UNIT I ee INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS: Nowadays, computers are an integral part of our lives. They are used for the reservation of tickets for airplanes and railways. -Payment of telephone and electricity bills , deposit and withdrawal of money from bank, processing of business data, forecasting of weather conditions, diagnosis of diseases, searching for information on the internet, etc. -Computers are also used extensively in schools, universities, organizations, music industry, movie industry, scientific research, law firms, fashion industry, etc. What is a Computer? Explain the basic types of Computers? {The term computer is derived from the word compute (The word compute means to calculata/ A |computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user) Bidcesces the data by performing calculations and operations on ityand generates the desired output results) Computer performs both simple ‘and complex operations) with speed and accuracy) Basically computers are categorized into two typed: (Digital computers: a digital computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information is tepresented using the digits 0's and 1's. The computers that we use at our homes and offices are digital Comiputers) nissan ie ee {Analog computers: (analog computer is another kind of computenjhat represents data as variable across a continuous range of values.(The earliest computers were analog computers, Analog computers are used for measuring of parameters that vary continuously in real time, such as temperature, pressure and voltag) What are the characteristics/features of a computer? {the main characteristics of computers are: Speed Accuracy Diligence Storage Capacity Versatility) (Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per second. Some Calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computey. (Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places? Diligence: Even though if a computer is used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start, till the end) Storage Capacity: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and retrieved whenever required. Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the same ease At ‘one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the next moment you may play music or print a document Explain the Generations of computer? $$ ——<_$_$___—. K.USHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 1a ae as > UNIT I inology is a change or ™Proveren, So F puter termi GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER: Generation in comp between varying hardware Technolog, ish technology) initially, ithe generation term was used to disting! which together make up an gj)" But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and mi a computer system. Currently, there are five generations of computer, {ris thee First Generation Computers (1940 to 1956): ae cea t Tea fet ‘of computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums, 6 memo ee (the Ha to the computer was through punched cards and paper tapes. The output y, displayed as printouts) \ it 0s and 1s) {The instructions written in machine language, i.e. | Cae computers were huge in size ong jred a large room for installation, And usey..m Hy large number of vacuum tubes and|thus generate a lot of heaf) CO Fifth » i hey were used for scientific applications as they were the fastest computing device WW | i their timey[the computation time was in milliseconds, be x Second Generation Computers (1956 to 1963): Expl efficient and reliable. Mihe second generation computers used magnetic core technology for primary memon, \They used magnetic tapes and Magnetic disks for secondary storage) he input was still through punched cards and the out (in second generation, transistors replaced the vacuum tubes of the first generation ¢ Base 8 computersxTransistors allowed computers to becomefme smaller, faster, cheapet energ i An put using printouts) fhe instruction were written using assembly language) assembly langdlige uses mnemonics like ADD fo addition and SUB for subtra = ction for coding of instructions. Sg * (Transistors are smaller in size com . pared to vacuum tubes, thus the size of computers wa also reduced. The computation time was in. microseconds) Third Generation Computers (1964 to 197. The third ~ Generation computers use the Integrated Circuit (Ic chips. In an IC . chip, multiple transistors are pla ced on a silicon chip} The use of IC hip increased the Speed and efficiency of computed). The keyboard and (monitor were used to interact with the thir generation computers) instead of the punched jeneration, high-| Programming) language. iS V. Computation time was in computers was quite small language an meg volte nanoseconds) Ghe size © Vol I compared ‘to the secon: Fourth Generation Computers (1971 to Present): oe atte present): (These computers use th usec Large Scale integration ration (LSI) and the Ver housands of transistor! a) M < microprocessor. K USHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SclencePage ? ios tt in ies UNIT | ating is generation of computers gave increase to Personal Computer (PC)) Semiconductor memory replaced the earlier magnetic core memory,fesulting in fast random access to memory. _ Gecondary storage device like magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger capacity, ‘for Fifth Generation Computers (Present and Next): [The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are ‘apable of learning and self-organization) (The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) ‘chips that are able to store millions of components on a single chip, (These computers have large memory requirements) \The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (Al) ( They try to simulate the human way of thinking and reasoning) x Explain the Classification of computer? of Based on the usage and mechanism, Computers are classified into three types gy i Analog Computers ii. Digital Computers iii. Hybrid Computers 0) “! Classification of Computers ns or 1 e srr Micro computer | f bi pmcomputer as psa >) lees: : i Super computer d 1) Analog Computers: y This computer doesn't work with digits. They don’t have storage capacity. They are used to 1 measure continuously varying physical quantities such as pressure, temperature, volume, speed, voltage, heart beat etc. these computers are used for scientific purpose only. Eg: Thermometer, ' Voltmeter, Speedometer, ECG machine etc. 2) Digital Computers: These computers work with discrete numbers 0's and 1's. They have storage capacity. They are used for general, commercial and scientific purpose depending on size, speed, storage capacity. They are classified as four types a) Micro Computers b) Mini Computers c)Mainframe Computers d)Super Computers Micro computers : Microcunpuseis aie sian, wwn-uvst anu suiyleuser digital computer. They consist of CPU, input unit, output unit, storage unit and the software. K.USHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 3 ‘reate a nety, together to ci cn be connected § chines, they can Although microcomputers are stand-alone mat of computers that can serve more than one user. | Microcomputers include desktop computers, note! | computer, smart phones and net book) ae _ tablet computer, handhe, book computers OF laptop, _ i systems. They ha er ed in multi-user Ve Mini computers: (Minicomputers are digital computers, generally US: computers, high processing speed and high storage capacity than the ieee pees ( Minicomputers can support 4-200 users simultaneously) 1 “their PCs or terminal.) eal They are used for real-time applications in industries, research centers etc) s the minicomputer throug, ‘- i: mming and high performance