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PyCDS_01_Intro.fm Page 2 Tuesday, May 21, 2019 11:07 AM

■ Learn how big “big data” is

and how quickly it’s getting
even bigger.
■ Read a big-data case study on
a mobile navigation app.
■ Be introduced to artificial
intelligence—at the
intersection of computer
science and data science.
PyCDS_01_Intro.fm Page 3 Tuesday, May 21, 2019 11:07 AM

2 Introduction to Computers and Python

Note: Throughout the Instructor Solutions Manual, solutions are not provided for project,
research and challenge exercises—many of which are substantial and appropriate for term
projects, directed-study projects, capstone-course projects and thesis topics. Before assign-
ing a particular exercise for homework, instructors should check the IRC to be sure the
solution is available. These Instructor Solutions Manual PDFs contain only answers to
short-answer exercises and any discussion questions asked in other exercises. Code cor-
responding to programming exercises can be found in the solutions folder’s chapter-spe-
cific subfolder—e.g., ch01 for Chapter1, ch02 for Chapter 2, etc. Code generally is
provided both in Python source-code files (.py) and Jupyter Notebooks (.ipynb).

Exercises
1.1 (IPython Session) Using the techniques you learned in Section 1.10.1, execute the
following expressions. Which, if any, produce a runtime error?
a) 10 / 3
b) 10 // 3
c) 10 / 0
d) 10 // 0
e) 0 / 10
f) 0 // 10
Answer: (c) and (d) produce ZeroDivisionErrors because division-by-zero is not
allowed in Python.
1.2 (IPython Session) Using the techniques you learned in Section 1.10.1, execute the
following expressions. Which, if any, produce a runtime error?
a) 10 / 3 + 7
b) 10 // 3 + 7
c) 10 / (3 + 7)
d) 10 / 3 - 3
e) 10 / (3 - 3)
f) 10 // (3 - 3)
Answer: (e) and (f) produce ZeroDivisionErrors because division-by-zero is not
allowed in Python.
1.3 (Creating a Jupyter Notebook) Using the techniques you learned in Section 1.10.3,
create a Jupyter Notebook containing cells for the previous exercise’s expressions and exe-
cute those expressions.
Answer: Open the file ex03_03.ipynb in Jupyter.
1.4 (Computer Organization) Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements:
a) The logical unit that receives information from outside the computer for use by
the computer is the .
Answer: The input unit.
b) is a logical unit that sends information which has already been processed
by the computer to various devices so that it may be used outside the computer.
Answer: The output unit.
c) and are logical units of the computer that retain information.
Answer: The memory unit, the secondary storage unit.
PyCDS_01_Intro.fm Page 4 Tuesday, May 21, 2019 11:07 AM

Exercises 3

d) is a logical unit of the computer that performs calculations.

Answer: The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).
e) is a logical unit of the computer that makes logical decisions.
Answer: The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).
f) is a logical unit of the computer that coordinates the activities of all
the other logical units.
Answer: The central processing unit (CPU).
1.5 (Clock as an Object) Clocks are among the world’s most common objects. Discuss
how each of the following terms and concepts applies to the notion of a clock: class, object,
instantiation, instance variable, reuse, method, inheritance (consider, for example, an
alarm clock), superclass, subclass.
Answer: Class—A class Clock would define the instance variables and methods
that represent a clock’s data and functionality. A clock’s instance variables (at-
tributes) might store the clock’s time, style (digital or analog), etc. The behav-
iors of the clock include setting the time and getting the time.

Object/Instantiation—You’d create an object of class Clock (known as instan-

tiation) to represent a clock in software. The entire clock is an object that is
composed of many other objects (such as the moving parts, the face, etc.).

Reuse—You can reuse class Clock to create as many clock object’s as you need.

