(1) Nature of Research

-Why Do We Do Research?
-Research Purpose
-Research Objectives and Motivation
-Research and Scientific Methods
-Criteria of a Good Research
-Research Ethics
-Nature of Inquiry Approach
-Validity and Reliability

Why Do We Do Research?

●​ Research increases knowledge and improves technologies, policies, and strategies.

●​ Helps understand different perspectives on existing knowledge.
●​ Not all information is meaningful; research helps filter useful data.

Reasons for Research:

●​ Build knowledge and learning.

●​ Understand issues and raise awareness.
●​ Support businesses and market strategies.
●​ Disprove lies and confirm truths.
●​ Encourage analysis, reading, and sharing information.
●​ Acts as mental exercise.

Research Purpose

●​ Identifying and understanding customers.

●​ Setting realistic goals.
●​ Developing marketing strategies.
●​ Addressing SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats).
●​ Expanding research plans.

DOST 6Ps Framework (Research Contributions):

1.​ Publication – Published research papers.

2.​ Patent – Intellectual property protection.
3.​ Product – New/improved technologies or materials.
4.​ People Services – Training and knowledge transfer.
5.​ Places – Research that supports infrastructure.
 6.​ Policy – Influences government policies.

Types of Research (Four Main Purposes)

1.​ Exploratory Research – Seeks to understand a problem; not conclusive.

2.​ Descriptive Research – Describes a phenomenon (focuses on "how" and "what").
3.​ Explanatory (Causal) Research – Examines cause-effect relationships.
4.​ Predictive Research – Uses data to predict future scenarios.

Exploratory vs. Explanatory Research

●​ Exploratory: Open-ended, no fixed structure, flexible.

●​ Explanatory: Structured, based on existing resources.

Research Objectives

●​ Exploratory – Gain familiarity with a topic.

●​ Descriptive – Describe characteristics of a subject.
●​ Diagnostic – Determine frequency or relationships.
●​ Hypothesis-Testing – Test causal relationships.

Research Motivations

●​ Academic goals (degree, benefits).

●​ Solving an unsolved problem.
●​ Intellectual joy in creating new ideas.
●​ Contribution to society.
●​ Professional credibility.

Research & Scientific Methods

Quantitative Methods (Numbers & Measurable Data)

●​ Survey Research – Questionnaires, interviews.

●​ Descriptive Research – Studies characteristics of a population.
●​ Correlational Research – Examines relationships between variables.

Qualitative Methods (Non-Numeric, Open-Ended Data)

●​ One-to-One Interviews – Personal discussions for deep insights.

●​ Focus Groups – Group discussions for social issues.
●​ Ethnographic Studies – Observing people in their environment.
●​ Text Analysis (QCA, Thematic Analysis) – Understanding text meaning.
●​ Case Studies – In-depth study of a specific case.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
Quantitative Qualitative

Structured data Unstructured data

Statistical analysis Thematic analysis

Objective conclusions Subjective conclusions

Uses surveys, Uses interviews,

experiments observations

Criteria of a Good Research

●​ Systematic and logical approach.

●​ Based on real-world observations.
●​ In-depth data analysis to ensure accuracy.
●​ Generates new research questions.
●​ Ensures clarity and avoids ambiguity.

Research Ethics

Case Studies:

1.​ 1998 MMR Vaccine Study (Autism Controversy)

○​ Falsely linked MMR vaccine to autism.
○​ Unethical participant selection and data manipulation.
○​ Study retracted; researcher lost medical license.
2.​ Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932–1972)
○​ U.S. government denied treatment to African American men with syphilis.
○​ Apology issued in 1997 by Bill Clinton.

Ethical Principles in Research

●​ Honesty – Report true data.

●​ Objectivity – Avoid bias.
●​ Integrity – Follow research commitments.
●​ Confidentiality – Protect participants' information.
●​ Respect for Intellectual Property – Avoid plagiarism.
●​ Social Responsibility – Ensure research benefits society.

Research Misconduct
 ●​ Fabrication – Making up data.
●​ Falsification – Altering or omitting data.
●​ Plagiarism – Using someone’s work without credit.

Ethical Framework for Research

●​ Identify affected groups (participants, community, society).

●​ Weigh risks vs. benefits.
●​ Maintain integrity and responsibility.

Nature of Inquiry Approach

●​ Inquiry is driven by curiosity and critical thinking.

●​ Process:
1.​ Form research questions.
2.​ Observe and analyze.
3.​ Collect and interpret data.

Validity & Reliability

●​ Reliability – Consistency of results over time.