Mainframe Computers:( Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming ae i le the workload of many’ ‘They operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle ny aint i fatabase: bs (Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally used in centralized d 23 Ink inal, an intelli “he user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may be a dumb terminal, an intelligen: terminal or a PC. the Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks or companies, where many people Fequire (th frequent access to the same data. th co Supercomputers: : Ce Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machine: Sy They have high processing speed compared to other computers’ pr ie Speed of supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS (Floating point Operations Per Second). L ‘ome of the faster supercomputers can perform trillions of calculations per second. Supercomputers are (CL built by interconnecting thousands of processors that can work in parallel n Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-int tensive tasks, such as, weather forecasting, climate Ac research, molecular research, biological research, R ‘ocket launching and aircraft design) int ) Hybrid Computers: M Combination of analog and digital features is called Hybrid Computers as per the situation we can use \ them as analog or digital or bott) pS T Explain the Block Diagram of computer? Or Explain the basic onents of a computer system? bs The computer system hardware comprises of three main components: T * Input /Output (1/0) Unit, in * Central Processing Unit (CPU), and b * Memory Unit. e The 1/0 unit Consists of the input unit and out; . ut unit. CPU perf ‘Put data, to generate the output. The m is (ete eee peers nateFig. Block Diagram of Computer “input/output Unit: i _ (The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unid) (The Input unit accepts data from the user and the output unit provides the processed data i.e. the information to the user he input unit converts the data that is accepts from the user, into a form that is understandable by the Compute) Similarly, the Output unit provides the output in a form that is understandable by the use}. {The input is provided to the computer using input devices like keyboard, trackball and mouse/ Some of the commonly used output devices are monitor and printed : Central Processing Unit: CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the computer) ft is responsible for processing of the input data) CPU consists of Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). LU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data, fs controls the overall operations of the computei\.e. it checks the sequence of execution of instructions ind controls and coordinates the overall functioning of the units of computer. Additionally,/CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instructions, addresses anc intermediate results of calculatioy). Membry Unit: Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output, temporarily, during the Processing of data{This memory is also called the main memory or primary memory of the computehy The input data that i3-to be processed is brought into the main memory before processing. The instructions required for processing of data and any intermediate results are also stored in the main memory. The output is stored in memory before being transferred to the output device. CPU can work with the information stored in the main memory. nother kind of storage unit is also referred to as the secondary memory of the computer\ The data, the Brograms and the output are stored permanently in the storage unit of the computery' ‘Magnetic disks, optical disks and magnetic tapes are examples of secondary memory} : |UNIT ABBREVIATION Bit B UNibble : . Byte/Octet B | | Kilobyte KB | [Megabyte MB Gigabyte GB Terabyte TB Petabyte PB Exabyte EB zB YB fet fer 1. Business 2. Education 3. Marketing 4. Banking 5. Insurance 6. Communication 7. Health Care 6. Military 9. Engineering Design > Business integrated part in all business organizations. Education scholarly work. > Marketing The various applications of computers in todays arena: A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, Computer is used in business organizations for: Payroll calculations, Sales anal forecasting, Managing employees database and Maintenance of stocks etc. STORAGE Binary Digit. Single 1 or 0 4 bits & bits 1024 bytes 1024 KB 1024 MB 1024 GB 1024 TB 1024 PB 1024 EB 1024 ZB Storage units (www.byte-notes.com Computers have its dominant use in the education field which can significantly enhance performance in learning. Even distance learning is made productive and effective through internet and video-based classe Researchers have massive usage of these computers in their work from the starting to till the end of their ; K.USHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 6 or versatility which made it an ysis, Budgeting, FinancialEF SE SS OE SE a a dere an OR aS A UNIT I In marketing, uses of computer are: ‘Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products. Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers. > Banking ‘ Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks provide the facilities of: Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records. ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks. i 2 Insurance | insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The insurance | companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns | Communication | Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and understood cleatly and correctly by the person for whom itis meant for. Some main areas in this category are: Chatting, | E-mail, Usenet, FTP, Video-conferencing and Telnet. > Health | Most of the medical information can now be digitized from the prescription to reports. Computation in the field of medicine allows us to offer varied miraculous therapies to the patients. ECG's, radiotherapy wasn’t ' possible without computers. > Military \ Computers are the main tools which help in developing missiles and other equipment in the deference system. Designing and the maintenance are possible only through computers. Computer builds the links between the soldiers and commanders through the satellite. Construction of weapons and controlling their function is not possible without the aid of computers. The list of the criminals and the records of the cops are maintained regularly in the system. > Engineering Design As per the ttle, computers aid in designing buildings, magazines, prints, newspapers, books and many others. The construction layouts are designed beautifully on system using different tools and software. i : | A | INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES : Introduction: » ‘A computer interacts with the external environment via the input-output (0) devices attached to it « {input device is used for providing date and instructions to the computerXAfter processing the input ‘data, computer provides output to the user via the output device, «The 1/0 devices that are attached, externally to the computer machine are also called peripheral devices. Different kinds of input and output devices are used to process different kinds of input and output requirements. K.USHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 7UNIT I er, which composed of two parts Input unit and output unit, * Ant is a component of comput 0.1/0 unit is a compe p ‘aaron > Input unit is responsible for providing input to the comp! > Output unit is for receiving output from the computer. Woat is an Input device? Explain different types of Input devices? Input Devices: Input devices allow users and other applications to