Inheritance, Superclass, Subclass—There are specific types of clocks (such as

an alarm clock or a watch). With that in mind, it is possible that other classes,
such as Watch and AlarmClock, could inherit the features in class Clock. In this
case, Clock would be the superclass (also called the base class) and Watch and
AlarmClock would be the subclasses (also called derived classes). Using class
Clock as a superclass is another form of reuse.
1.6 (Gender Neutrality) Write down the steps of a manual procedure for processing a
paragraph of text and replacing gender-specific words with gender-neutral ones. Assuming
that you’ve been given a list of gender-specific words and their gender-neutral replace-
ments (for example, replace “wife” or “husband” with “spouse,” replace “man” or “wom-
an” with “person,” replace “daughter” or “son” with “child,” and so on), explain the
procedure you’d use to read through a paragraph of text and manually perform these re-
placements. How might your procedure generate a strange term like “woperchild” and
how might you modify your procedure to avoid this possibility? In Chapter 3, you’ll learn
that a more formal computing term for “procedure” is “algorithm,” and that an algorithm
specifies the steps to be performed and the order in which to perform them.
Answer: Search through the entire paragraph for a word such as “wife” and replace
every occurrence with “spouse.” Repeat this searching process for every gender
specific word in the list. You could accidentally get a word like “woperchild” if
you are not careful about how you perform replacements. For example, the
word “man” can be part of a larger word, like “woman.” So, replacing every oc-
currence of “man” can yield strange results. Consider the process of replacing
“man” with “person” then replacing “son” with “child.” If you encounter the
PyCDS_01_Intro.fm Page 5 Tuesday, May 21, 2019 11:07 AM

4 Introduction to Computers and Python

word “woman,” which contains the word “man,” you’d replace “man” with
“person” resulting in the word “woperson.” In a subsequent pass you’d encoun-
ter “woperson” and replace “son” with “child” resulting in the “woperchild.”
Other documents randomly have
different content
Many short parallel ridges butt into each other, making a crazy-quilt
pattern.
In the center of this frame is an unusual smooth area, perhaps the result
of flooding of the surface by material that filled in the grooves.

Europa

As one proceeds inward through the Galilean satellites, these worlds

become less and less familiar to the planetary geologist. This was an
unexpected effect. Callisto and Ganymede were expected to have
unusual properties as a result of their large percentage of ice. The
densities of Europa and Io are more normal for the smaller,
terrestrial-type planets, and before Voyager many scientists expected
these two satellites might look much like the Moon, which they
resemble in size.

Europa, with a diameter of 3130 kilometers, is about 15 percent

smaller than the Moon. Its density is 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter,
indicating a basically rocky composition. However, cosmic mixtures of
rocky and metallic materials are often a bit denser than this, leaving
room for a substantial component of ice or water. Calculations
indicate that if all the ice were at the surface, it might form a 151
crust up to 100 kilometers thick.

Shaded relief map of Europa. [260-659]

Telescopic observations of Europa demonstrated long before Voyager

that this satellite is almost completely covered with ice. It is a white,
highly reflecting body, looking, from a great distance, like a giant
snowball. In the early Voyager pictures, Europa always showed a
bland, white disk, in striking contrast to the spottiness of Ganymede
or the brilliant colors of Io.

Voyager 1 never got closer to Europa than 734 000 kilometers, and at
that distance it remained a nearly featureless planet, with no obvious
impact craters or other familiar geologic structures. What did show in
the Voyager 1 pictures, however, were numerous thin, straight dark
lines crisscrossing the surface, some extending up to 3000 kilometers
in length. To the members of the Imaging Team, these features were
“strongly suggestive of global-scale tectonic processes, induced either
externally (as by tidal despinning) or internally (as by convection).” It
was with the greatest interest that the Voyager 2 images, taken from
about four times closer, were anticipated.

The spectacular pictures obtained of the satellite in July were perhaps

more confusing than clarifying. Europa is entirely covered with dark
streaks that vary in width from several kilometers to approximately
70 kilometers and in length from several hundred to several thousand
kilometers. Most streaks are straight, but others are curved or
irregular. The streaks lie on otherwise smooth, bright terrain,
featureless except for numerous random dark spots, most less than
10 kilometers in diameter.

Voyager 2 photos showed, in addition to the smooth terrain with its

dark streaks, regions of darker, mottled terrain. This mottled terrain
appears rough on a small scale, and it may contain small craters just
on the limit of resolution (about 4 kilometers). Only three definite
impact craters have been identified, each about 20 kilometers across.
This small number of craters suggests either that the surface is
relatively young or that craters are not preserved for long in the icy
crust.