●​ Validity – Accuracy of research measurements.

Ensuring Validity & Reliability:

●​ Use correct research methods.

●​ Apply proper sampling techniques.
●​ Maintain standard research conditions.
 (2) Narrative Research
-Narrative Research Methods
-Characteristics of Narrative Research
-Types of Narrative Research
-Procedures in Conducting Narrative Research
-Strengths, Disadvantages, Limitations
-An Example: Barriers Beyond Equity: An Exploratory Study of Women Graduate Students’ Career
Pathways in Astronomy.​
-author: Barthelemy, R. McCormick, M. & Henderson, C.

What is Narrative Research?

●​ Gathers and analyzes stories to understand people, cultures, and societies.

●​ Focuses on life accounts based on personal experiences.
●​ Key elements: Setting, People, Behavior.

Example:

●​ EDSA Revolution – How do participants narrate and perceive their experiences?

Why Conduct Narrative Research?

●​ Extracts meaningful context from documented experiences.

●​ Focuses on chronological storytelling (past-present-future).
●​ Describes individual lives and personal experiences.

Narrative vs. Phenomenology

Narrative Research Phenomenology

Analyzes stories told by participants Describes lived experiences

Focuses on past events Studies how people experience events in

the present
Researcher is engaged with participants Researcher remains detached
(bracketing)

Example: Collecting and analyzing stories of Example: Understanding struggles of

working students working students

Characteristics of Narrative Research

●​ Focuses on individual experiences.

●​ Chronological structure – Events are in sequence.
●​ Collects life stories from participants.
●​ Re-storying – Researcher reconstructs narratives from collected data.
●​ Collaboration between researcher and participant is essential.

Types of Narrative Research

Key Questions to Classify Narrative Research:

●​ Who writes or records the story?

●​ How much of a life is recorded?
●​ Who provides the story?
●​ Is a theoretical lens used?
●​ Can different narrative forms be combined?

Categories of Narrative Research:

1.​ Autobiographical Narrative Inquiry:

○​ Autobiography – A person writes about their own life.
○​ Autoethnography – Researchers reflect on their own experiences.
2.​ Art-Based Narrative Inquiry:
○​ Literary-Based – Fiction, nonfiction, poetry, drama.
○​ Visual-Based – Photo-voice, archival photos, digital storytelling.
3.​ Biographical Narrative Inquiry:
○​ Bildungsroman – Stories of personal growth.
○​ Oral History – Spoken accounts of past events.
○​ Life History & Life Story – Documents someone’s journey.

Procedures in Conducting Narrative Research

1.​ Define the phenomenon to study.

2.​ Select individuals with relevant experiences.
 3.​ Collect stories in chronological order.
4.​ Re-story or retell the narrative.
5.​ Collaborate with participants.
6.​ Write the final narrative and validate it.

Evaluating Narrative Research

✔ Does it focus on individual experiences?​

✔ Is it centered on a single person or small group?​
✔ Were stories collected and re-told accurately?​
✔ Did the final narrative include participant and researcher perspectives?​
✔ Were themes identified?​
✔ Did the story include setting details?​
✔ Was it presented in chronological order?​
✔ Did the researcher collaborate with participants?​
✔ Does it align with research objectives?

Strengths of Narrative Research

✅ Rich & deep data – Reveals thoughts, emotions, and beliefs.​

✅ Humanizes research – Presents real-life experiences.​
✅ Flexible – Can adapt to new findings.​
✅ Holistic understanding – Captures a full picture of experiences.​
✅ Amplifies marginalized voices – Helps underrepresented groups share their stories.
Disadvantages of Narrative Research

❌ Subjectivity – Researcher’s personal interpretation affects results.​

❌ Generalizability Issues – Findings may not apply to wider populations.​
❌ Time-Consuming – Requires extensive data collection.​
❌ Interpretation Challenges – Different researchers may analyze the same story

❌ Potential for Bias – Researcher’s beliefs may influence results.

differently.​

Example Study – Women in Astronomy

Title: "Barriers Beyond Equity: An Exploratory Study of Women Graduate Students’ Career
Pathways in Astronomy"​
Authors: Barthelemy, McCormick, & Henderson

●​ Explores the barriers women face in astronomy careers.

●​ Uses narrative research to understand their experiences.
 (3) Historical Research Method
-Historical Research Methods
-Contemporary Historical Research
-Methods of Historical Research
-Classification of Historical Research
-Strengths and Limitation
-An Example: Highlighting the History of Japanese Radio Astronomy.1: An Introduction.
-author: Ishiguro, M. et, al.

