MEE 431 : MACHINE TOOLS

Course Outlines
Introduction to Machine Tools
Role and definition of machine tool
Major components of machine tools and their functions
General configuration of common machine tools and their uses
Major Aspects of Machine Tools
Functional Principles of Machine Tools
 Basic functions of machine tools
Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
Tool-work motions in machine tools
Sources of Generatrix and Directrix
 Generatrix, Directrix and Tool-work Motions for various Machining work

Machine Tool Power Drives

 Power sources used in Machine Tools
 Machine Tool Power Requirement
 Hydraulic Drive in Machine Tools

Role and Forms of Kinematic Structure of Machine Tools

 Role and General Construction of Kinematic structure in machine tools
 Types of Machine Tool Kinematic Structures and their Applications
 Mechanisms commonly used in Machine Tool Kinematic Systems
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Suggested Reading
Boothroyed, G.: Fundamentals of metal machining and machine tools; McGraw-
Hill International book Co. (Students edition), Washington, 1975
Maslov, D., Danilevsky, V. and Sasov, V.: Engineering manufacturing processes;
Peace pub., Moscow, 1998
Acherkan, N. (Editor): Machine tool design, Vol.1, MIR Pub., Moscow, 1968
Degarmo, E.P., Black, E.P. and Kosher, R.A.: Materials and processes in
manufacturing; Pub. John Wiley & sons, (Asia Pvt. Ltd.), 2004
Sen, G.C. and Bhattacharyya, A.: Principles of Machine tools: New central book
agency, Kolkata, 1975
Mehta, N.K.: Machine tool design and numerical control; Tata McGraw-Hill Pub.
Co. Ltd., New Delhi,1996

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Marks Distribution
Total Marks: 150

Class Attendance: 10%

Quiz Test: 10%
Mid Semester: 20%
Term Final: 60%

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LECTURE-01: INTRODUCTION
TO MACHINE TOOLS
Role and Definition of Machine Tool
 With the rapid and vast developments in science and technology, manufacturing of
products of various materials, configuration and precision essentially evolved innumerable
techniques and processes. All those processes are grouped into four major categories
namely: Forming, Joining, Removal and Regenerative.
 The removal process in manufacturing is accomplished by Machining and Grinding by
which jobs are semi-finished or finished to desired dimensional accuracy and surface
finish for proper functioning, improved performance and longer service life of the
products.
 Machining and grinding inevitably require use of some powerful and robust machines
called Machine tools. Therefore, without machine tools not only engineering components
but also other machines and equipment cannot be produced. Hence, manufacturing
industries and socio-economy are widely and deeply dependent on machine tools.
A machine tool is a non portable and power operated device or system of devices in
which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired dimension and finish by
machining i.e. removing excess material from the preformed blank(s) in the form of
chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface at controlled speeds
and feeds.
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Major Components of Machine Tools and Their Functions
Any machine tool like lathe, drilling machine, milling machine etc. is essentially comprised of
some major components as common features. Those common major components or units are:
 Devices for properly and firmly holding the blank and the cutting tool(s).
 Devices for providing motions and power to the tool(s) and the workpiece.
 Kinematic system for transforming and transmitting the motions and power from the
power source(s) to the tool(s) and workpiece.
 Automation and control systems.
 Heavy structural body to support and accommodate those systems quite strongly, rigidly
and safely.
Machining in any machine tool needs proper contact and relative motions between the workpiece
and the tool. The firmly held tool and the workpiece receive the desired motions and the cutting
power from the power drive of the machine through a kinematic system comprising of various
types and number of mechanisms.
The cutting tool or workpiece may be mounted on a table, which is made to slide along the guides
provided on the machine tool body. The robust structural body of the machine tool is comprised of
a base, bed, column, legs etc. depending on the type and size of the machine tool.
The bed and columns of the machine tool are provided with guides to enable the slides holding the
work or tool move in desired directions. Besides that, a machine tool essentially also possesses
systems of various types for manual or automatic control of the tool-work motions.
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General Configuration of Common Machine Tools and Their Uses
Centre lathes: Lathes, especially center lathes are most widely used in
machine shops for their versatility. General configuration of center lathe is
shown in following Figure.

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The major components and their functions in a lathe machine are:
 Headstock: This heavy housing, being mounted on the bed at its left end, receives power
and motion from the motor and transmit the same to the workpieces through a clutch, speed
gear box (SGB) and the spindle contained in the headstock housing. Thus the headstock
enables rotating the workpiece at different speeds as required.
 Tailstock: This relatively smaller body can be shifted and fixed at any location on the lathe
bed coaxially with the headstock. The main functions of the tailstock are to provide support
to long and heavy workpieces and often hold and move some cutting tools for operations
like drilling, reaming etc.
 Carriage: This heavy part with a number of mechanisms and parts in it is made to slide
along the lathe bed. The carriage firmly holds the tools and moves it at different feed rates.
The carriage derives motions usually from the spindle through a feed gear box (FGB) and a
feed rod or lead screw.
 Bed: This rigid bulky horizontal beam stands firmly on two legs or columns. On the bed,
the headstock remains bolted, the tailstock is shifted and clamped and the carriage slides.
 Work-tool holding devices: The blanks are usually mounted in between centers or chucks,
where as cutting tools are generally held in the tool post which is mounted on the saddle.
Tools are also often held in the tailstock quill.
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The common and frequent uses of centre lathes include;
 facing, chamfering, grooving, parting etc.
 centering, drilling, reaming, boring etc.
 thread cutting; external and internal
 Knurling

Some common machining operating done in center lathe

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Shaping Machine: The general configuration of shaping machine is shown in the
following Figure:

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 The major components and their functions in a shaping machine are;
 Ram: This salient part is made to reciprocate horizontally along a fixed guide and
provides the cutting motion to the tool being mounted in front of the ram.
 Bed: This heavy rigid body moves slowly along the horizontal guides to provide feed
motions to the blank mounted on the bed.
 Housing (body) with base: This hollow but rigid large structure accommodates the
main driving mechanisms and provides support to the moving ram and the bed.
 Power Drive: source of power and motion with speed and feed change mechanisms.
Shaping machines are generally used for machining flat surfaces, grooving, splitting
etc. Because of poor productivity and process capability, use of shaping machines
have now-a-days been limited to only piece production and maintenance work in
small industries.