Although the dark streaks give Europa a cracked appearance, the

streaks themselves are not obviously cracks. They are not depressed
below their surroundings; in fact, they have no topographic structure
whatever. Europa is extraordinarily smooth, and the dark streaks look
rather like marks made with a felt-tipped pen on a white billiard ball.
The streaks are not even very dark; the contrast with adjacent
smooth terrain is only about 10 percent.

One of the most remarkable geologic phenomena discovered by

Voyager is the light streaks that appear on Europa. These are 152
smaller than the dark streaks, only about 10 kilometers in
width, but much more uniform. Seen at low Sun angle, they also
show vertical relief of less than a few hundred meters. These light
ridges are seen best at low Sun and tend to be invisible at higher
illumination angles.

The most amazing thing about the light ridges is their form. Instead
of being straight, they form scallops or cusps, with smooth curves
that repeat regularly on a scale of 100 to a few hundred kilometers.
In some of the low-Sun-angle pictures, the surface of Europa seems
to be covered with a beautiful network of these regular curving lines.
The impression is so bizarre that one tends not to believe the reality
of what is seen. Nothing remotely like it has ever been seen on any
other planet.

At present the geology of Europa remains beyond our understanding.

Presumably there is a thick ice crust, perhaps floating on a liquid
water ocean. Presumably there is sufficient heat coming from the
interior to have produced cracking or motion in the ice crust, and the
light and dark streaks preserve a pattern in some way related to this
internal activity. However, the actual mechanisms for producing the
observed features so lightly traced on this smooth white world remain
for scientists to decipher.
Europa looks like a cracked egg in this computer mosaic of the best
Voyager 2 images. In this presentation, the variation of surface
brightness due to the angle of the Sun has been removed by computer
processing, so that surface features can be seen equally well at all places.
The many broad dark streaks show up well, but this presentation does
not bring out the much fainter and more enigmatic light streaks. These
pictures were taken from a distance of about 250 000 kilometers and
show features as small as 5 kilometers across. [260-686]

Io

The most spectacular of the Galilean satellites is Io. Even in low-

resolution images, its brilliant colors of red, orange, yellow, and white
set it apart from any other planet. The dramatic scale of its volcanic
activity confirms that Io is in a class by itself as the most geologically
active planetary body in the solar system.

The diameter of Io is 3640 kilometers, and its density is 3.5 grams

per cubic centimeter. Both values are nearly identical to those of our
Moon. Were it not for Io’s proximity to Jupiter, it would probably be a
dead, rocky world much like Earth’s satellite.

Careful examination of all the Voyager images of Io, some of which

have resolutions as good as 1 kilometer, has failed to reveal a single
impact crater. Yet the flux of crater-producing impacts at Io must be
even greater than for the other Galilean satellites, because of the
focusing effect of Jupiter’s gravity. The absence of craters alone
would indicate that Io has an extremely young and dynamic planetary
surface, even without the observation of active volcanoes.
Calculations indicate that craters on Io must be filled in or otherwise
obliterated at a rate corresponding to the deposition of at least 100
meters per million years, and quite probably a factor of ten greater,
or 1 meter every thousand years.

153
One of the most remarkable of all the Voyager discoveries was the
arcuate white ridges on Europa. Visible only at very low Sun angle, these
curved bright streaks are 5 to 10 kilometers wide and rise at most a few
hundred meters above the surface. Their graceful scalloped pattern is
unique to this planet and has defied explanation. Also visible in this view,
taken by Voyager 2 on July 9 at a range of 225 000 kilometers, are dark
bands, more diffuse than the light ridges, typically 20 to 40 kilometers
wide and hundreds to thousands of kilometers long. [P-21766]
 154

Shaded relief map of Io as it appeared in early March 1979. [260-634BC]

The great erupting volcanoes on Io produce distinctive surface markings.