inpul The nae input to a computer can be in the form of text, audio, video, et the user or with minimal user intervention nput devices are classified as Human data entry devices * Keyboard * Pointing devices — mouse, trackball, joystick, digitizing tablet + Pick devices — light pen, touch screen Source data entry devices * Audio input — speech recognition * Video input —- digital camera * Scanner ~ hand-held scanner, flat-bed scanner * Optical Scanner -~- OCR, OMR, MICR, barcode reader The input is provided to the computer using an input device, and must be translated to a form that t computer can understand. The translation is done by the input interface of the input device | in addition to the above devices, the input to a computer can also be provided from a storage device on t computer, another computer, or another piece of equipment, such as a musical instrument, thermometer sensors. tt data into the computer, for processir 3 data is entered manually 0 types 7 Human Data Ent St ( input devices that require data to be entered manually to the computer are identified as human da entry devicesyThe data may be entered by typing or keying in, or by pointing a device to a particular locatic board: Keyboard is a common input device, it is provided along with the computer, and is easy to use. It used for entering the text datay For inputting the data, the user types the data using the keyboard. When t! data is being typed, the display monitor displays the typed data) (Cursor is a vertical blinking line, cursor moves with each typed characteh, The position of cursor indicates the location on monitor where the typed-in character will be displayed. Sar mo onnnn ae Ca Ee no (ian! OS 2 a eae | ee es er ‘The design of the keyboard is similar to a standard 1 7 typewritéty The modern keyboards are QWERT keyboard (Q, W, E, R, T, Y are the sequence of keys in top row of lefters) Standard keyboard contains 101 keys which are arranged in the same order as a typewrite K.USHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 8UNIT I ae ‘The keyboard keys are divided into 5 sections: > \Alphanumeric keys (1,2 3,....A, B,C...) » ‘Numeric keys (Numeric keypad on right side) » (Function keys (F1,F2.....0n top side)» » (Control keys (cursor movement keys, ctel, alt...) » (Gpecial-purpose keys (Enter, shift, spacebar....)) "9. Some keyboards have 110 keys, where the extra keys are designed to work with windows operating system. ; (Rovnteg devices are used for providing the input to computer by moving the device to point to a location on computer monitor (The input data is not typed; instead, the data is entered by moving the pointing device pperations like’ move, click and drag can be performed using the pointing devices) ©. Mouse: 7 {itis the most common pointing input devicsl The data is entered by pointing the mouse to a location on the ‘computer scree? ae he mouse may also be used to position the cursor on screen, move an object by dragging, or select an bject by clicking. The ky benefit of using a mouse is that the cursor moves with the mouse. So, the cursor can be positioned at any location on the screen by simply moving the mouse. th A mouse is classified as physical mouse or optical mouse. the - > Physical Mouse: {it has a rubber ball on the bottom side that protrudes when the mouse is moved. It requires a smooth, dust free surface, such as a mouse pad, on which it is rolled) > Optical Mouse: fit uses a Light Emitting Diode (LED) and a sensor to detect the movement of mouse. Optical mouse at2 requires an opaque flat surface underneath i) on. “The mouse can be used in five different ways, as follows: ©, (Pointing: points to a location or object on the computer screefi) Moving the mouse by hand moves ae the cursor on computer screen, the cursor moves in the direction in which the mouse moves. he 0 (Left Click or Click: it means pressing the eft butto and releasing it. Clicking is used 1a ‘select a button, command-oricon.onthe screen. ©. Right Click: it involves pressing the right button on mouse and releasing it/Right click displays menu that contains options like cut, copy, paste, font, and paragraph etc} for the item on which mouse is pointing | 0° Double Click: it means pressing the left button of mouse twice successively, without moving to fnouse, and then releasing the mouse. It is used to start a program or open a folder. © Drag and Drop: drags an object and drops it another location. Drags means pointing mouse to an * object on screen, pressing the left button of mouse, keeping it pressed and moving the mouse to point to a new location. TY 6 TrackBall: t Trackball is a device that is a variant of the mouse but has the functionality of mouse. It is easy to _-_use and takes less space than a mouse. Trackball is generally built in laptops since there is no space for the mouse to move on the lap. — | KUSHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 9 |! 5 Joystick is mainly used y, + Joystick: laying video gam ) 4 Soystick is @ device which is eommonly used fof ania speed like racing and flying games) 4 cf, ponte control the speed of the cursor)and ig thus popular in gam : Pee used primarily to input drawings, sketches, etc. cee arated Computer Aided Design (CAD) for the design of buildings, autores See eee ae ia digitizing tablet consists of two parts ~ electronic tablet and pen. TI ee eee ere ianlattthel bie The pen looks like a ball pen but has an electronic head. The pen is Se eee eae contains circuit that can detect the movement of pen on the tablet, convert the 7 signals and send the digital signal to the computer. * Pick Devices: Pick devices are used for providing input to the computer by pointing to a location on the computer monitor. \The input data is not typed {The data is entered by pointing the pick device directly on the computer scree?}{Light pen and toueh’screen are some common pick device9. > pLight Pen: 4 t It is a light sensitive pen-like input device and is used to select objects directly on the computer screen\(it is used for making drawing, graphics and for menu selection) Figures and drawings can be made by moving the pen on computer screen. The pen contains a photocell in a small tube. When the pen is moved on the screen, light from the screen at the location of pen causes the photocell to respond. The electric response is transmitted to the computer that can identify the position on screen at which the 'ligh't pen is pointing. 7 > Touch Screen: E (itis an input device that accepts input when the user places a fingertip on the computer screen) Thes computer selectg-the option from the menu of screen to which the finger points. Touch screen areé eneralh(Geed in applications like Automated Teller Machine (ATM)) public information computers like’ PS eee ee eatin supenrars a touch Screen consists of a clear glass computer can understand. g Panel sensors to a form that the a =o nae oe Source data entry devices are used for audio input, video input and enter the source documen’- direcily to the computerYSource data entry devi i ices don it Sena “fs ‘ot require data to be typed-in) keyed-in or pointed tc‘ r * Audio Input Device: , 0 cre: i mall or to translate spoken words into text, ate audio)files and embed these files to be sent over 2 It devices |i i . 8 spoken words i ike a microphone is used to input ? i is ai nto text is also known ag speech recognitio" al K.USHA PAVANI, Dept of G a "P&P OF Computer SciencePage ig aUNIT I —_—_---- KR KS—— «+ Video Input Device: (Video input is provided to the computer using video camera and digital camera. Video camera can capttte full motion video images.)The images are digitized and can be compressed and stored in the computer disk. Webcam is a common video camera device It is placed ‘on the computer above the screen to capture the images of the user who is working on the computer} A video capture card allows the user to connect video devices like camcorders to the computer. «Optical Input Devices: Optical input devices allow computers to use light as a source of input. Scanner is an example of optical input device.» » Scanner: [Scanner is an input device that accepts paper document as an input.