasingly
higher data rates.
• A UPT cable contains 2 to 4200 twisted pair. UTP is flexible, low cost media; it can be
sued for voice or data communication.
• It is available in the following five categories:
1. CAT1: Voice-Grade communications only; No data transmission
2. CAT2: Data-grade transmission up to 4 Mbps
3. CAT3: Data-Grade transmission up to 10 Mbps
4. CAT4: Data-grade transmission up to 16 Mbps
5. CAT5: Data-grade transmission up to 1000 Mbps

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:
• This type of cables comes with shielding of individual pairs of wires, which further
protects it from external interference.
• But these also, like UTP, can have a maximum segment length of 100 meters.
• The advantage of STP over UTP is that it offers greater protection from interference and
crosstalk due to shielding.
• But it is definitely heavier and costlier than UTP and requires proper grounding at both
ends.

Advantages of twisted pair cables:

i. It is simple and physically flexible
ii. It can be easily connected.
iii. It is easy to install and maintain.
iv. It has a low weight.
v. It is very inexpensive.
Disadvantages of twisted pair cables:
i. Data transmission rate are very low
ii. It is incapable to carry a signal over long distance without the use of repeaters
iii. Low bandwidth

10.7.2 Coaxial Cable

• This type of cable consists of a solid wire core surrounded by one or more foil or
wire shields, each separated by some kind of plastic insulator.
• The inner core carries the signal, and the shield provides the ground.
• The coaxial cable has high electrical properties and is suitable for high speed
communication.
• While it is less popular than twisted pair, it is widely used for television signals.

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Types of coaxial cables:
1. Thicknet:
This form of coaxial cable is thicker than Thinnet. The Thicknet coaxial cable
segments (while joining nodes of a network) can be up to 500 meters long.
2. Thinnet:
This form of coaxial cable is thinner and it can have maximum segment length of
185 meters i.e. using these cables, nodes having maximum distance of 185 meters
can be joined.

10.7.3 Optical fibers:

• Optical Fibers consist of thin strands of glass or glass like material which are
so constructed that they carry light from a source at one end of the fiber to a
detector at the other end.
• The light sources used are either light emitting diodes (LEDs) or LASER Diodes
(LDs).
• It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of
electrical interference.
• OFC has ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial
cable and twisted pair.
• It also capacity to carry information at vastly greater speed.

Advantages of optical fibers:

i. It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference
ii. It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environment
iii. It guarantees source transmission and has very high transmission capacity
iv. It can be used for broadband transmission
Disadvantages of optical fibers:
i. Difficult to install
ii. Expensive as compared to other guided media
iii. Difficult to repair.

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Infrared:
• This type of transmission uses infrared light to send data.
• The infrared light transmits data through the air and can propagate throughout a
room (bouncing off surfaces), but will not penetrate walls.
• The infrared transmission has become common in PDAs (Personal digital assistants)
e.g., hand held devices like palm pilots etc.
• The infrared transmission is considered to be a secure one.

10.7.4 Radio Wave:

• The transmission making use of radio frequencies is termed as radio-wave transmission.
• Any radio setup has two parts:
1. The transmitter
2. The receiver
• The transmitter takes some sort of message, encodes it onto a sine wave and
transmits it with radio wave.
• The receiver receives the radio wave and decodes the message from the sine
wave it receives.
• Both the transmitter and receiver use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signals.

Advantages of radio waves:

i. Provide mobility
ii. Inexpensive.
iii. It proves cheaper than digging trenches for laying cables.
iv. Free from land acquisition rights.
Disadvantages of radio waves:
i. It is an insecure communication.
ii. Susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunder storms etc

10.7.5 Microwave:
• Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission.
• The transmit station must be in visible contact with the receive station.
• This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on the local geography.
• Microwave operates at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz.
• This allows carrying large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.

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Advantages
• Maintenance easy than cables.
• Suitable when cable cannot be used.
• Free from land acquisition rights.
• Low cost land purchase ( Tower occupies small area)
• Carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
Disadvantages:
• Repeaters are required for long distance communication.
• Less Bandwidth available.
• Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metals.