These are three views of Prometheus (P₃). The bright ring on the surface
rims the areas of fallout from the plume, and it is probably an area in
which sulfur dioxide frost is being deposited on the surface. [260-451]
These views are of Loki (P₂) as seen by Voyager 1. [260-451]
The asymmetric structure of the plume can be seen.
An ultraviolet image has been used to produce a false-color composite;
the large ultraviolet halo above the visible-light plume may be due to
scattering from sulfur dioxide gas rather than solid particles.

155
Perhaps the most spectacular of all the Voyager photos of Io is this
mosaic obtained by Voyager 1 on March 5 at a range of 400 000
kilometers. A great variety of color and albedo is seen on the surface,
now thought to be the result of surface deposits of various forms of
sulfur and sulfur dioxide. The two great volcanoes Pele and Loki (upper
left) are prominent. [260-464]
In place of impact craters, the surface of Io has a great many 156
volcanic centers, which generally take the form of black spots
a few tens of kilometers across. In a few cases, high-resolution
pictures show the characteristic shapes associated with volcanic
calderas on Earth and Mars, and, if the other volcanic centers are
similar, about 5 percent of the entire surface of Io is occupied by
calderas. These are extremely black, reflecting less than 5 percent of
the sunlight; often they are surrounded by irregular, diffuse halos
nearly as black as the central spot. The calderas seem more like the
Valles caldera in New Mexico, which is associated with vents that
produced large quantities of ash, than with those of Hawaiian-type
shield volcanic mountains.

There is evidence in many of the Voyager photos of extensive surface

flows on Io. These originate in dark volcanic centers and either
spread to fan shapes, typically 100 kilometers across, or else snake
out in long, twisting tentacles. Some of the flows are lighter than the
background and some are darker. Most are red or orange in color,
often outlined by fringes of contrasting albedo.

The equatorial regions of Io are quite flat, with no vertical relief

greater than about 1 kilometer high; indeed, many of the volcanic
centers do not appear to correspond to mountains or domes at all.
There are, however, a number of long, curvilinear cliffs or scarps and
narrow, straight-walled valleys a few hundred meters deep. These
appear to be places in which the crust has broken under tension,
somewhat similar to terrestrial faults and the valleys called graben. A
few rugged mountains of uncertain origin are visible in low Sun
elevation pictures.

Near the poles of Io the terrain is more irregular. There are few
volcanic centers, but more mountains, some with heights of several
kilometers. In addition, there are regions that appear to be made of
stacked layers of material. These so-called layered terrains are
revealed when erosion cuts into them, exposing the layers along the
cliff or scarp. The largest such plateau or mesa has an area of about
100 000 square kilometers. The scarps sometimes intersect each
other, suggesting a complex history of deposition, faulting, and
erosion. Voyager geologists believe that these scarps may be areas in
which the release of liquid sulfur or sulfur dioxide has undercut cliffs,
analogous to internal sapping by groundwater at similar scarps on
Earth.

Perhaps the most distinctive surface features on Io are the circular or

oval albedo markings that surround the great volcanoes. The first of
these to be seen was the 300-kilometer-wide white donut of
Prometheus, on the equator at longitude 150°. Much more
spectacular is the hoofprint of Pele, about 700 by 1000 kilometers.
These symmetric rings mark the locations of the kinds of eruptions
that generate large fountains or plumes, and may be produced by
condensible sulfur or sulfur dioxide raining down from the volcanic
fountain. At least one new ring appeared during the four months
between the Voyager encounters, centered at longitude 330°, latitude
+20°, but by the time Voyager 2 photographed this area, no plume
remained active.

During the Voyager 1 flyby, temperature scans of the surface of Io

were made with the infrared interferometer spectrometer (IRIS). A
number of localized warm regions were found, the most dramatic
being just south of the volcano Loki. Here the images showed a
strange, U-shaped black feature about 200 kilometers across. The
IRIS team interpreted its data to indicate a temperature for the black
feature of 17° C (or room temperature), in contrast to the
surrounding surface at -146° C. Perhaps the dark feature was some
sort of lava lake, either of molten rock or molten sulfur. The melting
point of sulfur is 112° C. If there were a scum of solidifying sulfur on
top of the “lake,” this interpretation might well be the correct one.