(Scanner is used to input data directly into the computer from the source document without copying and typing the data.\The input data to be scanned can be a picture, a text or a mark on a paper. It is an optical input device and uses light as an input source to convert an image into an electronic form that can be stored on the computer. Scanner accepts the source paper document, scans the document and translates into a bitmap image to be stored on the computer’ Hand-held scanner and flat-bed scanner_are the two types of scanners. L Oa > Hand-held Scanners: ov {ese are portable-and-are placed over the document to be scanned) They consist of light emitting diodes. The scanned documents are converted and stored as an image in’ the computer memor scanners have to be moved at a constant speed over the document to be scanned, to get good quality scans. Some of the documents that are primarily scanned using hand-held scanners are price tags, labels _ and ISBN number on books. 6 oer _ > Flat-bed Scanners: hese provide high quality scan in a single pas is a box shaped machine similar to a photocopy machine jand has a glass top and a lid that covers the-glass. {The document to be scanned is placed on the glass topywhich activates the light beam beneath the glass top{and starts the scan from left to right. They are largely used to scan full page documents. MN 7 > Optical Character Recognition (OCR): OCR is a technique for the scanning of a printed page, translating it, and then using the OCR software to tecognize the imag@yas ASCII text that is ere uses optical character reader for recognition The optical character reGder stores the scanned image as bitmap image which is a grid of dots. The OCR software translates the array of dots into text tha{ the computer can interpret as words and letters The text files generated via OCR can be stored in different format.) ) / > Magnetic ink Character Recognition (MICR): (uice is used in banks to process large volumes of chequeS|It is used for recognizing the magnetic €ncoding numbers printed at the bottom of a cheque. The numBers on the cheque are human readable, and _3f€ printed using an ink which contains iron particles /These numbers are magnetized, MICR uses magnetic ink character-readerfor character recognition) The humbers in the bottom of the check include the bank ‘Sumber, branch number and cheque number. The reading speed of MICRis fasterthanOCR. ® Optical Mark Recognition (OMR):(ea UNIT | ( darkness OMR uses an o * are recognized by their : Pics Pibemat forms) detects the mark that is POSition, cans the mark reader to read the marks.;The on Se aper, and passes this information to the comp am correctly on the paper and darker than the surround ing Pi per, ane ae s a A . oa al 0 ‘OMR is used to detect marks on a paper. | for processing by application software. > Barcode Reader: Barcodes are adjacent vertical lines of different Keeeotes books etc] use barcode for identificat readers. This information is input to the comput 7 Th width that are machine)readabl Goods available .¢¢ tion, Barcodes are read Using reflettive light by barcogrp ‘er which interprets the code using the spacing ang thickness of bars. oF 1 What is an output device? Explain different types of output devices? Ey ‘Output devices provide output to the user) This is generated after processing the input data. Theh processed data, presented to the user via(the output devices could bé'téxt grphics, audio or videol The output could be on a paperjpr on a film in a tangible form or in an intangible form as audio, video anc { electronic form, Output devices are classified as follows: v Soft copy Devices: n e Monitor n * Visual Display Terminal Video Output * Audio Response. Hard Copy Devices: « Printer q « Plotter q + Computer Output on Microfilm (Microfiche) 3 The output device receives information from computer in a machine readable form. The received output isjp | Impact printers: q {hese printers use typewriter approactof physically striking a typeface against the paper and inked ribborTt {mmpact printers can print a character or an entire line at a time)[impact printers are low-cost printer usefily or bulk printing -Dot matrix printers, daisy wheel printers and drum printers are example of impact printers. © Dot Matrix Printers: ' 120 These printers print one character at a time. The speed of dot matrix printer lies between 200 and 60: characters per second (cps) and their resolution ranges from 72 to 360 dpi. g -Dot matrix printers normally come in two sizes—80 column printer and 132 column printer. RI -Dot matrix printers can print alphanumeric characters, special characters, charts and graphs. They ca print only in black and white. -Some dot matrix printers can print in both directions- left to right and right to left. -Dot matrix printers are commonly used for printing in applications like payroll and accounting. In m © Daisy Wheel Printers: “hese printers print one character at a time. They produce letter quality document which is better then: document printed by a dot matrix printer. a Non-Impact Printers: be hese printers do not hit or impact a ribl ese ri act a ribbon to print) {They use electro-static chemicals and i Gs | K.USHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 14 aS orn a it eeUNIT | / output) 7; | Non‘impact printers are faster and quieter than impact printers) They produce high quality output and can ‘be used for printing text and graphics both in black and white, and colon |-Ink-Jet printers and I ri n-impact printers. crotiche ag ink-Jet printers and laser printers are non-impact p | 9. Ink-Jet Printers: These printers spray ink drops directly on the paper like a jet. Their resolution is more than 500 dpi. : They produce high quality graphics and text. Ink-jet printers are commonly found in homes and offices sed to priny| red in dotg ©, Laser Printers: These printers provide highest quality of text and graphics printing. Laser printers process and store the ‘entire page before printing and are also known as page printers. -The laser printer can print 5-24 pages of text per minute and their resolution ranges from 400 to 1200 dpi. ced ribbon|-They.are faster and expensive than impact printers. Laser printers are used in applications requiring high nter vse quality voluminous printing. | «. Plotter: -A plotter is used for vector graphics output to draw graphs, maps; blue prints of ships, buildings, etc) fettere use pens of different colors (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) for drawing.)Plotters draw and 609/ continuous and accurate lines, in contrast to printer where a line is drawn as closely spaced dots. “| (plotter is a slow output device and expensive) ie are of two kinds- drum plotter and flatbed plotter) hey can! ; > Drum Plotter: |In a drum plotter, pens mounted on the carriage are stationary and move only horizontally; for vertical fi movement, the drum on which the paper is fixed moves clockwise and anti-clockwise. i |»! Flatbed Plotter: than @ | 14 flatbed plotter, the paper is fixed on a flat bed. The paper is stationary and the pens mounted on the | carriage move horizontally and vertically to draw lines. | Plotters are mainly used for drawings in AUTOCAD (Computer assisted drafting), Computer Aided Design lower, | wer | (CAD) and computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) applications [Comat Memory and Processors: | Introduction 1 low | ‘A memory unit is the collection of storage units)pr devices together.