10.7.7 Satellite:
• A satellite consists of transponders (unit that receive on one frequency and
retransmit on another) that are set in geostationary orbits directly over the
equator.
• Satellite communication is special case of microwave relay system.
• These geostationary orbits are 22,000 - 36,000 Km from the Earth’s surface.
• The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite.
• The downlink is the receiver of data.
• Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations because they are located on
the Earth.

Advantages of satellite:
• The area coverage through satellite transmission is large.
• No line of sight restrictions.
• The heavy usage makes satellite commercial attractive.
• Earth station which receives the signals can be fixed position or relatively mobile.
Disadvantages of satellite:
• Very expensive
• Installation is complex.
• Signals sent to the stations can be tampered by external interference.

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10.9 Network devices:
Modem:
• Modem means Modulation/ Demodulation.
• A modem is a computer peripheral that allows you to connect and
communicate with other computers via telephone lines.
• Modulation: A modem changes the digital data from your computer into analog
data, a format that can be carried by telephone lines.
• Demodulation: The modem receiving the call then changes the analog signal back
into digital data that the computer can digest.
• The modem modulates the signal at the sending end and demodulates at the
receiving end.
• Modems are of two types:
1. Internal modems: The modems that are fixed within the computer
2. External modems: The modems that are connected externally to a computer
as other peripherals are connected.

RJ-45 is short for Registered Jack-45 is an eight-wire connector, which is commonly used to
connect computers on the local area networks i.e., LANs especially Ethernets.
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector

Ethernet Card:
• The computer that are part of Ethernet, have to install our special card called Ethernet
card.
• It is LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp association with DEC and Intel.
• It make use of Bus or Star topology and data transfer rates of 10 Mbps.
• An Ethernet card contains connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both).
• If it is designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be BNC.
• If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection.
• Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used to attach coaxial,
twisted pair, or fiber optical cables to an Ethernet card.

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Switch:
• The switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network compo-
nents.
• The switch is like Hub but built in with advanced features.
• The switch connects the source and destination directly which increases the speed of the
network.
• LANs that are segmented through switches are called switched LANs.

Router:
• A router works like a bridge but can handle different protocols.
• A Router is a network device that is used to separate different segments in a network to
improve performance and reliability.
• If the destination is unknown to a router it sends the traffic to another router which knows
the destination.

Gateway:
• The term gateway is applied to a device, system or software application which has
internetwork capability of joining dissimilar network.
• It is node on network that provides entry to another network.
• It performs data translation and protocol conversions which is suitable to other network.
• Gateway can be implemented on software, hardware or a combination of both.
• Gateway is that only the data format is translated, not the data itself.

WiFi card
• A WiFi card is either an internal or external LAN adapter with a built-in wireless radio
and antenna.
• The most common WiFi cards used in desktop computers are PCI-Express WiFi cards
made to fit the PCI-Express card slots on the motherboard.

Types of Networks:
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• Privately owned small networks that are confined to a localized area (e.g., an office, a
building or a factory) are known as Local Area Networks (LANs).
• The key purpose of a LAN is to serve its users in resource sharing.
• The hardware as well as software resources are shared through LANs.

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• LAN Configuration consists of:
i. A File Server: Stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the
software that can be shared by the computers attached to the network.
ii. A Workstation: Computers connected to the file server. These are less powerful than
the file server.
iii. Cables: Used to connect the network interface cards on each computer.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• Metropolitan Area Network is the networks spread over a city.
• MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 KM.
• The purpose of a MAN is also the sharing of hardware and software resources among
its users.
• For example, cable TV networks that are spread over a city can be termed as metropol-
itan area networks.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

• The networks spreads across countries are known as WANs.
• A wide Area Network (WAN) is a group of computers that are separated by large dis-
tances and tied together.
• The largest WAN in existence is the internet.
• It can even be a group of LAN that are spread across several locations and connected
and together to look like one big LAN.
• The WANs link computers to facilitate fast and efficient exchange of information at less-
er costs and higher speeds.