The brilliant reds and yellows of the surface of Io immediately

suggest the presence of sulfur. When heated to different
temperatures and suddenly cooled, sulfur can assume many colors,
ranging from black through various shades of red to its normal light-
yellow appearance.

Even before Voyager, laboratory studies had shown that sulfur

matches the overall properties of the spectrum of Io, including the
low albedo in the ultraviolet and the high reflectivity throughout the
infrared. Contemporary with the Voyager flybys, additional telescopic
observations and laboratory studies by Fraser Fanale at JPL and Dale
Cruikshank at the University of Hawaii identified another component
on Io, sulfur dioxide. Sulfur dioxide is an acrid gas released from
terrestrial volcanoes, where it combines with water in the Earth’s
atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid. At the temperature of 157
the surface of Io, sulfur dioxide is a white solid. Researchers
guessed that the extensive bright white areas in the Voyager pictures
of Io might be covered with sulfur dioxide frost or snow. The
presence of this material on Io was confirmed when the infrared IRIS
instrument obtained a spectrum of sulfur dioxide gas over the
erupting volcano Loki during the Voyager 1 encounter.
Close-ups of Io reveal a wide variety of volcanic phenomena. This
Voyager 1 view of an equatorial region near longitude 300° shows
several large surface flows that originate in volcanic craters or calderas.
At the right edge is a light flow about 250 kilometers long. Another dark,
lobate flow with bright edges is just left of center, with an exceedingly
dark caldera to its left. [260-468A]

The discovery of the ongoing eruptions on Io, made shortly after the
Voyager 1 flyby, did much to clarify the confused evidence pouring in
concerning the apparent youth of Io’s surface. Here, under the very
eyes of Voyager, eruptions were taking place on a scale that dwarfed
anything ever seen before. The discovery picture alone, taken from a
distance of 4 million kilometers, showed two eruptions (Pele and
Loki), each of which was much larger than the most violent volcanic
eruption ever recorded on Earth.

Voyager 1 found eight giant eruptions, with fountains or plumes rising

to heights of between 70 and 280 kilometers. To reach these
altitudes, the material must have been ejected from the vents at
speeds of between 300 and 1000 meters per second, several times
greater than the highest ejection velocities from terrestrial volcanoes.
Although widely spaced in longitude, these volcanoes were
concentrated toward the equator; seven of the eight were at latitudes
between +30° and -30°, and the eighth at -44°.

When Voyager 2 arrived four months later, it was able to reobserve

seven of the eight volcanoes. (To be identified reliably, the volcanic
plumes must be silhouetted against dark space at the edge of the
disk.) Six of these were still erupting; one, Pele, the largest plume
seen by Voyager 1, had ceased activity. The plume associated with
Loki had also changed markedly, increasing in height from 100 to 210
kilometers in visible light. (All the plumes appear larger when viewed
in the ultraviolet.) Loki had developed a more complex structure; in
March it appeared to originate near the south end of a 250-kilometer-
long dark feature, but in July there was a double plume, with activity
at both ends of the dark feature.

158
Differences in surface elevation can clearly be seen in a few of the Io
close-ups from Voyager 1. This remarkable picture is of the center of the
great volcano Pele, at latitude 15°S and longitude 224°. A low mountain
with flow features can be seen. In the background, there are several
large irregular depressions with flat floors that appear to be the result of
collapse. The diffuse dark features in the center are probably the ejecta
plumes being erupted from the Pele vent. [P-21220B/W]

159
At the highest resolution obtained by the Voyager cameras, Io revealed
some landscapes that looked familiar to terrestrial geologists. This
picture, taken by Voyager 1 at a range of only 31 000 kilometers, shows a
region about the size of the state of Maryland at a resolution of 300
meters. Clearly seen is a volcano not too different from some of those on
the Earth or Mars. At the center is an irregular composite crater or
caldera about 50 kilometers in diameter with dark flows radiating from
its rim. The style of volcanism illustrated here is quite different from the
explosive plumes or fountains with their associated rings of bright
material deposited on the surface. This volcano is located at about
longitude 330°, latitude 70°S. [260-502]