(the memory unit stores the | binary information in the form of bits Generally, memory/storage is classified into 2 categories) “a ‘Volatile Memory: This loses its data, when power is switched off) | lon-Volatile Memory: This is a permanent storage and does not lose any data when power is switched off) K-jet | Memory Hierarchy — nee Bln cae re a aetS. Seta em Seas TA ET ee se ee ee a Rogistor j Momory a increening order of Cache 7 | accoss time rahe Memory S Wan emery Primary Memory FS 3 a) Magnetic Disks Auxillary Memory »)| tr Magnetic Tapes sri sor that holds data that is being processedFi tion in the memory hierarchy, providing high! ddress of the memory location r Register ‘A processor register is a local storage space on a proce: by CPU. Processor registers generally occupy the top-most posi -speed storage space and fast access to data. A register may include the a instead of the real data itself. Cache Memory Moving data between RAM and processor is most time consuming operation. A particular solutior | <0 this problem is to include a cache memory. Cache memory is Temporary memory. Cache memon (Pronounced cash) memory is similar to RAM, First time processor read the data from RAM and it copy toWé cache memory. Next processor needs same data it read from ‘cache memory. ‘Primary storage/Internal storage: "The memory unit which is in the CPU is known as primary storage The types of primary storage: RAM a ‘Access Memory)) (it is for temporary memory storage.)|We can write can store information only while your computer is turned or As soon as you t data stored init. Hence itis called volatile memory) data into RAM and read data from RAM, (Ram chips urned off RAM forgets all the bi ROM (Read Only Memory) It is used as permanent memo! cannot be altered and fresh informati computer started when switched on. peripheral units of the computer) "PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) “EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) TCUSHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 16 ut into ROM chips at manufacturing time) h :0 ROM. ROM contains instructions to get the he various ry storage) (Information is b ion canfiot be written int (it includes holding the instructions and data that control t AinUNIT | he purpose of external storage is to hold data - even when the computer is turned off. Secondary storage devises are two types) | g) Magnetic storage b) Optical storage 13 |.) Magnetic Storage Devices: | tthe surface of magnetic storage devices are coated with magnetic material | a. Floppy disks: | floppy disk is random access device. Information can be recorded or read by inserting it into a disk) {drive connected to the computer. \In floppy we can transfer the data from one place to another place. Floppy disks are available in 3 standard sizes. (a) 8 Inch (b) 5% Inch (c) 3% Inch) On the basis of capacity, two types of floppies are available. (a) High density diskette (b) Low density diskette «” Hard Disks Hard disk is a random access storage device. In hard disk we can store large amount of data. But ‘we can't transfer the data from one computer to another) { | i f * Magnetic Tapes Tape drives read and write data to the surface of a tape the same way an audio cassette. The difference is that a computer tape drive writes digital data rather than analog data. ») Optical storage devices: + (D- ROM: (compact disk - read only memory): Audio compact disk is a popular medium for storing music.){hese are recorded by the supplier and cannot be erased and filled with new data. The main feature of CD-ROM is their speed. + DVD-ROM: (Digital video disk): [DVD-ROM is a high-density medium capable of storing a fulllength movie on a single disk) DVD- ROM drives can play ordinary CD-ROM disks * CD-rewritable: CD-RW drives user can write and over write data onto compact disk. FLASH MEMORY.Rona .| MOR - memory data register - stores the dat flash mem ores data even when the power is turned off. ROM is a form of OY Uae sto Flash Me norys ‘e flash memory are digital cameras PCs. Other machines that ust $ i if ISB (Uni ( AUSB neat ieee of a flash memory data storage device neater a ia (Universal se i i \d physically S Bus) USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, and phy B Se vice used for storing gig 4 ronic x ig Amemory card or memory cartridge is an elect a aes i jonl information, typically using flash memory. These are comm’ l N as digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop, computers, tablets, PDAs, portable media players, video 920, consoles, synthesizers, electronic keyboards and digital pianos. 5 * Mass Storage Device (MSD) : : -Amass storage device (MSD) is any storage device that makes it possible to store and port large amount of data across computers. i -A mass storage device may also be referred to as an auxiliary storage device. The term is commonly usec to describe USB mass storage devices. : -MSD is primarily related to storage devices that provide consistent and permanent storage capacity. -MSt is connected to the computer/server via a data transfer interface, such as SCSI, USB or even Ethernet (for storage area networks). Some of the common MSDs include floppy disk drives, optical drives, hard disk drives, tape drives, external hard drives, RAID and USB storage devices. Basic Processor Architecture The architecture of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and the functions of the Arithmetic Logic Un: (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU) and the Registers within the CPU. oa Anthmene é Legic tint é Srvlee ——— Hegisters cea Memory Unit Parts of a CPU: ALU - The arithmetic logic unit executes all calculations within the CPU -| CU- control unit, coordinates how data moves around Registers, a memory location within the actual 5, Processor that work at ver instructions which await to be decoded or executed, Dee eee. PC - program counter - stores address of the -> next < instruction in RAM MAR - memory address Fegister - stores the address of the current instruction being executed 'a that is to be sent to or fetched from memory 'ual instruction that is bei 9 decoded and executed ‘USHA PAVANI, Dept of Computer SciencePage 18 La CIR - current instruction register - stores act_ d in UNIT | ‘ACC’ accumulator - stores result of calculations "aig - interrupt register - manages requests from 1/0 devices. Be careful this was called the instruction [register in our video above. Buses tal address bus - carries the ADDRESS of the instruction or data Chi data bus - carries data between processor and the memory 1e| control bus - sends control signals such as: memory read, memory write Together, these buses may be referred to as the “system bus” or the “front-side bus”| Lt _gystems.and Computer Codes; e the number systems in Computer? wnnat at | sper systems ate the technique to represent numbers in the computer systemjarchitecture, evers eat you are saving oF getting into/from computer memory has a defined number sate i er architecture supports following number systems. | Binary number system }, Octal number system Decimal number system Hexadecimal (hex) number system) ies 4) Binary Number System pee number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1)Every number (value) represents with 0 and in this number system) {The base of binary number system is 2, because it has only two digit? i 9) Octal number system beta! number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7 Every number (value) represents with 31.2456 and 7 in this number system (The base