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Chapter Four
Film Vs. Digital Photography
A. Topic Description
Generally speaking, a photography student who hopes to become a forensic
professional has to learn the same basic photography skills when using a film-based
or digital camera. In fact, the previous as well the succeeding chapters broadly
discuss photography principles that apply to both. In this chapter, however, film and
digital photography will be discussed independently, and their overall differences will
be elaborated.

B. Scope
a. Film Photography
b. Loading and Unloading the Film
c. Choosing Film Types
d. Chemical Processing
e. Equipment for Film Processing
f. Digital Photography
g. Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Photography
h. Digital Photography in Police Work
i. The Admissibility of Digital Photographs in Court

C. Rationale
The darkroom is the terminating point of all photographic processes. It is
here where you see the result of your work. A police photographer should be
knowledgeable in this area to have a complete control in developing films and
papers. Knowing what you want and how to achieve it will make your work more
fulfilling. Digital photography uses cameras containing arrays focused by lens, as
opposed to an exposure on photographic film. The captured image is digitized and
stored in computer file ready for further digital processing, viewing, electronic
publishing, or digital printing.

D. Topic Objectives
1. Describe the film-based camera.
2. Explain the process of loading and unloading the film.
3. Differentiate film types.
4. Explain the chemical processing of photographs.
5. Differentiate a photograph from an image.
6. Enumerate the different types of digital cameras.
7. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of digital photography; and
8. Explain the issues regarding the use of digital photography in police work.

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CHAPTER 4
FILM VS. DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Film Photography
Although digital photography has now gained dominance over film photography, there are still
professionals who would argue that film remains the best way to capture images because of its
incredible ability to record detail in a very stable form.
The most popular of film camera is the 35mm SLR (single lens reflex camera), with the through
lens viewing, built-in metering and interchangeable lenses. The availability of fine grained and
ultra-sharp rolls of film allows the 35mm format to be usable for a wide variety of needs.
Film cameras are loaded with a film without having it fogged by light. A photographic film is
defined as a thin, transparent, flexible acetate or polyester base, coated with light-sensitive
emulsion used in a camera to record a photographic image. They should always be kept in a
cool place, out of direct sunlight, in low humidity, and away from all sources of chemical fumes.
Loading and Unloading the Film
To load the film into a 35mm camera:
1. Open the back of the camera by lifting the film rewind knob and pulling out the back.

2. With the rewind knob up, fit the film canister on the left side under the rewind knob.

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3. Pull the tail of the film gently out of the canister into place.

4. Pull the tail of the film gently out of the canister and insert it into the take-up spool.

5. The rewind knob slightly to make sure that the film is snug against the sprockets and
advance the film once.

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6. Close the camera and advance the film twice.

To unload the film into a 35mm camera:

1. Release the take-up spool by pushing the film rewind button on the bottom of the
camera.

2. Pull the rewind lever out and turn it slowly until it is released from the take-up spool.

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3. Turn the lever a few more times and then open the back of the camera and remove
canister.

The film is protected from light during loading and unloading because the film is contained in a
cartridge, or a cassette having a velvet ’light-trapped” feed slot. Roll film is just tightly rolled up
on a spool together with opaque backing paper (Langford, Fox, & Smith, 2010).
Choosing Film Types

Taking a good picture is not always easy and requires some skill and the right type of film. Films
may be classified based on the speed, depending on their sensitivity to light. Film speed is also
a factor in determining the correct exposure. The film controller is usually located on the top of
the camera or on the top left side.
Film speed figures follow strict tests procedures laid down by standardizing authorities. Most of
the manufacturers use an ISO (International Standards Organization), a combination of the
previous U.S. based ASA ratings and European DIN ratings (Langford, Fox & Smith, 2010).
Slow films (e.g., ISO 32) are best for scenes where the light is bright. They often have a brighter
detail and give the sharpest image. This film is ideal for subjects that need to be enlarged while
still retaining a lot of detail and a fine-grained image. Even if light is poor, the camera can be a
set up on a tripod and a long exposure given.
A medium-speed film (e.g., ISO 200) is still suitable for a wide range of different subjects and
lighting conditions. It can also be used in less light earlier or later in the day when the sun is
much lower the sky.
Fast films (e.g., ISO 400) are used for low-light situations where a less sensitive, slower film
may result in underexposure. The quality, however, is not good as the slower film speeds. When
the light levels are really low such as in dimly lit interiors or outdoors at dusk, the sensitivity or
faster films (e.g., ISO 1000) can give acceptable results (Hedgecoe, 2005).
Some films, including slide films, are made specifically for shooting in well-lighted situations.
Others are made for artificial light, incandescent lighting, and stage lighting. High speed
transparency film allows the operator to shoot a roll of film at a speed higher than recommended
because the processing of the film can make up for the difference in light. The photograph will
not be as clear or precise, but it can be useful where additional speed is needed.