160

In addition to its giant volcanic plumes or fountains, Io possesses other

indications of current volcanic activity. One of these takes the form of
intermittent blue-white patches that may be caused by gas venting from
the interior. In this pair of photographs, the same region of the surface is
shown about six hours apart. On the right, there is an arcuate bright gas
cloud; on the left the same region is black. It is believed that the venting
gas is sulfur dioxide, and that the condensation of this gas produces fine
particles of “snow” that look blue. [260-508]
Some of the most dramatic changes in the surface of Io between March
and July took place in the vicinity of the volcano Loki, at longitude 310°
and latitude 15°N. On the left is a Voyager 1 view; on the right, one from
Voyager 2. The “lava lake” associated with Loki has become less distinct,
apparently as a result of deposits that fell on the northern part of the
dark U-shaped feature. Perhaps the surface had also cooled between
these photos. In the upper left center, a new dark volcanic caldera with
bright spots near it and a large, faint bright ring had appeared by July,
although it was not active at the time Voyager 2 flew by. [260-687AC]

No new eruptions were seen by Voyager 2; between them, 161

the two spacecraft effectively surveyed the whole surface of
Io for plumes down to 40 kilometers height. Interestingly, the
smallest plume seen was 70 kilometers high; there appeared to be a
real absence of smaller eruptions.

From the number and size of the observed eruptions, it is possible to

calculate the resurfacing rate for Io due to these plumes. The result
is that each plume is erupting about 10 000 tons of material per
second, or more than 100 billion tons per year. This quantity
corresponds to about 10 meters of deposition over the whole surface
in a million years. When additional note is taken of surface flows, the
deposition rate could easily be ten times higher, or 100 meters per
million years, in agreement with the rate estimated from the absence
of impact craters.

Energy for the Io Volcanoes

Clearly, something extraordinary is happening to Io to generate the

observed level of volcanism. The primary heat source for the interiors
of the terrestrial planets is the decay of the long-lived radioactive
elements thorium and uranium. But Io would have to be supplied
with a hundred times its quota of these elements to explain the
observed activity.

A way out of this difficulty was provided by a theoretical investigation

carried out by Stanton Peale of the University of California at Santa
Barbara and Pat Cassen and Ray Reynolds at the NASA Ames
Research Laboratory. Working in the months before the first Voyager
flyby, they calculated that the tidal effects of Jupiter on Io could
generate large-scale heating of the satellite. Io is about the same
distance from Jupiter as the Moon from Earth, but the much greater
mass of Jupiter raises enormous tides in its satellite. These tides
distort its shape, but no other effect would be present if Io remained
at a constant distance from Jupiter. What Peale, Cassen, and
Reynolds realized was that the distance of Io from Jupiter varies as
the result of small gravitational perturbations from the other Galilean
satellites. Therefore the tidal distortions also vary, in effect squeezing
and unsqueezing Io each orbit. Such flexing pumps energy into the
interior of Io in the form of heat; theorists calculated that the heat
supplied could be as high as 10¹³ watts. They predicted, in a paper
published just three days before the Voyager flyby of Io, that
“widespread and recurrent surface volcanism might occur,” and that
“consequences of a largely molten interior may be evident in pictures
of Io’s surface returned by Voyager.”
Voyager 2 obtained beautiful views of the volcanic eruptions during its
ten-hour Io volcano watch on July 9. On the edge of the crescent image
are the volcanoes Amirani (P₅) and below it Maui (P₆), each sending up
fountains about 100 kilometers above the surface. The blue color is
probably the result of sunlight scattered by tiny particles of sulfur dioxide
snow condensing in the erupting plume. [P-21780]

162

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS ON IO
Height
During Activity
Voyager 1 During
Plume Location Flyby Voyager
Number Name (latitude/longitude) (kilometers) 2 Flyby
1 Pele -20°/255° 280 ceased
2 Loki +20°/300° 100 increased
3 Prometheus -5°/155° 70 increased
4 Volund +20°/175° 95 no data
5 Amirani +25°/120° 80 similar
6 Maui +20°/120° 80 similar
7 Marduk -25°/210° 120 similar
8 Masubi -40°/ 50° 70 similar