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Drilling Machine: Drilling machines
are used mainly to produce straight
cylindrical holes in solid bodies with
the help of drill bits. Drilling machines
widely vary in configuration and size.
The following Figure typically shows
configuration of a commonly used
column type drilling machine.

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Drilling machine (column type) is comprised of:
 Column: A long hollow but rigid vertical structure, which stands on its base and
provides support to the other components.
 Drilling Head: This box type body accommodates the power drive and the gear
boxes to adjust speed and feed.
 Spindle: This rod like component is rotated and axially moved along with the
coaxially mounted drill to impart both cutting motion and feed motion to the tool.
Drilling machines of different size and configuration are generally used
 mainly for originating or enlarging straight cylindrical holes.
 occasionally for boring, counter boring, counter sinking etc.
 often for cutting internal threads in objects like nuts using suitable attachments.

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Milling Machine: The general configuration of typical knee type conventional
milling machine with horizontal arbor is shown in the following Figure.

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Its major parts are:
 Milling Arbor: to hold and rotate the cutter
 Ram: to support the arbor
 Machine Table: on which job and job holding devices are mounted to provide the
feed motions to the job.
 Power drive with Speed and gear boxes: to provide power and motions to the tool-
work.
 Bed: which moves vertically upward and downward and accommodates the various
drive mechanisms.
 Column with base: main structural body to support other parts.
Milling machines are also quite versatile and can do several operations like
 making flat surfaces in different planes
 grooving, slitting and parting
 helical grooving
 forming 2-D and 3-D contoured surfaces.
Some common milling machine
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Major Aspects of Machine Tools
A machine tool manufacturing industry first makes a proper planning and critically
decides, after thorough survey of the market demands and socio-economy, the
machine tools of what category, type, capacity, precision, automation etc. they will
manufacture.
After selection, those machine tools are designed accordingly and then manufactured
according to the design and specification. At different stages and completion of
manufacture, each prototype is inspected and tested.
The customer or the users will first select from those manufactured and available
machine tools according to their need and satisfaction.
After purchase the machine tool is mounted and installed on a suitable foundation.
Before regular use or operation, that machine tool has to be properly commissioned
and tested.
During and after operations the performance of that machine tool is assessed mainly
in terms of productivity and product quality. If the performance is not satisfactory, the
causes are analyzed and the experts prepare a list of corrective measures to be
undertaken by the operator, maintenance section or even designer and manufactures
of that machine immediately or later for desirably good or better performance of that
machine tool. 17
Major Aspects Associated with Machine Tools

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 LECTURE-02: FUNCTIONAL
PRINCIPLESof MACHINE TOOLS
Basic Functions of Machine Tools
 The functions of the machine tools like lathes, drilling machines, shaping machines,
milling machines etc. are basically to produce or impart on the solid blank, one or
more desirably accurate and well finished geometrical surfaces like flat surfaces,
cylindrical surfaces or contoured surfaces, which are generally mathematically
expressible. Production of such surfaces in machine tools need appropriate relative
positioning and motions of the cutting tool and the workpiece.
Concept of Generatrix and Directrix
 Generation of Flat Surfaces: Fig.1 typically shows the principle, where on a flat
plain a straight line called Generatrix (G) is traversed in a perpendicular direction
called Directrix (D) resulting in a flat surface.

Fig.1: Generation of flat surfaces by Generatrix and Directrix

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 Generation of a Cylindrical Surface: The principles of generation of
various cylindrical surfaces (of revolution) are typically shown in the
following Figure where,
 a long straight cylindrical surface is obtained by a circle (G) being
traversed in the direction (D) parallel to the axis as indicated in Fig.2a.
 a cylindrical surface of short length is obtained by traversing a straight
line (G) along a circular path (D) as indicated in Fig.2b.
 form cylindrical surfaces are obtained by traversing a curved line (G)
along a circular path (D) as typically shown in Fig. 2c and Fig.2d.

Fig.2: Generation of cylindrical surfaces by (of revolution)

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Tool-work Motions in Machine Tools
The lines representing the Generatrix and Directrix are usually produced by the
locus of a point moving in specified directions and are actually obtained by the
motions of the tool-tip (point) relative to the work surface. Hence, for machining
flat or curved surfaces the machine tools need relative tool-work motions, which
are categorized in following two groups:
 Formative motions, namely
 Cutting motion (CM)
 Feed motion (FM)
 Auxiliary motions, such as
 Indexing motion of work or tool
 Additional feed motion as in gear shaping machine
 Relieving motion as in relieving lathe, gear shaper etc.

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 The Generatrix and Directrix, tool and the work and their motions generally
remain interconnected and in different ways for different machining work.
Such interconnections are typically shown in Fig.3a and Fig.3b for straight
turning. In case of straight longitudinal turning as shown in Fig.3a and
Fig.3b, the connections are:
Generatrix (G) Cutting motion (CM) - Work (W) [G-CM-W]
Directrix (D) Feed motion (FM) - Tool (T) [D-FM-T]

(a) Longitudinal Turning (b) Transverse Turning

Fig.3: Principle of turning (cylindrical surface)
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The Generatrix and Directrix, tool and
the work and their motions generally
remain interconnected and in different
ways for different machining work.
Such interconnections are typically
shown in Fig.4 for shaping.
Fig.4: Principle of producing
flat surface in shaping machine
 It is to be noted that while producing flat surfaces in shaping machine the Generatrix is
provided by the cutting motion imparted to the cutting tool and the Directrix is
provided by the feed motion of the work. The connections are;
G – CM – T
D – FM – W
 Flat surfaces are also produced by planing machines, mainly for large jobs, where the
cutting motion is imparted to the work and feed motion to the tool and the connections
will be:
G – CM – W
D – FM – T
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Sources of Generatrix and Directrix
The Generatrix and Directrix can be Obtained in Four Ways:
 Tracing (Tr) - Where the continuous line is attained as a trace or path of a moving
point as shown in Fig.5 and Fig.6.