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Aside from the film speed, films can also be categorized as either black and white or color film.
A black and white film records the actual intensity of light as shades of gray. The developing
stage of the photographic process turns the silver halide crystals that have been exposed to
light into minute grains of metallic silver. Light from a bright area of the subject will affect more
silver halide crystals than light from a dark area when these are developed. They are converted
to grains of metallic silver, forming a dark area on the negative. When the film is printed to a
positive, it becomes a light area again. Black and white films have anti-halation backing, a
coating at the back of the film, usually gelatin containing a dye or pigment, to absorbing light
rays and prevent the light from reflecting from the film base through emulsion.
A color film is more complex and consists of three layers of light-sensitive emulsion—red,
green, and blue—with layer sensitive to a particular color. During exposure, blue light from a
subject will affect the silver halide crystals in the blue sensitive layer of the film and so on.
During development, a colored dye forms in the relevant layer of a complementary or opposite
color of the layer in which it is formed; that is yellow dye forms in the blue sensitive layer,
magenta dye in the green sensitive layer, and cyan dye in red sensitive layer. The silver crystals
are then bleached out, leaving just a complementary color. Various combinations of the same
colors produce all the other colors in the photograph.
When a color negative is printed, a similar process takes place in the three layers of the printing
paper: the complementary colors of those in the negative form in the relevant layer of the paper,
this, therefore, reverse colors on the negative back into the colors of the original image. Color
transparency film goes through a reversal process during film processing so that the image on
the film is a positive; that is, the color of the original image is the same as the colors on the
processed film. The tree layers of color film include the basic sensitive layer, the green sensitive
layer, and the red sensitive layer.
Chemical Processing
Film processing involves a sequence of consistent and controlled steps whereby a latent image
(which is formed by the action of light on the emulsion while in the camera) is converted into a
visible image through chemical means. The gelatin of the emulsion absorbs liquid chemicals,
which react with those within the film, differentiating between exposed and underexposed parts
of the image. Essentially, the latent image is developed: its chemical make-up is change into
something more permanent. When fixed and washed, the chemical by products are removed
and changes make it no longer sensitive to light (Langford, Fox and Smith, 2010).
Photographic processing requires concentration and care over detail. It is important to avoid
contaminating one chemical with another, wash by the products of the emulsion thoroughly,
closely monitor times and temperatures, and prevent scratches and dust from ruining the very
soft and vulnerable film. The process itself is easy but carelessness can result n the loss of
unrepeatable pictures. Color processing can be quite tricky to do by hand because it requires
very accurate time and temperature controls and often requires many solutions. Most
professionals therefore is choose to have photos developed commercially so that the most
accurate processing is carried out by expensive automatic machinery with automatically
controlled time, temperature and solution replenishment rate.
Individual hand processing requires essential items of equipment, chemicals which may require
mixing or diluting for use, and is suitable place to work. The most important equipment is
processing tank that can be hold 120 or 35mm film in open coils or sheet films suitably
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separated. Chemicals or wash water can be on circulate over the emulsion surfaces to affect
them evenly. Other items needed include photographic-grade thermometer, various graduated
measures for measuring and mixing solutions, an electronic timer, a plastic mixing rod, chemical
storage bottles, a funnel to return solutions to containers, a hose for washing, and photographic
clips for hanging up films to dry. Processing chemicals can be bought either as complete kits
containing all stages (as for color film processing) or as in individual items (such as black and
white chemicals), either in concentrated liquids or premixed powders which need dissolving.
Film processing begins with the loading of the film, which involves a few simple steps:
1. Remove the protector cover.
2. Cut the film leader.
3. Roll the film into the reel.
4. Cut off the end of the film.
5. Place the reel in the tank.
Next is the developing process using the stainless-steel tank and reel:

1. Take the temperature of the developer, and determine the correct developing time
(usually 68 degrees Fahrenheit or 20 degrees Celsius);
2. Pour the developer into the processing tank. Start the timer as soon as the developer is
in the tank.
3. Gently tap the bottom of the tank against a table or give the tank a sharp tap with heel of
your hand to remove any bubbles trapped in the developer.
4. Agitate the tank for the first 30 seconds of development. Agitation is a darkroom term
refers to the movement of a processing liquid over the material that is being processed
(e.g., the inversion of the developing tank or the movement of the tray to ensure the
constant movement of the fluids) so that fresh chemicals come in contact with the
negative film, or print. To agitate, gently rotate the tank in a circular direction and invert
it. A typical method is to invert the tank three times every 30 seconds. Alack of agitation
can reduce the development and excessive agitation can over develop the film.
5. At the end of the development time, open the lid of the drainage opening of the
developing tank and pour in a stop bath for about 30 seconds and don’t forget to agitate.
A stop bath is an acid rinse used to stop development by neutralizing unwanted
developed when processing black and white film or paper. This prevents carryover the
chemical into another during development.
6. After pouring the, stop bath pour the mixing solution into the tank and agitate. The fixing
process usually takes 5 to 10 minutes in a regular fixer and 2 to 4 minutes in a rapid
fixer. A fixer is a chemical solution that dissolves underexposed silver halide crystals,
leaving the developed silver image on the film or print ang making it stable in white light.
Fixation is the process of removing, unexposed silver halides remaining in the emulsion
after first stage of development of the latent image.
7. Pour out the fixer and save it for reuse.
8. Wash the film in clean running water for a minimum of 20 minutes (20 to 30 minutes).
9. Rinse the film in wetting agent. A wetting agent is a mild form of detergent that reduces
water surface tension, thereby helping the water to flow off the surface of the film without
leaving drying marks.
10. Gently wipe it through a special film squeegee or even two fingers applied with the
wetting agent; and
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11. Lastly, hang the film and attach a weight to prevent it from curling during drying.
The final process involves printing, as enumerated below:

1. Place the negative on the negative carrier then insert the negative carrier in the enlarger
head. The negative should be placed side up, but with the image upside down.
2. Turn off light inside the darkroom.
3. Adjust the height of the enlarger head to get the desired actual size of print by moving
the adjuster up and sown. As the head moves up the rail, the projected images become
bigger; as it moves down, the images become smaller.
4. Focus the image by adjusting the focusing knob or focus control at the enlarger Len’s
biggest aperture. This procedure not only makes the image brighter and easier to see
initially, it ensures that the image will be sharp.
5. Set the appropriate diaphragm by closing down two or three stops before he exposure,
or close down the aperture to a smaller f-top, (f-8 or f-11) this is to obtain the greater
depth of field.
6. Set the timer with an appropriate enlarging time.
7. Turn off the enlarger with safelight on.
8. Take a sheet of photographic paper out of its sealed plastic bag and place it on the easel
with the emulsion side facing up.
9. Align the photo paper correctly with the guides of the easel mask and close the mask
gently. The easel has size scale on its top, bottom, sides or setting the image size, and
10. Lastly switch the enlarger and expose the photographic paper at the appropriate
exposure time.

Equipment for Film Processing

A. Tank or Tray
B. Developing Reel
C. Opener for Film Cartridge
D. Scissors
E. Thermometer
F. Timer
G. Funnel
H. Photographic Sponge
I. Film Clips for Drying
J. Glass or Plastics Bottles (Gallon size) for Storing Mixed Solutions