Difference between LAN and WAN

SL.NO LAN WAN
1 Local Area Network Wide Area Network
Diameter of not more than a
2 Span entire country
few kilometre
A total date rate of at least
3 Data rate is less compared to LAN
several mbps
Complete ownership by a
4 Owned by Multiple Organization
single organization
5 Very low error rates Comparatively high error rates

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Network Topologies:
• Network Topology refers to the arrangement of computers and other devices in a net-
work.
• Need for Topologies are: Cost, Flexibility, and Reliability.
• Network topologies can be classified as follows:
i. Bus Topology
ii. Star Topology
iii. Ring Topology
iv. Mesh Topology
v. Tree Topology

LINEAR OR BUS TOPOLOGY:

• A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end.
• All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
• In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable called the
bus.
• Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every other workstation in
the network.

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
• Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
• Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

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Star Topology:
In this type of topology, all the computers are connected to a single hub or a switch through
a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Advantages of a Star Topology

• Easy to install and wire.
• No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
• Easy to detect faults.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
• Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
• If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
• More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.
Tree Topology
• A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies.
• It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus
backbone cable.
• The tree network topology uses two or more star networks connected together.
• The central computers of the star networks are connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree
network is a bus network of star networks.

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Advantages of a Tree Topology
• Point-to-Point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software venders.
• Network can be easily extended.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
• Use large cable length.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

VARIOUS PROTOCOLS USED ON NETWORKS:

HTTP:
• The HTTP is an application-level protocol with the lightness and speed necessary for
distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information system.
• It is a generic, stateless, object-oriented protocol which can be used for many tasks.
• HTTP allows an open-ended set of methods to be used to indicate the purpose of a re-
quest.
• HTTP in a format similar to that used by Internet Mail and Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extension.
• HTTP is also used as a generic protocol for communication between user agents and
gateways to other internet protocols, allowing basic hypermedia access to resource
available from diverse application and simplifying the implementation of user agents.

TCP / IP PROTOCOL
• Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol.
• It is the basic communication language or protocol of the Internet.
• TCP/IP is a two-layer program, the higher layer Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)man-
ages the assembling of a message or file into smaller packets that are transmitted over
the internet.
• The lower layer Internet Protocol (IP) handles the address part of each packet so that it
gets to the right destination.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

• FTP is a standard for exchange of files across the internet.
• Files of any type can be transferred, although we may have to specify whether the file
is an ASCII or binary file.
• They can be transferred to any system on the internet provider that permissions are set
accordingly.

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PPP:
• Point to Point Protocol is the standard for transmission of IP packets over serial lines.
• The PPP is currently the best solution for dial-up internet connections, including ISDN.
• PPP is a layered protocol, starting with a link control protocol (LCP) for link establish-
ment, configuration and testing.
• PPP supports both synchronized and unsynchronized lines.

SMTP:
• While POP3 and IMAP protocol are used for fetching emails from the email server to
client application, the SMTP is used for sending emails across the internet.
• The SMPT works on these ports:
port 25 - SMPT non-encrypted port
port 465 - encrypted port

POP (Post Office Protocol):

• The POP3 defines the rules about receiving emils from a remote server to a local email
client.
• It also makes it possible for the user to download their received email messages onto
their local computer so that they can read them even they are not connected to the inter-
net.
• POP3 protocol is suitable if we are accessing our emails using single applications or from
a single location.

Remote Login:
• The remote login is a network application that permits a user sitting at a different loca-
tion to work on a specific program on another computer.
• The work access to a program is granted by login concept wherin users having autho-
rized login and password to work on that program are allowed access.
• There are two programs: TELNET and SSH that facilitate remote login on the internet.

Wireless and Mobile Computing:

Wireless communication:
• Wireless communication is simply data communication without the use of landlines.
• This may involve cellular telephone, two way radio, fixed wireless, LASER or satellite
communication.
• Mobile computing means that the computing device is not continuously connected to the
base or central network.
• Mobile devices include PDAs, Laptop computers and smart phones.

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GSM:
• GSM is short for Global System for Mobile communications, which is one of the leading
digital cellular systems.
• The GSM standard for digital cell phones was established in Europe in the mid 1908s.
• GSM uses narrowband TDMA, which allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio
frequency.
• TDMA is short for Time Division Multiple Access, a technology for delivering digital wire-
less service using time-division multiplexing (TDM).

GPRS
• GPRS stands for General Packet Radio Service.
• GPRS is used for wireless communication using a mobile device.
• With the service you can access the internet, send emails and large data, download
games and watch movies.