Historical Research Methods

●​ Systematic study of past events to understand their impact on the present.

●​ Uses primary historical data, such as:
○​ Diaries
○​ Official documents
○​ Eyewitness accounts
○​ Confessions and records
●​ The researcher is not directly involved in the events studied.
●​ Focuses on the space-time impact of historical occurrences.

Nietzsche’s View on Historical Research

●​ Criticized historical studies and called it "historical sickness."

●​ Claimed that excessive focus on history can be harmful.
●​ Some argue that history is incomplete or biased due to missing evidence.

Why Conduct Historical Research?

●​ Learn from past successes and failures.

●​ Make better predictions based on trends.
●​ Test hypotheses about historical relationships.
●​ Understand current educational policies and practices.

Historiography

●​ Study of how history is written and interpreted.

●​ Examines different perspectives on historical events.
●​ Example:
 ○​ Instead of studying the EDSA Revolution, historiography examines how
historians describe it.

Characteristics of Contemporary Historical Research

●​ Not just listing facts; it analyzes and interprets events.

●​ Uses logical induction to explain findings.
●​ Can focus on events, issues, movements, concepts, individuals, and institutions.

Methods of Historical Research

1.​ Identify a research topic.

2.​ Formulate a research question.
3.​ Data collection (documents, records, oral histories, artifacts).
4.​ Evaluate historical sources (external & internal criticism).
5.​ Synthesize data.
6.​ Prepare a report using narrative exposition.

Types of Historical Source Materials

●​ Documents – Diaries, test papers, official records.

●​ Numerical Records – Census data, statistics, budgets.
●​ Oral Statements – Myths, songs, interviews.
●​ Relics – Artwork, buildings, clothing.

Evaluation of Historical Sources

●​ External Criticism (Lower Criticism) – Ensures source authenticity (who wrote it,
accuracy, errors).
●​ Internal Criticism (Positive Criticism) – Analyzes the meaning and biases of the
source.

Disciplines Used in Historical Research

●​ Archaeology – Study of physical artifacts.

●​ Archival Science – Study of historical documents.
●​ Manuscriptology – Analysis of ancient scripts.
●​ Linguistics – Study of language evolution.
●​ Numismatics – Study of coins.
●​ Genealogy – Study of family history.

Digitalization in Historical Research

●​ Technology improves access to historical sources.

 ○​ Archaeology – Drones, LIDAR, radar.
○​ Manuscriptology – Digital text analysis.
○​ Genealogy – DNA databases, birth records.

Example: Emilio Aguinaldo’s Telegram (1899)

●​ Sent a telegram to Gen. Antonio Luna about an urgent meeting.

●​ Primary historical source that verifies past events.

Classification of Historical Research

●​ Social Issues – Trends & societal changes.

●​ Study of Individuals & Institutions – Biographies & organizational history.
●​ Event Relationships – Cause & effect analysis.
●​ Data Synthesis – Combining sources for accuracy.
●​ Reinterpretation of History – Updating historical perspectives.

Strengths of Historical Research

✅ Can analyze evidence from the past.​

✅ Uses a variety of sources (documents, relics, oral histories).​
✅ Offers a rich, alternative approach to studying topics.
Limitations of Historical Research

❌ Bias & partial views – Some sources are incomplete or one-sided.​

❌ Technical language – Some historical documents are hard to interpret.​
❌ Generalizations – Some historical conclusions may not apply today.
Example: Japanese Radio Astronomy (Historical Research Study)

●​ Study Title: "Highlighting the History of Japanese Radio Astronomy"

●​ Authors: Ishiguro, Orchiston, Akabane, et al.
●​ Objective: Study Japan’s role in radio astronomy.
●​ Key Events:
○​ 1938 – Japan detected solar radio emissions.
○​ 1948 – Astronomy expanded after Shimoda’s solar eclipse observations.
○​ Impact of the Yagi-Uda Antenna on radio astronomy.
 (4) Phenomenological Research
-Phenome Research Method
-Characteristics of Pheno Research
-Types of Phenome. Research
-Procedures in Conducting Pheno Research
-Strengths and Limitations
-An Example: Experience of Chronic Sorrow in Mothers of Children with Cancer: A Phenomenological
Study​
-author: Barthelemy, R. McCormick, M. & Henderson, C.

What is Phenomenological Research?

●​ Describes shared experiences of multiple individuals.

●​ Studies how people experience a phenomenon in the real world.
●​ No hypothesis at the start; aims to "pull out" personal stories rather than prove a
theory.
●​ Keywords: Past, Phenomenon Impact, Experiences

Edmund Husserl – Founder of Phenomenology

●​ Defined phenomenology as studying lived experiences as they are.