(a) Longitudinal Turning (b) Transverse Turning Fig.6: Principle of producing flat
surface in shaping machine
Fig.5: Principle of turning (cylindrical surface)

 Forming (F) - Where the Generatrix is

simply the profile or form of the cutting
edge as indicated in Fig.7 (c and d)

Fig.7: Generation of cylindrical surfaces

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 Tangent Tracing (TTr) -
Where the Directrix is taken as
the tangent to the series of
paths traced by the cutting
edges as in milling, [Fig.8].

Fig.8: Directrix formed by tangent tracing in plain milling

Fig.8 typically shows the tool-work motions and the corresponding Generatrix (G) and
Directrix (D) while producing flat surface by a plain or slab milling cutter in a
conventional horizontal arbor milling machine. The G and D are connected here with
the tool-work motions as,
G – x – T – F
D – FM – W – T.Tr
CM – T
Here G and D are independent of the cutting motion and the G is the line of contact
between the milling cutter and the flat work surface. The present cutter being of roller
shape, G has been a straight line and the surface produced has also been flat. 26
 Generation (Gen): Here the Generatrix or
Directrix is obtained as an envelope being
tangent to the instantaneous positions of a
line or surface which is rolling on another
surface. Gear teeth generation by hobbing
or gear shaping is the example as can be
seen in Fig.9.
Form milling cutters will produce formed
surfaces as shown in Fig.10 where the ‘G’ is
nothing but the tool – form. Fig.9: Generatrix (or Directrix) in
gear teeth cutting by generation

Fig.10: Tool-work motions and G&D in form

milling (grooving) 27
For making holes in drilling
machines both the cutting motion
and the feed motion are imparted to
the cutting tool i.e., the drill bit
whereas the workpiece remains
stationary. This is shown in Fig.11.
The G and D are linked with the
tool-work as,
G – CM – T – Tr Fig.11: Tool-work motions and G&D in drilling (machine)
D – FM – T – Tr
Boring machines are mostly used for enlargement and finishing of existing cylindrical
holes. Boring machines are of two types:
Vertical boring machine-low or medium duty and high precision, e.g., jig boring machine
Horizontal axis boring machine-medium or heavy duty.
In respect of tool-work motions and G and D, vertical boring and drilling are same. In
horizontal boring machine the feed motion is imparted to the work to provide the Directrix
by Tracing.
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Generatrix, Directrix and Tool-work Motions for various Machining work in
different machine tools.
 The principles and methods of production of various features or types of jobs in
different machine tools in respects of Generatrix - Directrix and tool-work motions
have been shown in Table. The notations used in that table are;
G – generatrix CM – cutting motion T – tool Tr – tracing
D – directrix FM – feed motion W – workpiece F – forming
T.Tr – tangent tracing
Gen - generation

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LECTURE-03: ROLE AND FORMS OF
KINEMATIC STRUCTURE IN M/T
Role and General Constituents of the Kinematic Structure of Machine Tools
The desired formative and the auxiliary motions (along with power) of the tool-
work in machine tools are derived from the power source (S) with the help of a
number of kinematic chains (KC). Each of the tool-work motions need a separate
and usually different kinematic chain which is comprised of a number of
mechanisms or devices connected in series. For example, the kinematic chain that
derives job rotation from the main motor in a centre lathe is comprised of a belt-
pully system, a clutch, a speed gear box and the spindle which are connected in
series. Again, the gear box itself is made of number of mechanisms. The
Kinematic Chains usually accomplish:
 Transfer of motion (and power) from the source(s) to the tool and work
 Transformation of motion;
 rotation to rotation (different speed)
 rotation to translation (and often vice-versa) or oscillation
 direction of motion
 splits one speed into number of speeds (r.p.m.)
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 The overall system of all the Kinematic chains taken together in a machine tool is
called Kinematic structure of that machine tool. This is schematically depicted as
follows (Fig.14). In the figure, Si denotes power source (i=1,2, ……), KCi denotes
kinematic chains (i=1,2, ……), mij denotes mechanisms and Mi denotes motions
(i=1,2, ……). Mathematically the relations can be expressed as
KC1   m  j  1,2,3....... 
j
1j

KS   KC i  1,2,3.......    m
i
i
i j
ij

Where, S power sources

KC kinematic chains
m mechanisms
M motions
KS kinematic structure
Fig.14: Constitution of kinematic structure of machine tools
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Different forms of Machine Tool Kinematic Structure
It is known that the Kinematic structure of any machine tool consists of all its
kinematic chains which with the help of series of several mechanisms transmit
power and motions from the power sources, after desired transformations, to the
tool and work.
Kinematic structure of any machine tool may be broadly classified into three
types depending upon the nature of interconnections of the kinematic chains, as
follows:
 Elementary (kinematic) Structure: This is the simplest type of kinematic structure
where all the kinematic chains are independent and hence the number of kinematic
chains is equal to the number of power sources and also obviously equal to the number
of tool-work motions. This kind of structure can be symbolically denoted as Eii where,
E stands for elementary, the first i stands for number of power sources and second i
stands for number of kinematic chains (KCs). The value of i may be 1,2,3, …………

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 Complex (kinematic) structure: This is very common kinematic
structure where all the kinematic chains (KCs) are interconnected or
interdependent, and hence, the number power sources is only 1 (one)
irrespective of number of kinematic chains. Complex structures are
symbolically expressed by C1j, where, j = 2,3,4 …….. indicating
number of kinematic chains.
 Compound (Kinematic) structure: It is actually combination of E and C
type structures. Here, some of the kinematic chains (KCs) are
independent and some are interdependent. Compound structures are
symbolically expressed as Kij, where, I is the number of power sources
(i = 2,3,4 ……) and j is the number of kinematic chains (KCs) (j= 3,4,5
……). For example, K23 = C12 + E11

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Examples of application of different types of Kinematic Structures in Machine Tools
Elementary Structures (Eii): One typical application of E22 is schematically shown in the
following Fig.15. The cutting motion and the feed motion, imparted to the job and the tool
respectively, are provided from two individual motors by two independent Kinematic chains.
Such lathes are used when the feed rate needs precision control by DC or stepper motor
independent of cutting velocity.