of octal number system is 8, because it has only 8 digits) i 3) Decimal number system imal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9) very number (value) represents with 23456, 7.8 and 9 in this number system) the base of decimal number system is 10, because it has only 10 digit& '4) Hexadecimal number system Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to FUEvery number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8,9,4.8,C.0.E and F in this number system) The base of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Here A is 10, Bis 11, Cis 12.2 is 13, Bis 14 and Fis 15. We wi lumt mi: Bi Ne er stem Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows - + Uses two digits, 0 and 1 + Also called as base 2 number system * Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 2° | + Last position in a binary number represents axpower of the base (2). Example 2 where x represents the last position - 1. Pxample i| | Binary Number: 101012 Calculating Decimal Equivalent ~ Step Binary Decimal Number Number Step 101012, (1x 2") + (0x 2") + (1x2) + (OX 1 2) +(1x2))10 Step 101012, (16 #0 +4 + 0+ 1)0 2 Step 101012 2110 3 Note ~ 101012 is normally written as 10101. Octal Number System Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows ~ + Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 + Also called as base 8 number system + Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 8° + Last position in an octal number represents axpower of the base (8). Exa: 8* where x represents the last position - 1 Example Octal Number: 125708 Calculating Decimal Equivalent - Step Octal Decimal Number Number Step 125708 (1x 84) + (2x8°) + (5x84 +(7x 1 8') +(0x8")i0 Step 12570» (4096 + 1024 +320 + 56 + 0)10 2 Step 125708 549610 2 Note ~ 12570s is normally written as 12570. Hexadecimal Number System Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows - Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6,7, 8,9, A,B,C, D,E,F Letters represent the numbers Starting from 10. A= 10.B=11,C=12,D =13,E=14,F=15 Also called as base 16 number system Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example, 16”Y ES. ENE LEN i ition in a he ir | ast posit exadecimal n y lumber i or were x represents the last positi Tepresent: sition - 1 nts ax power of the base (16). & . Example perl : pe pexadecimal Number: 19FDE1¢ it Decimal Equivalent - Binary Decimal Nu umber imber lee 9FDEIe ((1.x 16!) + (9.x 16") + F x16) + (Ox a |se 16') + (Ex 16"))r0 4 x 164) + (9x 16" geo grdes x 16°) + (15% 164 1 YOFDEW x 16!) + (14x 164) rs sup 19FDEe (655964 36864 + 9840 +208 + 14yr0 3 \ | step 19FDE16 10646210 La t 1M Note - 19FDExs is normally written as 19FDE. | i jorking with Fractions: 'RADPOINT : The generalized form of a decimal point is known as radix p system the radix point divides the integer and fractional part. ‘int, In any positional number Ne= [Integer part - Fractional part] 1 Radix point I system to use fractions; that is any decimal number that contains a \ tt ‘iis very common in the decima fractional part. {simalvadix point considered 2° jC A ; ‘onverting the Decimal Integer to Binary \ The radix point splits the number into two parts; the part to the left of the \ INTEGER, The part to the right of the radix point IS the FRACTION. A num | therefore split into 34vo (the itege" ana 25re fraction) radix point is called the ber such as 34.625101S | To ther radix, the method described below is used t¢ ee convert such a fractional decimal number to any 2 | SOnvert the integer.Donen eee SS We 2)34 Remainder 2yi7 28 24 22 24 0 sce0on0 Example : Converting the Integer to Binary So 3410 = 1000102 Converting the Decimal Fraction to Binary f i this case 2 to convert to binary). Ny To convert the fraction, this must be MULTIPLIED by the radix (in column. The Carry will be either 1) that with each multiplication a CARRY is generated from the third and these are written down at the left hand side of the result. However when each result is multiplies carry is ignored (don't multiply the carry). Each result is multiplied in this way until the result (ignoring, i carry) is 000. Conversion is now complete. si Carry Fraction x Radix _x2 Result 1 250 i x Radix _x2 Fe Result 0 500 x Radix x2 Result 1 000 Example: Converting the Fraction to Binary For the converted value just read the carry column from top to bottom. So 0.62510 = 1012 Therefore the complete conversion shows that 34.62510 = 100010.1012 In binary it is the same process however we use powers of 2 instead. So in binary the number 101.101 translates as:3 ae ce ~ — 1x24 0% x2 TTX2 40x 2247 92 \ | ‘4 + OF 14+ 2404 ve 44140540125". 140.54 0125 ~ 5.625 (decimal) Number representation in Binary Form: Insign - magnitude form, additional bit called the sign bit is placed in front of the number. if sesig bit is 0, the number is positive. fit is a1, the number is negative. verample~ 0 1 Sign bit Sign bit There are two types of binary codes 1) Weighted binary codes 2) Non- weighted binary codes hnweighted codes, for each position ( oF bit) Forexample, in binary number, each bit is assigned partici 01.234 the weights are 1,2,4,8,16 respectively. Sample; BCD there is specific weight attached. ‘ular weight 2n where ‘nis the bit number for n gned with any weight to each digit position ie., each Nentwar *weighted codes are codes which are not ass ed value. gal Postion within the number is Not assigned fix Wile Excess - 3 (xS-3) code and Gray codes IMAL (BCD): sive digit from right to left represents &p ; “Dis a des, each succe: "ghig ited code. In weighted cot get the equivatent decimal number add the products of qual to some specified value an?———————————E_ sh because 8421 8 the weights by the corresponding binary digit 421 is the most common CD ig most natural amongst the other possible codes. For oxample:- (567):0 is encoded in various 4 bit codes. Solution: Decimal = 5 Geer 8421code = 010 011 011 loena0! 1 BCD ADDITION: digits of binary, starting from least significa Addition of BCD (8421) is performed by adding two an 9) or if there is a carry out of one then digit. In case if the result is an illegal code (greater thé 0110(6) and add the resulting carry to the next most significant. For example Add 679.6 from 536.8 using BCD addition. Solution:- 679.6 0110 0111 1001.0110 (679.6 in BCD) +536.8 =>+0101 0011 0110 1000 (536.8 in BCD) 1216.4 1011 1010 1111 .1110 (All are illegal codes) +0110 +0110 +0110 .+0110 (Add 0110 to each) 0007 0010 0001 0110 .0100 1 2 1 4 (corrected sum = 1216.4) Result is 1216.4 BCD SUBTRACTION: The BCD subtraction is performed by subtracting the digits of each 4 ~ bit group of the subtrah ‘rom corresponding 4 ~ bit group of the minuend in the binary starting from the LSD. If there is porrow from the next higher groupl then no correction is required. If there is a borrow from the ne 0001 0100 0111. 1000 _(147.8 in BCD) 58.9 0000 1011 1110. 1111 (Borrows are present) -0110 -0110 .-0110 0101 1000 . 1001 5 29 (corrected difference = 58.9) | Result is (58.9)10code, also called XS- XS-3, is a non- weighted BCD code. This derives it name from the fact ne oS binary code word is the cor ¢ responding 8. 