Why Conduct Phenomenological Research?

●​ Identifies a phenomenon through how people perceive it.

●​ Understands factors influencing experience.
●​ Attempts to find universal meanings in experiences.
●​ Generates theories or models from real-world data.

Phenomenon Example

●​ What was experienced during the EDSA Revolution?

●​ How did people perceive it?

Characteristics of Phenomenological Research

✅ Holistic & Qualitative – Focuses on personal meaning.​

✅ Idiographic – Studies individual perspectives.​
✅ Interprets events, not just describes them.​
✅ Accepts unobservable and abstract experiences.​
✅ Rejects objectivism & positivism (scientific-only approaches).​
✅ Focuses on lived experiences rather than relying on theories.
Types of Phenomenological Research

●​ Realistic – Finds universal patterns in experiences.

●​ Existential – Examines human existence (e.g., oppression, death).
●​ Hermeneutic – Interprets meanings of experiences.
●​ Transcendental – Focuses purely on participant perspectives.
●​ Naturalistic – Explores how consciousness creates reality.
●​ Genetic – Studies the origin of personal meanings.
●​ Constitutive – Suspends social assumptions to see how meaning is formed.
●​ Generative Historical – Studies how meaning evolves over time.

Procedures in Phenomenological Research

1.​ Identify the phenomenon.

2.​ Bracketing (set aside personal biases).
3.​ Data collection (interviews, focus groups).
4.​ Transcribe data (tools: MAXQDA, NVIVO).
5.​ Identify themes.
6.​ Textual Description (What participants experienced).
7.​ Structural Description (How participants experienced it).
8.​ Develop a model or theory.
9.​ Write the final report.

Bracketing in Phenomenology

●​ Bracketing = Setting aside researcher bias.

●​ Example: A researcher interviewing kidney cancer patients should avoid personal
assumptions.
●​ "Clean Slate" – The researcher must enter the study without preconceptions.

Data Collection in Phenomenological Research

📌 Uses in-depth interviews (5–15 participants).​

📌 Unstructured interviews – Open-ended questions.​
📌 Example: Interviewing kidney cancer patients → Themes may include pain
management, emotional responses.

Guidelines for Conducting Interviews

✅ Explain the study objectives to participants.​
✅ Start with warm-up questions before deeper topics.​
✅ Ask naturally (avoid leading questions).​
✅ Stay neutral (don’t show emotions).​
✅ Ask similar questions in different ways for verification.​
✅ Take notes on tone, emotions, body language.
Three Methods of Interpretation

1️⃣ Pure Description – Direct account of experience.​

2️⃣ Interpretation – Relating experience to a broader context.​
3️⃣ Analysis of Form – Breaking down the structure of the experience.

Strengths of Phenomenological Research

✅ Explores shared experiences deeply.​

✅ Helps understand motivations, meanings, perceptions.​
✅ Adapts to new ideas as they emerge.​
✅ Contributes to theories & models.​
✅ Uses real-world data, not artificial experiments.
Limitations of Phenomenological Research

❌ Bracketing is difficult – Bias is hard to remove.​

❌ Time-consuming – Data collection and analysis take long.​
❌ Careful participant selection needed – Only experienced individuals should be included.​
❌ Complex data interpretation – No universal method to analyze.​
❌ Low credibility among policymakers – Some prefer quantitative (numerical) research.
Example Study: Chronic Sorrow in Mothers of Children with Cancer

📌 Title: "Experience of Chronic Sorrow in Mothers of Children with Cancer: A

📌 Authors: Nikfarid, Rassouli, Borimnejad, Alavimajd

Phenomenological Study"​

Study Objectives

●​ Explore the concept of chronic sorrow among Iranian mothers.

Participants

●​ 264 mothers screened using the Persian Kendal Chronic Sorrow Instrument (KCSI).
●​ 8 mothers selected based on age, education, family size, marital status.

Methodology
 ●​ Hermeneutic Phenomenology approach.
●​ Semi-structured interviews (recorded & transcribed).
●​ Interpreted using Dickelman’s 7-step method.

Findings – Three Main Themes

1️⃣ "Climbing up shaky rocks" – Emotional instability.​

2️⃣ "Religious fear and hope" – Faith helps in coping.​
3️⃣ "Continuous role changing" – Mothers shift between caregiving, emotional support, and
self-care.

Cultural Significance

📌 Religious beliefs influence emotions more than in Western studies.​

📌 Chronic sorrow is shaped by social & cultural factors.