Fig.15: Kinematic chains for the tool-work motions in centre lathe

Other examples of Eii structure
E11 - for broaching machine usually having only one motion (tool) by only one Kinematic chain
and one power source.
E44 - for 3-axis CNC milling machine, where the spindle rotation and the three feed motions are
provided by four independent sets of power source and Kinematic chain
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Complex Structure (C1j): Two typical applications of C12 and C13 are shown in
Fig.16 and Fig.17 respectively. Fig.16 visualizes a typical C12 type complex
Kinematic structure of a centre lathe where the two Kinematic chains are
interdependent and derives the cutting motion and the feed motion from only one
motor.

Fig.16: Typical complex Kinematic structure of type C12 for centre lathe

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Some lathes have provision for simultaneous longitudinal and cross feed for the
tool for turning taper etc. The Kinematic structure of such lathe would be C13 type
as indicated in Fig.17, where three kinematic chains, producing rotation of the job
and two feed motions of the tool are interconnected having only one power
source.

Fig.17: Typical complex kinematic structure of type C13 for Centre lathe
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Fig.18 visualizes another application of C13 structure in Hobbing Machine while
cutting the teeth of straight toothed spur gears. There are three tool work motions
needed; cutting motion, CM (tool rotation) Indexing motion, IM (gear blank
rotation) and tool (hob) feed motion, FM.

Fig.18: Kinematic structure (C13) of Hobbing Machine

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 All these three motions are derived from a single motor by three interconnected
kinematic chains;
(i) Motor --- KC1  rotation of tool (hob), CM
(ii) Tool rotation --- KC2  indexing motion IM of blank
(iii) Blank rotation --- KC3  tool feed motion FM
where, KC1 → C1 – C2 – SGB – C3 - C4
KC2 → C4 – C5 – D – 1GB – C6
KC3 → C6 – FGB – C7 – feed screw
SGB, IGB and FGB are the speed gear box, indexing gear box and feed gear box
respectively. The nodal points indicated by C1, C2, C3 etc. are also some
mechanisms. D is a summation (differential) mechanism. Actually, the kinematic
structure of Gear Hobbing Machines is C14 type having another interdependent
kinematic chain needed for cutting the teeth of helical gear.

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Compound Structure (Kij): An application of a simple type compound Kinematic
structure, K23 is schematically shown in Fig.19. Here the Kinematic chains,
providing work feed (rotation) motion and the tool feed motion are interdependent
and connected to a motor, M1 and thus constitute C12 structure. Grinding motion
provided by another motor, M2 can be taken as E11. Thus combination of C12 and
E11 results in the compound structure K23 (= C12 + E11). Similarly, kinematic
structures like E55, C15 and K24 also exist and used in different machine tools.

Fig.19: Compound kinematic structure of type K23

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Mechanisms commonly used in Machine Tool Kinematic Systems: Mechanisms
are generally referred to the devices or systems that are used for transformation of
motion from one form to another desired form and / or transmission of motion from
one point to another desired point. For example, screw-nut system is a very common
mechanism that enables transformation of rotation (of the screw) into translation or
linear motion (of the nut). Belt pulley system, with open belt and two pulleys of same
diameter, is another common mechanism which only transmits rotation from one
point to another point. The following classes of mechanisms are most widely used in
machine tools ;
 Mechanisms for transmission of rotation and its transformation w.r.t. speed, direction
and axis of rotation i.e. Rotation to Rotation.
 Mechanisms for transformation of rotation to translation or reciprocation; i.e.
Rotation to Translation.
 Differential mechanisms for summation of two or three motions into one;

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Mechanisms for transforming rotation to rotation: These mechanisms refer to those elementary
mechanical units that are used to change rotation in respect of one or more speeds, direction,
location of action and axis of rotation. Such mechanisms are further classified as;
 Stepped Drive or Stepless Drive
 Non-positive Drive or Positive Drive.

Stepped drive and Stepless Drive: Stepped drives refer to having a discrete number and values of
speeds (rpm) as output from a given input speed i.e. if input speed is NI, output speed(s), No will be
N1, N2, N3 ------- Nn. Whereas stepless drive refers to deriving any speed Ni as output within a
range, say Nl (lowest) to Ng (greatest), from a given single input speed, NI, i.e., for NI, No = Ni
where Nl ≤ Ni ≤ Ng
Fig.20 schematically presents the basic difference between stepped drive and stepless drive.
However, stepped drives have wider use in conventional machine tools. Stepless drive helps in using
the desired optimum speed.

Fig.20: Difference between

stepped drive and stepless drive

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Non-positive Drives and Positive Drives: The drive, where there are chances of slip and
non-constancy of transmission ratio, is considered non-positive, viz. belt -pulley drive,
friction roller drive etc. Whereas, positive drive refers to prevention of slip and consistent
transmission ratio, viz. gear drives. The best example is wide application of belt (mostly
Vee type and often flat type) and pulley (step or cone type) system in machine tools. The
main advantages are:
 safety, by slipping at overloading
 easy transmission over longer distance
 prevention of transfer of vibration etc. from the motors to the machine tool.
The major limitation of such drive is chances of slip and undesirable change in
transmission ratio. Hence non positive drives, are avoided where motions need to be
synchronized as in rotations of the gear blank and the cutter in Hobbing Machine. The best
example of positive drives are a follows:
 Chain and sprocket system
 Gearing system for transmission (as well as transformation) of rotation between;
parallel shafts
non parallel shafts whose axes, if extended, intersect
non parallel and non intersecting shafts 49
Gearing systems for transformation and transmission of rotation