2 ; Wisaself complementing code. 19 8421 code word plus 0011(3). Itis sequential code. 153 SN the XS-3 numbers by adding the 4 bit groups in each column starting from the gp. If there I a out from the addition of any of the 4 bit groups, subtract 0011 from the sum Ta of those groups. If there is a carry out, add 0011 to the sum term of those groups example: Add 37 and 28 using XS-3 code. solution’ 37 01101010 — (37in XS-3) +28 => +0101 1011 (28 inXS-3) 65 101111010 (Carry is generated) * = T ( Propagate carry) 7100 0101 (Add 0110 to correct 0101 and 0011 +0011 subtract 0011 to correct 1100) 1001 1000 (Corrected sum in XS-3 = 6510) X$3 SUBTRACTION: || Tosubtract in XS-3 number by subtracting each 4-bit group of the subtrahend from the corresponding "| abit group of the minuend starting from the LSD. If there is no borrow from the next 4-bit group. add | t0t1 to the difference term of such groups. If there is a borrow, subtract 0011 from the difference } | term. For example :- Subtract 175 from 267 using XS-3 code. Solution =~ 267 101 1010 1010 (267 inXS-3) pe => -0100.1010 1000 (175in XS-3) fea 000 1111 0010 (Correct 0070 and 0000 by adding 0071 d " aor1 001140011 correct 1111 by subtracting 0011) +0011 -0011 +0011 011 1100 0101 (Corrected difference in XS-3 = 9210 ASCU CODE:The American Standard Code for Information terres s used alphanumeric code. This is basically a 7 bit code. es be created with 7 bits is 2’ = 128, the ASCII can be used to ¢ characters of the alphabet (52 symbols) and some speci: digits. It is used extensively for printers and terminals that The table shown below shows the ASCII groups. mbols in es with small computer systems, i nounced as ‘ASKEE’ is wig, different bit patterns that de both the uppercase and lowercay addition to the 10 decing The ASCII code 000 OT 101 T10 TT NUL DEL @ Pp Pp ‘SOH DCI * q a ql STX Dez t R 5 . ETX Des te 5 = 5 EOT Dea 5 + 5 : ENQ NAK E uv . i ACK ‘SYN F iv ; = BEL ETB G Ww a he BS CAN Hi x AT EM ; is : LF ‘SUB J z ; uy ivr ESC K re : FF FS ' CR GS - U SO RS 7 z r : ~ 2 io DLE EBCDIC CODE: USD | MSD eae ee (Hex) | 0 [2 > The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interch bit alphanumeric code. Since 2° = 256 bit pa computers to communicate in alphanumeric lange Code (EBCDIC) Pronounced as ‘eb terns can be formed with g bits. It is us, data. The table shown below shows the The EBCDIC code ~ si- dik’ is an fed by most larg} EBCDIC code. | \ | NUL OLE DSdely gon JOCT | SOS 7 can Oo am ieee AI 5 ange [5 | 002 FS | SYN bTk Ts B [KS yz ets ETK | DCS cate |it © ot ala RES [BYP PN att sa ie NC LF] RS sth mows ig—[ee_[BS_[ £08 [Yc 7 To |W Powe [DEL [IL | PRE | EOT oe SEK TT iv] CAN Ray Ao Te 5 EM Teele z TR Tz 19 SMM TCC |SM ot ie |v aya Se oat a7 FF FS EEE Fe TO 5 TGR FIGS TENG TNAKI( |) |- 1 7750 FIRS | ACK Pe F isnt teal SI TUS | BEL | SUB de is a non-weighted code. Itis not a BCD code. It is cyclic code because successive words eit is a unit distance code. acquisition systems where linear or angular converters and The gray co | inthis differ in one bit position only i. instrumentation and data Gray code is used in i hey are also used in shaft encoders, 1/0 devices, A/D displacement is measured. T other peripheral equipment. SION: if an mbit binary number is represented by Brn Bo ----- B1 and its gray code equivalent by Go Gr G1, where Bn and Gr are the MSBs, then gray code bits are obtained from the binary code as follows Gy = Bn Gn-1 = BR Bn-1 Gi= B2®Br Where the ® symbol stands for Exclusive OR (X-OR) Convert the binary 1001 to the Gray code. Solution:Gray . 1 1 © . The gray code is 1101 | GRAY- TO - BINARY CONVERSION: fs BD _ G1 and its binary equivalent by B, Brig, of If an mbit gray number is represented by Gn Gr oe then binary bits are obtained from Gray, bits as ie follows : Bn =Gn Bn-1 = B@Gn-1 A t Bi = B2®G; For example :- , Convert the Gray code 1101 to the binary. 3 Solution :- Gray +1 yf oa on lel ol oI 4 Ze Binary 1 0 0 1 The binary code is 1001 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND LOGIC GATES Vv Boolean Algebra Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and sim aumbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also called as Binal oy George Boole in 1854. plify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only ry Algebra or logical Algebra. Boolean algebra was") re ¢ Switching circuits are also called logic circuits, * Switching algebra is also called Boolean algebi . eoceat aa 38 system of mathematical logic. It is an algebraic system consisting of thes} © ad ees $0, ) two binary operators called OR and AND and unary operator called NOT is the basic mathematical tool in the analysis and synthesis of switching circuits. Gates circuits and digital circuits. | ra. -ris? way to express logic functi ‘i ions al i mplex eb * the eae aaa n be expressed Be eae is an functi ' governed by certain well paey 1 ed rules and laws. is AND. AWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBR: joms OF postulates of Boolean al a Soe Sree, a are set of logical expressions that are a Faaione Sa a ae of useful theorems. Actually, axioms are Sen ae ic operation: ‘ ered ie rratoome of an operstion see ees and NOT. Each axiom can be interpreted gate. AND Laws: the four AND laws are as follows ‘axiom 1: 0. 0=0 caxiom 2: 0.1 0 axiom 3: 1.0=0 axiom 4: 1.1 OR Laws: The four OR laws are as follows ‘Axiom 5: 0+0= 0 Axiom 6: O+1 21 Axiom 7: 1+0 Axiom 8: 1+ 1 NOT.Laws: Axiom 9: 170 ‘Axiom 10: 0= a Venn diagrams i olean operation using shaded overlapping regions: There is A Venn diagram is @ lone region for ea! ‘The interior and exterior of Tregion "x correspon ie) and 0 (false) for variable x. The shading indicates th dark denoting 1 nd Jight 0 (some authors the value of the oper use the opposite convention) ms in the figure below represent respectively conjunction xay, dis ids respectively to the values 1 (tru “ation for each com sjunction xvy. and The three Venn diagr@ | complement -*xAY xVy aX n, disjunction, and complement iagrams for conjunctio Figure 2. Venn diagra shaded to indicate that xAyis 1 when both Variable For conjunction, the region inside both circles is hat xayis 0 for the other three combinations ‘The other regions are left unshaded to indicate t! The second diagram represents disjunction xVy! circles. The third diagram represents complement ir hat lie inside eith, ding those regions t er ory ilar cradling the region not inside the circle Representation Of Boolean Functions : Boolean algebra deals with binary variables and logic operation. A Boolean Function is described by an algebraic expression called Boolean expression which consists of binary variables, the constants 0 and 1, and the logic operation symbols Consider the following example. F(A, B,C, D) = A+8C+ADC Equation No. 1 Boolean Function Boolean Expression Here the left side of the equation represents the output Y. So we can state equation no.1 i = A+BC+ADC Truth Table Formation A truth table represents a table corresponding result It is possible to convert the switching equation into a truth table. For example, consider the following switching equation. J F (A,B,C) = ihe outpat will pe high (1) if A=1 or BC=1 of both are 1. The truth table for this equation we sho oy 13h ion be nue Of rows in the truth table is 2° where n is the number of =3 for the given e combination of inputs. oven equation). Hence there are 2"= 8 possible! neu having all combinations of inputs and the'r A+BCSM tn tae Tbe Phen oe ae of ERT OMnen, Oareeg tea a. a ee wlole { zlelele (aja Methods to simplify the boolean function The methods used for simplifying the Boolean function are as follows - . Karnaugh-map or K-map, and . NAND gate method. y Boolean expressions using Karnaugh-map or K-map {The Boolean theorems nd the-De-Morgan's theorems are useful in manipulating the logic expressiony(We can realize the logical expression using gateg(The number of logic gates required for the realization of a logical expression should be reduced to a minimum possible value by K-map method\ {this ‘method can be done in two different ways, as discussed below. Sum of Products (SOP) Form Itis in the form of sum of three te two variables. Say A.B or A.C etc. SOP form. The sum and prodi multiplications. In fact they are the OR bar and 1 represents an unbar, SOP form is represented by g