Diffraction

“When light falls on obstacles or small apertures whose size is comparable with the
Wavelength of incident light, there is a departure from straight line propagation and
The light bends round the corners of the obstacles or apertures and enters into the
Geometrical shadow region. This bending of light is called as diffraction”.
Diffraction limits geometrical optics, in which we represent an electromagnetic wave
With a ray. If we try to form a ray by sending light through a narrow slit or through a
Series of narrow slits, diffraction will always defeat our effort, because it always
causes light to spread. Indeed, the narrower we make the slit in the hope of
Producing a narrower beam, the greater the spreading is.
 Diffraction
Huygens's principle :
Each point on the wave front becomes a source of secondary disturbance and sends
secondary wavelets which travels with the same speed as that of the original waves.
A surface tangential envelope to all these secondary wavelets is the new wave front.

Huygens's theory explained satisfactorily

phenomena like reflection, refraction,
interference and diffraction of light.
Secondary wavelets spread out as spherical
secondary wave fronts with the speed of light.
The tangential surface to all the
secondary wave fronts gives the new
wave front. The intensity of the secondary
Wave front is given by I = I0(1+cos φ ) where φ
is the angle between the original direction
of propagation and the direction of observation.
This shows that the secondary wave front has zero intensity in the backward direction.
Diffraction
 Diffraction
Fresnel attributed the phenomenon of diffraction to be due to the mutual interference
of secondary wavelets, originating from various points of the wave front, which are
not blocked off by an obstacle or are allowed to pass through the slit. That is, instead
of finding the new wave front by constructing the envelope of these secondary
wavelets, we must find by principle of superposition, their resultant on every point of
the screen, taking due account of their relative amplitudes and phases.
Fresnel, thus Applied Huygens's principle of secondary wavelets in conjunction with
the principle of Interference and calculated the position of fringes in general agreement
with the observed diffraction pattern.
Here, it should be emphasized that, the process responsible for the production of
Diffraction phenomena is going on continuously during the propagation of every
wave front. But the diffraction effects are observed only when a portion of the wave
front is cut off by some obstacle.
Note: Every optical instrument (even eye) in fact make use of only a limited portion of
the wave front. A telescope or a microscope, for example, utilizes only a limited portion
Of the wave front transmitted by the objective lens. Therefore, some diffraction is
always present in the image (This reduces the resolution of the optical instrument)
 Diffraction
Two classes of diffraction phenomena:
Diffraction phenomena, which arises as a result of some limitation on the width of
the wave front, are divided into two classes (known for historical reasons).
1. Fraunhofer diffraction 2. Fresnel diffraction.
Fraunhofer diffraction:
In thi class, the source of light and the screen are effectively at infinite distance from
the obstacle or aperture(diffracting element) causing diffraction. This means that the
Wave front incident on the diffracting element is plane wavefront. The secondary
wavelets which are considered as originating from the unblocked portion of the
Wave front, at the moment it just touches the aperture, all start at the same instant
Of time. In other words, the phase of the secondary wavelets is same at every point
on the aperture.
The screen is at infinity. Therefore, we have to consider the interference as taking
Place between parallel diffracted rays which can be brought into focus by placing a
convergent lens behind the aperture. Thus, it is very conveniently observed by
Employing two convergent lenses, (i) one to render the light from the source parallel
Before its incidence on the aperture and (ii) the other to unite the parallel diffracted
Rays in focus on the screen, thus achieving an arrangement which effectively removes
The source and screen to infinity from source.
 Diffraction
Fresnel class diffraction:
In this class of diffraction, the source of light or the screen or both are at finite
Distances from the obstacle or aperture, but no lenses are employed for rendering
the rays parallel or convergent. As a consequence of this the phase of secondary
Wavelets is not same at all points in the plane of the aperture causing diffraction.
The resultant amplitude at any point, however is obtained by mutual interference of
Secondary wavelets from different elements of the unblocked portion of the wave
Front.
Her we shall restrict to discussions on Fraunhofer class of diffraction.
Fraunhofer class of Diffraction:
In Fraunhofer class of diffraction, all the secondary waves start from the plane of
Aperture with the same phase at any instant of time. At the point of superposition
On the screen, they meet at different phases. Since, in this class of diffraction, the
Distance between the slit and the field point ‘P’ is large, the variation of amplitude
of successive disturbances reaching the point ‘P’ on the screen is obtained by
Superposing large no of waves of same amplitude but different phases.
We shall first build up a mathematical model to find out the resultant wave due to
Superposition of large no of vibrations of equal amplitudes, same period and phases
Increasing in arithmatic progression. Such a situation arises when we consider
Diffraction pattern due to n-identical and uniformly spaced narrow slits.
 Diffraction
Questions:

1. What is diffraction? What condition you require to see diffraction effect

prominently?
2. Outline Fresnel’s assumption for explanation of diffraction phenomena.
3. What are the types of diffraction? Distinguish them with suitable diagrams.
4. Outline the differences between diffraction and interference.
 Diffraction
Superposition of large no of simple vibrations of equal amplitudes, same
period And phases increasing in arithmatic progression
Consider superposi on of ‘n’ (n → ꝏ) waves coming from ‘n’ identical and uniformly
Spaced narrow slits at a point ‘P’ far away
from the slits. d
Let, d → be the distance between the
center lines of two consecutive Slits.
Then distance between 1st and nth
e P
Slit is e = (n-1)d.
When a plane wavefront incidents on
This array of fine slits, the entire wave
Front Excepting the parts illuminating
n-slits Is blocked. Each of the slits then P
Become the source of secondary wave
Lets having same amplitude and same d
Initial phase.
Let us find out the resultant effect θ
Due to superposition of all secondary
e
Waves along a direction ‘θ’ to the axis
Of the system at a distant field point ‘P’.
 Diffraction
While superposing at ‘P’, the waves will have same amplitudes (since ‘P’ is at large
Distance, the variation of amplitudes of successive disturbances reaching the point ‘P’
Can be safely neglected), but the phase difference between two waves from the
Successive slits reaching at ‘P’ will have a phase difference given by:
2
  ( d sin  )       (1)

At ‘P’, large no of waves of equal amplitudes but
A
Phases differing in arithmetic progression of ‘δ’
Superposes. The resultant of all these vibrations d θ

Can be obtained by phasor addition method. B Nθ

The resultant wave at ‘P’ is:
x (t )  a sin t  a sin t     a sin t  2       a sint  (n  1) 
 asin t  sin t     sin t  2       sint  (n  1)  Path difference between two
consecutive waves in the
sin  t , sin  t   ,......... . are the imaginary parts of
direction θ = d sin
the complex functions e i  t , e i  t   ......... etc.
So
sin  t  sin  t     sin  t  2        sin  t  ( n  1 )  

 Im e i  t  e i  t     .......... ..  e i  t   n  1   
 Im e 1  e
i t i
 e 2 i   .......... ..  e i  n  1 


 Diffraction
1 xm
Using the identity 1  x  x  x  .......... ..  x
2 3 m 1
 we get:
1 x
 i  t 1  e in    i  t e in   1 
x t   Im  ae  i 
 Im  ae  i 
 1 e   e 1 
 in 
 in  in 

  n 

 e  e e 
 i  t i  n  1 2 2 i sin
2 2 2

 Im ae      Im  ae e 2 
 
i t
   
 
i i i
 e 2 e 2  e 2   2 i sin


  2 
  
 n 
 sin 
 
i   t  n  1  


 Im  2 ae

 2 

 sin 
 2 
n
sin
 x (t )  a 2 sin   t  n  1    R sin   t  n  1      ( 2 )
    
sin  2   2 
2
n
Where we have substituted: sin
2       (3 )
R  a

sin
2
 Diffraction
This represents a sinusoidal wave of amplitude ‘R’ and phase  t   where,
 
n  1 
   (4)
2
2
Putting   ( d sin  ) ,

 1  2  n 
 n  1d sin  
  
sin  n  d sin    sin  
 2     n 1          (5 )
Ra a
 1  2  1 
 n  1d sin  
   
sin   d sin    sin  
 
2    n  1   

Since, n  1 d  e
 n  e sin  
So sin 
n 1  

Ra       (6)
  e sin  
sin  
n 1  

This formulation is of general application for any number of slits starting from n = 2.
We can also use it for finding the diffraction pattern of a single slit with a neat little
trick.
 Diffraction
Diffraction by a single slit:
Consider a parallel beam of monochromatic light incidenting normally on a long narrow
slit of width ‘e’. The light beam after transmitted through the slit spreads out
Perpendicularly to the length of the slit. Therefore, when it is focused on a screen by a
Lens, a diffraction pattern is observed, which consists of a intense central band, much
wider than the slit width, situated directly opposite to the slit and boardered by dark
and bright bands of decreasing intensity.
At the instant when the unblocked portion of the
Incident wavefront is in the plane of the slit, every
Point of the wavefront in the plane of the slit
Acts as the origin of secondary spherical
Wavelets. These secondary wavelets spreadout
To right in all directions. The converging lens P
Placed after the slit focuses different parallel P0
set of waves to different points on the screen.
The waves travelling normal to the slit (i.e. in
The direction of incident wave) are brought to
Focus at P0 . Those waves travelling at angle θ with
Normal are brought to focus at P and so on. The resultant
Intensity at P can be obtained by using eqn.(6).
 Diffraction
Let us consider the slit of width ‘e’ to be consisting of large number (n) identical and
Uniformly Spaced infinitesimally narrow slits ‘n’ identical and uniformly Spaced (d)
narrow slits keeping distance ‘e’ fixed. Then the distance Between the consecutive
slits will be will be very small and in the limit n → ꝏ, the distance d will tend to zero
And we shall be left with a single slit of width ‘e’.
Using expression (6), the amplitude of resultant wave at point P (where all
Parallel waves diffracted at θ focus) is:
 n  e sin  
sin  
Ra  n 1   (with n →ꝏ)
  e sin   P
sin  
n 1  
As ‘n’ is very large, the numerator can
θ
Be approximated as: P0
 n  e sin     e sin  
sin    sin  
 n  1     

And the denominator can be written as:

  e sin   e sin   e sin
sin   sin 
 n 1   n   n 
 Diffraction
 e sin    e sin  
1
sin   sin  
So,      
Ra  na
 e sin  e sin 
 Plot of sin  with 
2

n  
sin 2  2
 e sin 
Substituting 
  and na  A 2
we get: sin 
RA      (7 )

The resultant intensity at P being
proportional to the square of the
Resultant Amplitude ‘R’ , hence:
sin2  sin2 
I  kR  kA
2 2
 I0      (8)
2 2

Where, I 0  kA -2π -π 0 π 2π 
2

Now let us proceed to analyze the intensity distribution on the screen.