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Digital Photography
Many photographers think the image has replaced the photograph in the digital age. What really
makes a distinction between photograph and image, between picture and print? A photograph is
what comes out of the camera based on the primary definition of photography (drawing with
light). It would still be a photograph even or fifty negatives are used to make the print in the
darkroom, of the darkroom enlarger as an optical (not digital) instrument that utilize lights. It is
still a photograph even after undergoing standard editing in the computer. Non-critical details
like electrical wires and trash can be removed a photograph without changing the meaning of
the original photograph. So that what the point in the editing does it cease to be a photograph?
An image created when critical elements are added or deleted, changing the scene as it was
seen by the eye or camera, or when visual effects introduced are not possible with a camera or
in the darkroom. It is also considered an image if its is digital illustration or digital printing
created in the computer from scratch. The defining property that differentiates it from
photograph is that the image is bot made or remade using light.
A picture is a photograph-what we get from the lab, darkroom or desktop printers. It is
something we can hold in our hands, hang on the wall, or see in magazine. We can’t point to a
photograph on a computer monitor and call it picture; neither can we say that we have pictures
stored in our camera, flash cards, or hard disk.
If pictures print of a photograph, what do we call the print of an image? A computer printout of
an image is best called a print. This is based on historical and traditional precedent. Before the
digital age, art works are not created by camera were called prints, not pictures.
Digital Cameras

The principal attraction with digital cameras is the immediately of the results. As soon as the
picture is taken, the shot can be viewed instantly on the screen as well as on the computer or
TV Screen. There is no processing stage; the image can be printed at home using a standard
desktop printer or professionally using a photographic paper, and the memory can be re-used.
Digital cameras as an electronic light sensitive CCD or CMOS chip that converts the focused
image into electrical signal, which all the computer files are stored (Hedgecoe, 2005).
Digital cameras can vary in terms of the number of pixels, or the individual elements used in the
imaging sensor. More pixels mean higher maximum resolution. The higher resolution, the bigger
the file size.
Below are some types of digital cameras.
1. View Camera
2. Polaroid Camera or Instant Camera
3. Spy Camera
4. Infrared Camera
5. Pinhole Camera
6. Disposable Camera
7. Cellphone Cameras

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Photography

A digital SLR has the same handling and features as the 35mm SLR but offers the
advantages of digital recording. Digital cameras offer the following advantages and
disadvantages:
ADVANTAGES:
1. It allows in both color and black and white; there is no need to change film.
2. There is no need to worry about running out of film.
3. It allows you to see the image directly through the lens using a prism and moving mirror
arrangement.
4. I t has an LCD monitor that can be used for framing shots or reviewing pictures already
taken.
5. It also provides a high degree of control over exposure, focusing, color balance, and
other creative functions.
6. An added feature on many digital cameras is the ability to shoot video.
7. It offers an automatic exposure bracketing (AEB). The digital camera’s exposures in a
series of three shots.
8. You can take as many photographs in one go as the memory card will allow.
9. You can conveniently share your pictures.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Digital cameras are not as sensitive to light as the film-based cameras.
2. They require more light to make an exposure.
3. The shutter lag or the delay between pressing the shutter button and actually capturing
of the image can lead to see on a bright day.
4. The LCD viewfinder can sometimes be hard to see on a bright day
5. Camera battery life is limited due to the abundance of computerized parts.
Digital Photography in Police Work

The use of digital cameras is an excellent means of recording for crime scene
investigations. By viewing the image recorded on a small screen set within the digital camera,
the forensic photographer can ensure that the image has been recorded accurately. With digital
cameras, the image recorded can be electronically transferred between sites for the purpose of
briefing or searching against databases. Some police forces invest heavily in digital imaging
equipment with the large image recording ability, such as over 5 million pixels so that the image
is not compressed as a smaller cheaper cameras with only 3 million pixels. Compression of the
results in information being removed to allow storage (Pepper, 2005).
But the important issue regarding the issue regarding the use of digital cameras refers to
the scrutiny and integrity of the electronic image from the time it was taken at the crime scene to
investigate process and the presentation in court. It seems relatively easy to enhance the digital
image or remove an object from it, thus raising the issue of digital image manipulation.
In Crime Scene Investigations: Methods and Procedures, Ian K. Pepper (2005) cites the
suggestion of the Police Scientific Development Branch regarding this issue. An audit trail
should be initiated as soon as a digital image is recorded that will remain with the image from its
beginning until its final disposal. Such a trail should include details of the case, description of
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images recorded, any downloading of the images, creation of master files, their storage, any
access to them, copying of the image, viewing the image, and their use in a court of law. Pepper
furthers suggests that as soon as possible, the first digital recording of the image should be
burned in an uncompressed format to a writable CD or in a Write Once, Read Many (WORM)
formats. Information about the date and time the CD should be recorded and the details of the
person making the recording should be included. Future alterations or enhancements of every
image should also be recorded in the sequence they are performed.
The Admissibility of Digital Photographs in Court
As stated by Steven Staggs, when digital imaging is considered for law enforcement,
the concern of the admissibility of digital photographic evidence in court is often raised. The
fact that digital photographs are more easily altered than film-based photographs is usually
cited. Some even believe digital photographs are not admissible in court. This article is
presented in the hope of clearing up some of the confusion and misinformation about this
issue. We will begin with the rules of evidence regarding digital evidence.