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Stepless drive
 For best machining economy, the speed (rpm) of rotation of the blank (in turning) or
the cutter (milling, drilling etc.) need to be optimized considering the tool-work
materials, tool geometry, environment, machine capacity and the tool / work diameter.
But this calculated optimum speed (rpm) may not be available in step drive.
 For instance, if in a turning operation, the optimum job-speed comes up to be 890
(say) rpm the nearest lower and higher spindle-speeds available (in case of stepped
drive) in that lathe may be 625 rpm and 900 rpm, then the operator is compelled to
take 625 rpm and thereby huge amount (about 30%) of loss in MRR i.e., productivity
and hence in economy will occur. Such losses can be overcome by stepless drive. This
is more essential in case of costly heavy duty and modern CNC machine tools.
 However, non positive stepless drives like cone pulley and friction rollers etc. are not
used in machine tools. Even positive type stepless drive like PIV (positively infinity
variable) drive are also not used now-a-days in any machine tool. Presently the
benefits of stepless drive for both speed and feed are attained by using variable speed
(frequency) AC motors, DC or AC servomotors etc.
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Mechanisms for transforming rotation to translation: Various types of mechanisms
are used in different machine tools for transforming rotary motion into linear or translator motion,
especially to attain controlled tool/work cutting motions and feed motions. The following
mechanisms, schematically shown in Fig.21 are widely used for the aforesaid purpose:

Fig.21: Different mechanism for transforming of rotary motion into linear motion 52
Screw-nut System: Typical applications of this mechanism in machine
tools are;
 Lathes - cross feed and longitudinal feed (using half nut) of the tool(s)
 Shaping and Planing machines - feed motions of the work-table and tool(s)
respectively.
 Drilling machines - vertical positioning of the radial arm and drilling head in radial
drilling machine
 Milling machines - job feed motions; longitudinal, cross and vertical.
 Grinding machines - positioning or feed motions (cross and vertical) of the workpiece
 CNC machine tools - tool or work feed motions, preferably by recirculating balls type
screw-nut system
Rack-pinion system: Rack-pinion mechanisms are also used in machine tool
Kinematic system. Some common applications are;
 Lathe – longitudinal travel of the carriage over the bed.
 Drilling machine – feed travel of the drilling spindle
 Planing machine – reciprocation of the large table with the workpiece
 Small surface grinding machine – longitudinal reciprocation of the worktable 53
Crank and connecting rod mechanism: These mechanisms are often used to
produce reciprocating motion of the cutting tool from rotary motion, in slotting
machine, gear shaping machine etc. where stroke length need to be large. This
system is simple and inexpensive but resilient and do not have quick return effect.
Eccentric mechanism: This mechanism, similar to crank and connecting rod
mechanism is used in power saw machine and gear shaping machine requiring
more rigidity but shorter stroke length.
Oscillating lever mechanism: This mechanism having quick return effect is very
commonly used in shaping machine.
Whitworth mechanism: This is very similar to oscillating lever mechanisms but
provides longer stroke length and consistent quick return effect irrespective of
stroke length.
Cam and cam-follower system: These mechanisms are generally used in semi-
automatic and automatic (fixed or hard automation) machine tools e.g., single
spindle and multi spindle automatic lathes to provide short length linear tool
travels from rotation of the cam shaft(s).
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The following types of cams are generally used in automatic (fixed type) lathes
 Plate cams –
disc type eccentric cam
disc type with desired peripheral profiles, mostly archemedian spiral (for constant
feed rate)
 Cylindrical cams: Typical applications are in single spindle lathe for feeding the
radially moving tools and to operate the single revolution clutches for turret indexing
and changing spindle-speed and in swiss type automatic lathe for headstock travel.
 Lobe cams: These are nothing but small steel plates, which can be easily replaced and
shifted to desired positions on the periphery of a rotating drum. Such cams are
typically used to control the movements of the cutting tools in multispindle automatic
lathes.
 Wedge cam: It is like a taper rod or plate which is made to reciprocate by a rotating
system and produces in the follower small oscillatory motion synchronized with the
other tool-work motions. The relieving motion of the cutter (or the blank) in gear
shaping machines is an example of application of such wedge cams.
55
Other Mechanisms used in Machine Tools: These are basically mechanical
devices designed and used to produce an output motion from more than one
simultaneous input motion. The symbol and two typical configurations of such
devices used in machine tools are schematically shown in Fig.22.

Fig.22: Principle of differential mechanism and their two common configurations 56

 The input and output motions (speed) of such differential mechanisms are related
as, No = (1-e) NA + eNI
where, No is the single output speed (rpm), NI is the input speed, NA is the arm
speed (another input) and e is the transmission ratio between the input gear and
the output gear.
No
e ( for internal gear)
NI
For example, if NA = 100 (rpm), NI = 10 and e = -1, output, No will be 190 rpm. One
very common application of such differential mechanism (four level gears type) is in gear
hobbing machine while cutting teeth of helical spur gears. Several other mechanical devices
or mechanisms are also used in some machine tools such as,
Telescopic shaft and universal joints
Over running clutch
Single revolution clutch
Ratchet and paul
Geneva mechanism
57
 LECTURE-03: FUNCTIONAL
PRINCIPLES of MACHINE TOOLS
Machine Tool Power Drives
Power sources used in Machine Tools
 Any machining work essentially needs relative motions and cutting power for the
desired tool-work interactions. All machine tools must possess one or more power
sources to provide such cutting power and tool-work motions.
 Machine tool drives actually refer to the source(s) of motion, torque and power and the
kinematic system(s) that transform and transmit that motions and power to the tool and
work for necessary machining work. Machine tool drive also includes the system that
is used to regulate speed and feed.
Machine tool drives may be one of the following types:
 Electro-Mechanical Type - more common where main source(s) is electrical motor(s)
from which power and motions are transmitted to the tool and work through several
mechanisms.
Electro-mechanical type machine tool drives comprise generally of electrical motor(s)
and a number of independent or interdependent kinematic chains of several
mechanisms.