WLL ( Wireless in Local Loop ):

• It is meant to serve subscribers at homes or offices.
• In WLL services, the telephone provided is expected to be as good as wired phone.
• A WILL system serves a local area by deploying multiplicity of multi channel transmit
that are within the line of site of the intended customers
• Its voice quality must be high - a subscriber carrying out long conversation must not be
irritated with quality; one must be able, to use speakerphones, cordless phones and par-
allel phones.

Mobile Telecommunication Technologies:

• 1G Networks:
• NMT, C-Nets, AMPS, TACS are considered to be the first analog cellular systems, which
started early 1980.
• 1G networks were conceived and designed purely for voice calls with almost no consid-
eration of data services.

2G Networks:
• GSM, CDMA, D-AMPS are the first digital cellular systems launched early 1990, offer-
ing improved sound quality, better security and higher total capacity.
• GSM supports circuit switched data, allowing users to place dial-up data digital calls.

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3G Networks:
• 3G is a specification for the third generation of mobile communications technology.
• 3G promises increased bandwidth, up to 384 kbps when a device is stationary or mov-
ing at pedestrian speed.

4G Networks:
• Based on the requirements for seamless interaction between networks, 4G is
characterized by the following key attributes:
i. Support for multiple applications and services.
ii. Quality of service
iii. Network detection and network selection.

5G Networks:
• 5G stands for fifth generation mobile technology. 5G has changed the meaning of using
cell phones.
• The 5G includes all types of advanced features which makes 5G technology most pow-
erful and in huge demand in near future.
• Key concepts of 5G:
i. Real wireless world.
ii. Wearable devices with AI capabilities.
iii. Internet protocol version 6.
iv. One unified global standard
v. Universal networks providing universal computing

Features of 5G:
i. High resolution.
ii. Attractive and effective.
iii. Fast action and solutions
iv. Avoid errors.
v. Accurate and consistency.
vi. Virtual private network
vii. Enhanced and available connectivity

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Mobile Processors
• A CPU chip designed for laptops, tablets, smartphones and other portable devices.
• Mobile processors use lower voltages and are designed to run cooler than the CPUs in
desktop computers.
• They typically have more "sleep modes" that enable sections of the chip to be throttled
down or turned off when not used.
• The most widely used mobile processors are ARM chips.

Electronic Mail:
• Electronic mail (e-mail) is sending and receiving message by computer.
• Advantages:
• Low cost: Electronic mail is an extremely cost-effective way to move information around,
especially when it must be moved quickly.
• Speed: Electronic mail can be delivered almost as fast as the wire can carry it.

E-Mail Protocols:
Email protocol is a standard method for exchanging information between email clients like
Thunderbird, Apple Mail, or Mailbird and email provider’s servers like Gmail, Outlook,
Yahoo, and vice versa.

SMTP:
• While POP3 and IMAP protocol are used for fetching emails from the email server to
client application, the SMTP is used for sending emails across the internet.
• The SMPT works on these ports:
port 25 - SMPT non-encrypted port
port 465 - encrypted port

POP (Post Office Protocol):

• The POP3 defines the rules about receiving emils from a remote server to a local email
client.
• It also makes it possible for the user to download their received email messages onto
their local computer so that they can read them even they are not connected to the inter-
net.
• POP3 protocol is suitable if we are accessing our emails using single applications or from
a single location.

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VoIP:
• VoIP is a technology that enables voice communications over the internet through the
compression of voice into data packets that can be efficiently transmitted over data
networks and then converted back into voice at the other end.
• The most common protocol used for communicating on these packet-switched network is
IP.
• VoIP allows for the transmission of voice along with other data over these same
packet-switched networks and provides an alternative to traditional telephone net-
works, which use a fixed electrical path to carry voice signals through a series of switches
to a destination.

Wi-fi:
• Wi-Fi is short for Wireless Fidelity, which lets you connect to the internet without a direct
line from your PC to the ISP.
• For Wi-Fi to work, you need:
i. A broadband internet connection.
ii. A wireless router, which relays your internet connection from the “wall” to the PC.
iii. A laptop or desktop with a wireless internet card or external wireless adapter.