The Federal Level

Federal Rules of Evidence, Article X (Contents of Writings, Recordings and
Photographs), Rule 101(1) defines writings and recordings to include magnetic, mechanical
or electronic recordings. Rule 101(3) states that if data are stored in a computer or similar
device, any printout or other output readable by sight, shown to reflect the data accurately, is
an "original". Rule 101(4) states that a duplicate is a counterpart produced by the same
impression as the original…by mechanical or electronic re-recording, … or by other
equivalent techniques which accurately reproduces the original. And Rule 103 (Admissibility
of Duplicates) states a duplicate is admissible to the same extent as an original unless (1) a
genuine question is raised as to the authenticity of the original or (2) in the circumstances it
would be unfair to admit the duplicate in lieu of the original. This means a photograph can be
stored digitally in a computer, that a digital photograph stored in a computer is considered an
original, and any exact copy of the digital photograph is admissible as evidence.

The State Level

Check your state's rules of evidence for specifics on the admissibility of digital
photographs. Most states have laws that apply to digital evidence. As an example, California
Evidence Code Section 1500.6(a) (Admissibility of Printed Representation of Images Stored
on Video or Digital Media to Prove Existence and Content of Image) states a printed
representation of an image stored on video or digital media shall be admissible to prove the
existence and content of the image stored on the video or digital media. Images stored on
video or digital media, or copies of images stored on video or digital media, shall not be
rendered inadmissible by the best evidence rule. Printed representation of images stored on
video or digital media shall be presumed to be accurate representations of the images that
they purport to represent.

Photograph as Evidence
The principal requirements to admit a photograph (digital or film -based) into evidence
are relevance and authentication. Unless the photograph is admitted by the stipulation of
both parties, the party attempting to admit the photograph into evidence must be prepared to
offer testimony that the photograph is an accurate representation of the scene. This usually
means someone must testify that the photograph accurately portrays the scene as viewed by
that witness.

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Guidelines for Ensuring Your Digital Photographs Are Admissible

 Develop a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP), Department Policy, or General Order

on the use of digital imaging. The SOP should include when digital imaging is used,
chain of custody, image security, image enhancement, and release and availability of
digital images. The SOP should not apply just to digital, but should also include film-
based and video applications as well.

 Most importantly, preserve the original digital image. This can be done a variety of ways
including saving the image file to a hard drive or recording the image file to a CD. Some
agencies elect to use image security software.

 Digital images should be preserved in their original file formats. The saving of a file in
some file formats subject the image to lossy compression. If lossy compression is used
critical image information may be lost and artifacts introduced as a result of the
compression process.

 If images are stored on a computer workstation or server, and several individuals would
have access to the image files, make the files read-only for all but your evidence or
photo lab staff. As an example, detectives could view any image files but they would not
have rights to delete or overwrite those files.

 If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced the new image files created should be saved
as new file names. The original file must not be replaced (overwritten) with a new file.

Check with Your Legal Advisor

When beginning a new procedure for collecting evidence or recording a crime scene, it is
always prudent to check with your legal advisor. Consider the Federal Rules of Evidence,
your state's rules of evidence, and other court decisions. Two court decisions regarding
digital images include:

State of Washington vs. Eric Hayden, 1995: A homicide case was taken through a Kelly-
Frye hearing in which the defense specifically objected on the grounds that the digital images
were manipulated. The court authorized the use of digital imaging and the defendant was
found guilty. In 1998 the Appellate Court upheld the case on appeal.

State of California vs. Phillip Lee Jackson, 1995: The San Diego (CA) Police Department
used digital image processing on a fingerprint in a double homicide case. The defense asked
for a Kelly-Frye hearing, but the court ruled this unnecessary on the argument that digital
processing is a readily accepted practice in forensics and that new information was not
added to the image.

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