59
 Electro-Hydraulic Type - where the power and motions are derived from electrical
motor(s) and transmitted through several hydraulic systems. Electro-hydraulic drives
usually consist of
one or more hydraulic power packs, each comprising of a suitable hydraulic
pump like vane pump, radial piston pump etc being driven by an electric motor
and the allied reservoir, strainer, foot valve and a relief valve
hydraulic motor or actuator, generally piston-cylinder system
a hydraulic circuitry comprising several valves for transmitting and regulating
pressure, force and travelling speeds and directions
Some heavy duty and precision machine tools like broaching machines, grinding
machines etc. are designed to have both mechanical and hydraulic drives.
Electrical motors are most widely used as power source(s) in machine tools. The
motor of different type and size are used depending upon the type and application of
he machine tools.
 Combination of Electro-Mechanical and Electro-Hydraulic Drives

60
Machine tool drives, in terms of tool-work motions, are further classified as,
 Stepped drive or stepless drive
 Positive type drive or non-positive type drive
The types of electric motors, which are generally used for electro-mechanical
drives in machine tools, are:
 for stepped drives
 induction motors having only one or two fixed speeds
 for stepless drive
 variable speed induction motor with frequency converter
 DC motors
 Ward-Leonard system of motor-generator-motor set.
 for NC and CNC machines
 stepper motor
 AC and DC servo motors

61
 Estimation of Power Requirement for Machine Tool drives
 Machine tool drives need enough power
 to provide cutting power for chip formation (separation)
 to overcome friction forces and power consumed at the sliding surfaces.
 to overcome inertia forces
 for auxiliary motions and work
 to accommodate dynamic and overload factors.
For instance, the maximum power requirement, Um from the motor in a centre
lathes, may be estimated from [Ucmax + U fmax + U Imax ]  f d  f ol
Um =
ηe × ηm
Where, Ucmx = maximum power required for machining = ( PzVc + PxVf) max
PzVc = cutting power required
PxVf = feed power required
Ufmax= max. friction force
UImax= max. inertia force
fd, fol = dynamic and overload factors (in the order of 1.0 to 1.25)
and ηe, ηm = electrical and mechanical efficiency of the entire drive systems. 62
Hydraulic Drive in Machine Tools
 Hydraulic drive is employed in some
machine tools requiring noiseless smooth
operation and heavy forces during tool-
work interactions. Hydraulic drive is
generally incorporated for tool or work
feed motions. For hydraulic drive, a
machine tool needs use of one or more
hydraulic power pack, where basically an
oil as hydraulic fluid is pressurized by a
pump-motor set and that high pressure
fluid, after desirably regulated by a relief Fig.12: Principle of hydraulic copy turning
valve, is used to drive one or more
hydraulic motors, preferably linear type
like piston-cylinder system. Occasionally
the piston remains stationary and the
cylinder holding the tool or the job moves
as in hydraulic copying lathe (Fig.12).
63
Fig.13 schematically shows a typical hydraulically driven machine tool where the
rotating drill is moved at steplessly varying feed rate. The hydraulic fluid at high
pressure raised by pump and regulated by relief valve is passed into the piston-
cylinder type hydraulic motor via direction control valve. The speed of travel of
the piston i.e, tool-feed rate is regulated by a throttle valve assisted by pressure
reducing valve.

Fig.13: Circuitry and kinematic system of hydraulically driven machine tool

64
Relative advantages of hydraulic drive are:
smooth operation
 precision (stepless) speed control
 less jerk, vibration and noise
 hardly needs separate lubrication
 lesser wear and tear
 easier connections by flexible tubings
In spite of such merits, wide application of hydraulic drive in machine tools is
constrained for the follow reasons:
 needs more floor space
 chances of leakage of fluid, which not only causes inconveniences and hazards but
also affects feed rate control
 more difficulties in repair and maintenance.
Hydraulic drives are preferably and often essentially used in some machine tools
which need high strength and rigidity and stepless precision control of feed
motions without jerk and noise under heavy cuts; such as heavy duty precision
grinding machines, broaching machine and heavy duty boring machines.
65
Course Teacher:
Ahmed Imtiaz Rais
Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University
Dinajpur, Bangladesh
Introduction

The beds, columns, bases and housing are together called

the structure of a machine tool
It also form the backbone of the machine tools
The weight of the structure is around three fourth of the
weight of a machine tool
In modern machine tools the structure is normally lighter.
The structure transmits the static load (due to various parts
such as the headstock) and the operational load (caused by
the cutting force and by power transmission) to the support.
Classification
According to the purpose:
 Bed. frame works etc.
 Bases, bed plates
 Housing, boxes, columns etc.
 Casing and covers.
According to the method of manufacture:
 Cast
 Welded
 Partly cast, partly welded.
Accordance with the pattern of the transmission of the operational
loads:
 Closed
 Open structure
Requirements of a machine tool structure
The suitability of a machine tool structure is judged from the
following standpoints:
sufficiently high strength (high static and dynamic rigidity)
The shape and layout of the machine tool should
 facilitate easy chip removal,
 easy machining operation (with least possible fatigue of the
operator and his
 permit easy and safe observation of the cutting operation,
 permit easy assembly and dismantling of parts and
 allow easy accessibility and maintenance of the machine tool.
cost considerations,
easiness in installation and transportation and
aesthetic appeal.
Strength, static and dynamic rigidity

The forces and the torque are caused by the cutting forces,
the drive elements (such as belts, gears etc ) and the
reactions in the bearings
For machine parts running at high speeds the dynamic load,
causing forced self exited or/and parametric vibrations, is
also important
In the case of resonance vibrations, the magnitude of stress
is very high.
The actual stress is kept low with the help of various re-
enforcing stiffeners
Strength, static and dynamic rigidity
It was earlier thought that heavy (machine tool) structure is
necessary to dampen the vibration
Experiments shows that structure should rather be light and rigid
Consequently, the modern machine tools structure are more and
more made of welded sheet structure and have suitably arranged
ribs
Hence the different pans of a machine tool structure do not
always have uniform cross-section
Apertures or holes are brought in the structure, for example for
easy removal of chips, easy assembly and dismantling of the
machine tools
The apertures decrease the rigidity, specially the torsional rigidity
to a grant extent.
Strength, static and dynamic rigidity