WiMax:
• WiMax is wireless digital communication system.
• WiMax can provide Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) up to 30 miles for fixed stations
and 3-10 miles for mobile stations.
• WiMax requires a tower called WiMax Base Station, similar to cell phone tower, which
is connected to the internet using a standard wired high-speed connection.

Network Security:
• Network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by a network administer
to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification of a computer network
and network accessible resources.
• The problem encountered under network security are:
i. Physical Security holes: When individuals gain unauthorized physical access to a comput-
er and tamper with files.
ii. Software Security holes: When badly written programs or privileged software are com-
promised into doing things that they shouldn’t be doing.
iii. Inconsistent usage holes: When a system administrator assembles a combination of hard-
ware and software such that the system is seriously flawed from a security point of view.

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Viruses:
• A computer virus is a computer program that can replicate itself and spread from one
computer to another.
• Depend on the nature of a virus, it may cause damage of your hard disk contents, and/
or interfere normal operation of your computer.
• Types of virus:
i. File infection
ii. Boot sector viruses
iii. Macro viruses
iv. Networks viruses

Characteristics of a computer viruses:

• It is able to replicate.
• It requires a host program as a carrier
• It is activated by external action.
• Its replication ability is limited to the system.

Virus preventions:
• Never use a CD without scanning it for viruses.
• Always scan files downloaded from the internet.
• Never boot your PC from floppy.
• Write protect your disks and make regular backup..
• Use licensed software.
• Password protects your PC.
• Install and use antivirus software.
• Keep antivirus software up to date.

Worms:
A worm is a program designed to replicate. The program may perform any variety of ad-
ditional tasks as well.

Trojan horse:
A Trojan Horses is code hidden in a program such as a game as spreadsheet that looks safe
to run but has hidden side effects.

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Spams:
• Spam is any kind of unwanted, unsolicited digital communication, often an email, that
gets sent out in bulk.
• Spam is a huge waste of time and resources.
• The Internet service providers (ISP) carry and store the data.
• Software providers invest resources creating email applications that try to filter most of
the spam out.
• Consumers waste time sifting through whatever makes it past the spam filters.

Protection Method:
• Firewall - A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private net-
work is called firewall. It can be implemented in both hardware and software or combi-
nation or both.
• Types of firewall techniques:
i. Packet filter - accepts or rejects of packets based on user defined rules.
ii. Application gateway - security mechanism to specific application like FTP and Telnet servers.
iii. Circuit level gateway - applies security mechanism when a connection is established.
iv. Proxy Server - Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network.

Cookies:
• Cookies are messages that a web server transmits to a web browser so that the web
server can keep track of the user’s activity on a specific web site. Cookies have few pa-
rameters name, value, expiration date.

Hackers and crackers :

• Hackers are more interested in gaining knowledge about computer systems and possibly
using this knowledge for playful pranks.
• Crackers are the malicious programmers who break into secure systems.

Cyber law and India’s IT Act:

• It is a generic term, which refers to all the legal and regulatory aspects of internet and
the World Wide Web.
• In India the cyber laws are contained in the IT Act 2000. Aims to provide legal infra-
structure for e-commerce in India by governing transactions through internet and other
electronic medium.

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Cyber crimes:
• As define in Cambridge dictionary defines Cyber Crimes as Crimes committed with the
use of computers or relating to computers, especially through the Internet.
• Common type of cyber crime include online bank information theft, identity theft, online
predatory crimes and authorized computer access.
• Cybercrime encompasses a wide range of activities, but these can generally be broken
into two categories:
i. Crimes that target computer networks or devices. These types of crimes include virus-
es and denial-of-service attacks.
ii. Crimes that use computer networks to advance other criminal activities. These types
of crimes include cyberstalking, phishing and fraud or identity theft.

IPR issues:
• The term "Intellectual Property Rights" refers to the legal rights granted with the aim to
protect the creations of the intellect.
• These rights include Industrial Property Rights and Related Rights.
• New ideas, innovations are the out come of manipulation of human mental activity. The
resulting human intelligence is known as Intellectual property.
• IP is created by human intelligence or mental labour.
• It is in intangible form; it can be reproduced in tangible form.

Hacking:
• Hacking is an attempt to exploit a computer system or a private network inside a
computer.
• Simply put, it is the unauthorised access to or control over computer network security
systems for some illegal purpose.

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