z Given below is an example of SOP. ms AB, AC, BC with each individual term is a product of Therefore such expressions are known as expression in ucts in SOP form are not the actual additions or and AND functions. In SOP form, 0 represents a insoPform AB+ AB + AB Wo ou 00,2 017724 Answer: AB + AB + AB=A+B Product of Sums (POS) Form it is in the form of product of three terms (A+B), (B+C), or (A+C) with each term isinid to be in the prody ns are Sai expressio ICt of par and 7 represents a bar. POS fo, anunl i h ra the form of a sum of two variables. Suc Mis s sums (POS) form. in POS form, 0 represent: represented by n. 7 Given below is an example of POS. InPOSform (B+ C)(A+B)(B+C) bbdadga Of a6t7180 00 01 10. Seid: OO | 8 ym (2,3,2) Answer :(A +C}(A +B) “Logic Gates 3 eee iit is lectronic circuit having oy Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system)(it is an el ving on tt than one input and only one output\) the relationship between the input and the output is base acertain logic) Based on this, logic gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate etc. AND Gate A circuit which performs an AND operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= Y AAND BAND C... y ABC Me = ABC. 2) and one output, -N togic diagram\ OR Gate ‘ ‘Acircuit which performs an OR operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output. Y = AORBORC.. Y = A+B+C... Logic diagram ving on A ro Of Y Stas oo ‘Truth Table vutput,NOT Gate and one output Y. NOT gate is also known as Inverter. It has one input A NOTA Y Y a nw 4 Logic diagram ( —p— | Truth Table © [inputs Tout A B 0 a ote Gaeta | tNAND Gate A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has n input (n >= Y ANOTAND BNOTANDC.......N Y = ANAND B NANDC........N 2) and one output. 1 Logic diagramNOR Gate ANOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output. Y Y ANOT OR BNOTORC..... ANORBNORC... Logic diagram Ae IS, A Sa Boe el M 8 = Truth Table Inputs | Output [ale | ae | | | Late oe) po ia et olalo 1jo]}o 1 a8 XOR Gate XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and subtractor. The exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-OR gate or sometime as X-OR gate. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output. ry. Y Y =Logic diagram i Truth Table [ Inputs | Al Lo a | 0 ee Osta lata iO. Computer Software Introduction ( Computer software, or simply software, is a kind of programs that enable a user to Perform s specific task or used to operate a computer It directs all the peripheral devices or( computer Syste what to do and how to perform a task.{PC Software plays a role of mediator between user and comp hardware}Without Software, a user can’t perform any task in digital computer. A computer system can be divided into three components: the hardware, the software and the users Classification of Software Software has mainly divided into two Categories: System software and = Application software astem Software [System Software (type of computer program) provides a platform to run computerfs hardware and puter pplication to utilize system resources and solve their computation problem. (\t is written in a w-level language, like assembly language so it can easily interact with hardware with basic level) It ntrol working of peripheral devices . ‘System software act as a scheduler for the execution of the processes and arrange the sequence corking to their priority and 1/0 devices requirement and creation of process. fhe best-known example f system software is the operating system Cosh responsible to manages all the other programs in a mputer.) dperating system creates an interface between user and hardware and also in application oftware and hardwary, Examples of software are Windows 7, Windows XP and Windows 10) on ‘Ap Linux ute Microsoft’ ee - y) Windows ~ Nome Generally user does not interact with the System Software directly. The user interacts with the GUI created by System Software. Through this GUI user interact with applications installed in system. [Application Software Applications software also called end-user programs or simply an app. It is resides above system jsoftware. Applications software is used by end user for specific purpose. It is programmed for simple as well as complex tasks. It either be installed or access online. It can be a single program or a group of small programs that is referred to as an application suite. Application software can be used by user to complete Specific tasks, such as creating word processors Documents, Spreadsheets, Presentation, Graphics, CAD/CAM, sending email etc. | "Microsoft uous . 2. Oke Now Application Software Firmware, Middleware What is Firmware Firmware is a special type of software. It helps to control the functionality of hardware of ‘ne device: It performs controlling, monitoring and data processing tasks. Firmware is commonly used inher applicatioy Is and many ow ns, 2mbedded systems, consumer appliances, computer peripher? Hh memor uch as ROM, flash memory, ¢ Firmware is mainly available in nonvolatile mem endo. Therefore, it is not ossiyt firmware Is permanently embedded ito the deve By 1M VET cod ort should be repent modifications. To replace firmware, the integrated circult Na _ through a special procedure. edded systems and other consume, 4 1b the ember aple music players, automobiles gy" Overall, firmware provides the functionality to run Remote controllers, washing machines, microwave ovens, P applications that use firmware. What is Middleware Middleware is a computer software that is capable 0! leveloper: ir the services provided by an operating system. It allows the se SETA communication so that they can focus on a specific purpose OF the Hee Mons: oa middleware is popular as it helps to link newer applications to the older systems. f providing services to software applications be, manage data of a distributed computing system: Middleware is comm unicate and i only used tolcomn m and other similar tools that, is used in web servers, application servers, content management syste! the application development and delivery process. Middleware provides various services such as Enterprise Application Integration, Message Orieng’ Middleware (MOM), data integration and the Enterprise Service Bus (ESB). Another important middlewap is Database access services. ODBC (Open Database Connectivity), JDBC (Java Database Connecti and transaction processing monitors are examples for database-oriented middleware. Overall, middlew. 's commonly used in complex environments such as in telecommunication, aerospace industry, etc. Difference Between Firmware and Middleware Firmware is a specific class of computer software that provides low-level control for the device's spec! hardware. Middleware is a computer software that provides services to software applications bejoi those available from the operating system. : Main Functionality While firmware helps to control the functionality of the hardware or electronic devices, middleware he to communicate and manage data of distributed systems Applications Concerning the applications, the firmware is commonly used in embedded systems, consumer elect'o" computer and computer peripherals. Middleware is commonly used in web servers, application se" content management system and other similar tools.oninderstand software as a sin e tasks we will ask it to athe nt val vit val cifi ony \gle word for a large sets of instru lo. Software comes in applic they are usually stored in a folder on th mn the user generates, which are usually ictions the computer will need to carry out ations. Applications are composed of a variety of fe system hard disk. Some of those programs are called user files. ograms, and fe informatio Hi aries ene nn cage epee