Fig. Torsional deflection of box-type beams with an aperture in

one side (Bielefeld)
Strength, static and dynamic rigidity

The reduction of rigidity caused by the apertures can be to

a large extent neutralized through suitable arrangement of
stiffeners
The straight traverse stiffeners increase the torsional rigidity
by 34%, but its effectiveness (rigidity to weight ratio) does
not increase
Investigation of V. Kaminskaya and D.N. Reschtow on lathe
beds have shown that the bed height should be
approximately equal to bed width, which has the biggest
influence on the rigidity of the bed
Strength, static and dynamic rigidity
Materials of the structural components

Cast iron is most widely used as structural material

Modern machine tools are also made of steel
Both the materials have economic and technological
advantages and disadvantages
Researchers have shown that materials like ceramics,
different types of concrete, granite can be good materials as
well
Their comparative advantages depend on:
 material properties and its availability
 manufacturing process and
 cost economy.
Materials of the structural components

The selection of a certain particular material for the

construction of machine tool structures is based on the
following factors:
 high static stiffness (deformation against bending and
torsion),
 good dynamic rigidity (obtained through high natural
frequency and high damping ratio),
 good machinability,
 low coefficient of thermal expansion,
 dimensional stability during the life of the machine
tool (specially resistance to wear),
 reduced weight (for easiness to transport)
 easy availability
 sliding properties (low friction and no stick-slip effect)
and
 low cost in lot production.
Manufacturing Processes

While manufacturing machine tool structures with a given

material, it should be kept in mind to construct the same
with least material.
Points to be kept in mind are:
 while manufacturing the structure the minimum wall thickness
required must be maintained
 in casting sharp change-over of cross-section may cause casting
faults
 Ordinary sand casting needs more machining allowance
 Internal stresses are to be remove as for as possible
 Production facilities and manpower
Different Materials Used

Different materials are used for manufacturing of machine

components. Study advantages, disadvantages and
application of each of the following materials:
 Cast Iron (Cl)
 Steel
 Ceramics
 Concrete
 Epoxy Concrete
 Polymer-impregnated Concrete (PIC)
 Ferro-Cement
 Fiber Reinforced Cemented Composites
Effect of chips on the design of the structure
Modern machine tools are designed to remove material at a high
rate which has two distinct consequences:
 it results in a very high volume of chip formation
 chip acts as a source of heat
Thermal expansion of the machine structure causes the
development of internal stress
It also causes loss of dimensional accuracy
This is avoided by incorporating modification in the design of the
machine tool structure and by the use of mechanized chip
(material) handling equipments.
The space between the stiffeners (webs) can be sufficiently large to
facilitate free falling of the chips.
It can be further improved if the bed is inclined.
The quick removal of large volume of chips is attained by screw or
belt conveyors
Installation of Machine Tool

The installation of machine tools also influences the design of

machine tool structure
Machine tool, being a source of chatter and other vibrations, may
cause vibration of other equipments and machines
In earlier days, a heavy mass was bolted to the structure to
reduce resonance frequency
This method has two main problems:
 Cost involved in the foundation
 Reduced flexibility in factory layout
However, machine tools are nowadays more slick less weight and
are placed on spring with dampers.
These dampers also reduces outside vibration (Passive isolation)
Installation of Machine Tool

Fig.: Machine tool structure bolted to the foundation

Bearings
 BEARINGS- INTRODUCTION

• Bearings are machine elements which are

used to support a rotating member called
as shaft.
• They transmit the load from a rotating
member to a stationary member known as
frame or housing.
 Bearing Motions
Common motions permitted by bearings are:
• Axial rotation e.g. shaft rotation
• Linear motion e.g. Carriage over the
bed, drawer in the table
• spherical rotation e.g. ball and socket
joint
• Hinge motion e.g. door
 Bearing Loads
• Radial Load
• Thrust/Axial Load
• Combination of both.

Fr

Radial load Thrust load Radial &Thrust load

 Bearing Loads-Radial load

The bearings that support the

shafts of motors and pulleys are
subject to a radial load.
 Bearing Loads-Thrust load

The bearings in this stool

are subject to a thrust load
 Bearing Loads-Combination of Radial
&Thrust load

The bearings in a car wheel are subject

to both thrust and radial loads.
 Bearing Classification
On the basis of contact they have between
the rotating and the stationary member

• Plain/Journal bearings
(Sliding contact)

• Rolling/Antifriction bearings
(Rolling contact)
 Plain / Journal Bearing

Advantages : Disadvantages:

It takes up less space. It has higher frictional resistance

It has a rigid construction It is more difficult to lubricate
It will carry loads more effectively There are limited choice of designs
It is suitable for larger diameter shafts available
It is cheap to manufacture and cost less.
They operate more silently.
They have good shock load capacity.
Sliding contact- Sleeve Bearing

Solid Sleeve Slit Sleeve Split Sleeve

Adjustable to Suitable for
Suitable to compensate large diameters
radial load wear shafts
only
 Rolling Bearings
The concept behind a ball bearing is very simple:
• Things roll better than they slide
• Two surfaces can roll over each other, the
friction is greatly reduced.
• Bearings reduce friction by providing
smooth metal balls or rollers, and a
smooth inner and outer metal surface for
the balls to roll against.
• These balls or rollers "bear" the load,
allowing the device to spin smoothly.
 Rolling Bearings
Advantages
• The rolling bearings have a lower frictional
resistance than plain bearings
• The Lubrication of rolling bearings is easier
because they can be "grease packed'
• A greater choice of roller bearing designs are
available than for plain bearings
Disadvantages
• It takes up more space than plain bearings
• The rolling bearings are not as rigid as plain
bearings
• More nosier in operation than plain bearings
Types of Antifriction Bearings
➢ Ball Bearings
➢ Roller, Needle and Taper Bearings
 Ball bearings