Principal Maxima: sin 
The maximum value of sin 
is 1. At this value of  , intensity is maximum and is
equal to I0 . 
But sin  1 , when   0  e sin   0    0
 
 Diffraction
The condition θ = 0 simply means that, this maximum is formed by parts of secondary
Wavelets which travel normally to the slit. The position of this maximum therefore is
directly opposite to the slit. This maxima is called as principal maxima and is formed at
P0 .
Condition of Minima and Minimum intensity pattern:
The intensity I will be zero at the positions for which
sin  0 but   0
    , 2 , 3 .......... .   n 
e sin 
   n

n
 sin       (9 )
where, n = 1, 2, 3, ------ etc
e
Note: n = 0 is not admissible as that is the
Condition of principal maxima.
Expression (9) can also be written as:
e sin  n      (10)
i.e. the rays diffracted at angle θ interfere P0
Destructively, if the path difference
between the extreme diffracted waves
Is an integral multiple of λ
 Diffraction
From expression (9), the minima are located on both sides of the principal maxima at
 2 3
sin    , , .......... ...
e e e
Secondary Maxima:
With one principal maxima and a number of minima, there are also secondary maxima
In between the minima. The intensity of these secondary maxima is less than that of
principal maxima. The positions of maxima and minima corresponds to:
dI
0
d
d   sin    sin    cos   sin  
2

 I0    0  I0  2 0
d         2 
sin or  cos   sin   0    ( ii )
  0  sin  0 &  0    (i)

The conditions (i) has given the positions of minima. The positions of secondary
maxima are obtained using condition (ii)
 cos   sin   0   cos   sin 
 tan         (11 )

The values of α satisfying condition (11) are obtained graphically by plotting y  tan 
And y   . [Equation (11) is a transcendental equation which cannot be solved
analytically].
 Diffraction
The points of intersection of these
Plots are (approximately): Y=α
Tan α
3 5 7
  0,  , , ........
2 2 2
Or more exactly:
  0,1.430 ,2.462 ,3.471 ........ α

α = 0 gives the principal maxima

And rest gives the condition for
Secondary maxima.
Intensity at maxima points:
The expression for intensity at any point on screen is:
sin 2 
I  I0
2
sin 
Putting α = 0, lim  1  I  I0 . So I0 is the intensity at principal maxima.
 0 
sin  1 2  sin   4 I
2

Putting α = 3π/2, 
 
3 / 2 3
 I1  I 0    I0   0
   9 22 .2
2

Putting α = 5π/2, sin  1 2  sin   4 I0

2

   I2  I0   I0  
 5 / 2 5    25  2 61 .7
 Diffraction
Similarly:
 sin   4 I0
2

I3  I0    I0  
   49 2 121
and so on.
So the ratio of the intensities of principal I0
Maxima, first order maxima, second order
Maxima etc. is:
4 4 4 1 1 1
1: : :  1 : : : .......
9 25 49
2 2 2
22.2 61.7 121
 1 : 0.0469 : 0.0168 : 0.0083 : 0.0050
 3  2  0  2 3 

Width of central maxima:

The central maxima is thought to be
spreaded form first minima on one side
to first minima on the other side.
Since the screen is kept in focal plane of
lens and lens is very close to slit, so
Distance between slit and screen is
Equal to focal length (f) of lens.
If θ1 is the angle of diffraction of parallel
Set of waves to form first minima,
 Diffraction
Then:  
e sin  1      1  sin 1
 
e
This θ1 is called as half angular width of principal maxima. The full angular width of
Central maxima is twice of θ1 .
The half linear width of central maxima can be obtained as:
 
w  f   1  f  sin 1
 
Note:  e 
It should be pointed out that the angular spread of principal maxima is inversely
Proportional to the width of the slit. Moreover, if e = λ and n = 1 in equation (9), then
sin    1     
2 , i. e. the first minimum occurs at 90 with the normal (i.e. with
0

The incident direction). So the wave front after traversing the slit spreads out in all
Directions, with an intensity which decreases steadily as θ increases. There is no other
maxima and minima in this case and the central maxima covers the whole screen.

Questions:
1. With necessary theory discuss the features of Fraunhofer diffraction pattern trough
a single slit when it is illuminated by a monochromatic light. Draw separately the
intensity distribution in Fraunhofer single slit diffraction pattern (i) with respect to
angle of diffraction, (ii) with respect to distance from the central maxima. Show
that the relative intensities of successive maxima is given by 1 : 4 2 : 4 2 : ..........
9 25