Cutaway view of a ball bearing

 Ball bearings
• In a ball bearing, the load is transmitted from the
outer race to the ball and from the ball to the
inner race
• Since the ball is a sphere, it only contacts the
inner and outer race at a very small point,
which helps it spin very smoothly
• But it also means that there is not very much
contact area holding that load, so if the bearing
is overloaded, the balls can deform and spoil the
bearing
• Less expensive and suitable for lighter loads
and applications
Rolling Element Bearing Parts

Outer Race

Inner Race

Bore Ball

Cage or Separator
 Types of Ball Bearing
• Double Row angular Contact Ball Bearing:
– Construction is similar to O- assembly
– They can take both high radial and axial forces
 Types of Ball Bearing
• Thrust Ball Bearing:
– They are designed to take
axial load only.
– Turning, drilling, milling and
other operations generate
axial forces.
 Types of Roller Bearing
• Cylindrical Roller Bearing
• Taper Roller Bearing
• Needle Bearing
• Roller Thrust Bearing
 Cylindrical Roller Bearing

➢ Common roller bearings use cylinders of slightly greater length

than diameter.
➢ Roller bearings typically have higher radial load capacity than
ball bearings, but a low axial capacity and higher friction under
axial loads.
➢ If the inner and outer races are misaligned, the bearing capacity
often drops quickly compared to either a ball bearing
 Cylindrical Roller Bearing
Advantages
• They can carry greater radial loads
• The geometric shape of the rolling element
can be varied
• They are having greater area of contact
with the race ways
Disadvantages
• Not suitable to take much thrust load
• Expensive
 Taper Roller Bearings

➢ Tapered roller bearings use conical rollers that run on conical races.
➢ Tapered roller bearings support both radial and axial loads, and
generally can carry higher loads than ball bearings due to greater
contact area.
➢ Taper roller bearings are extensively used in Machine spindles and
gear boxes using helical gears
➢ The disadvantage of this bearing is that due to manufacturing
complexities, tapered roller bearings are usually more expensive than
ball bearings
 Needle Bearing

A variation of the roller type of bearing is called a needle bearing, uses

cylinders with a very small diameter.
This allows the bearing to fit into tight places.
Advantages
•Smaller diameter rollers (Needles) enable larger area of contact and greater
load carrying capacity.
•Less space is occupied
Disadvantages
•More area of contact resulted in more frictional resistance to motion.
 Roller Thrust Bearing

Roller thrust bearings like the one illustrated can support large
thrust loads.
They are often found in gear sets like machine transmissions
between gears, and between the housing and the rotating shafts.
The helical gears used in most transmissions have angled teeth
and this causes a thrust load that must be supported by this type of
bearing
 Purpose for Preload
• The necessary radial internal clearance in an assembled ball
bearing may increase noise and rotational vibration in an
application due to the movement of the balls inside the
bearings.
• To combat the relative movement of the balls, an axial
“preload” should be applied to the bearing
• Preload increases the stiffness of the bearing and reduces
potential noise and vibration.
• The appropriate preload force depends on the size of the ball
bearing.
• Higher preload will increase the bearing stiffness but
excessive preload may result in premature failures.
• If insufficient preload is applied, vibration and fretting wear
may occur inside of the bearing.
Preload
DIFFERENT TYPES OF JIGS
AND FIXTURES
 INTRODUCTION
▪ Jig and Fixture are production work holding
devices.
▪ They are special purpose tools used for large
scale production by semi skilled operator.
▪ They can also be used for small scale
production when the workpiece is difficult to hold
without special equipment.
 INTRODUCTION
They are used in industry:
▪ To reduce cost of production
▪ To increase productivity
▪ To assure accuracy of component
▪ For mass production of component on its
repeatability basis
▪ For fully or partial automation of work
▪ To increase the versatility of the machine tool
▪ Improve quality with greater machining accuracy
 INTRODUCTION
▪ Jigs and fixtures are so closely related that the
terms are sometimes confused or used
interchangeably.
▪ The difference is in the way the tool is guided to
the work piece.
▪ Fixture locates, holds and supports the work
securely so the required machining operation
can be performed
▪ Jig not only locates and supports the workpiece
but also guides the cutting tool
 INTRODUCTION
• The main construction difference between a jig
and a fixture is mass

• Because of the increased tool forces , fixtures

are built stronger and heavier than a jig would
be for the same part

• They are made basically the same way as far

as locators and positioners are concerned
 INTRODUCTION
• The term jig should be used only for devices
employed while drilling, reaming or tapping holes
• It is not fastened to the machine on which it is used
• So it may be moved around on the table of the
drilling machine to bring each bushing under the
drill
• It is not fastened to the drill press table for small
w.p, however holes above 0.25 inch in diameter are
to be drilled, it is usually necessary to fasten the jig
to the table securely.
 INTRODUCTION
• Jigs make it possible to drill, ream and tap
holes at much greater speeds and with
greater accuracy
• Skilled workers are not required
• Responsibility for the accuracy of hole
location is taken from the operator and given
to the jig
• Jigs physically limit and control the path of
the cutting tool with the help of bushings
 INTRODUCTION
• For machining operations like milling,
shaping, turning, broaching, etc., the term
fixture should be used
• A fixture hold and locates the work during
machining but does not contain special
arrangements for guiding the cutting tools
• A fixture is also fixed to the machine
• The accuracy of machining depends upon
the operator and construction of machine tool
 Materials for Jigs and fixtures
Following points for selection:
▪ Easily available
▪ Ability to withstand the stress expected in service
▪ Ability to retain its shape and size
▪ Corrosion resistance
➢ Cast iron is generally used as materials for jig and
fixture, light materials like brass, bronze, steels,
plastic can also be used.
➢ The choice of the proper material can also be
selected when the operating conditions are known.
 FIXTURES
• Used to hold workpiece during machining

• Fixture is always fixed to the m/c table

• Classified by the type of machine on which

they are used
VISE FIXTURES
MILLING MACHINE VISES
 VISE FIXTURES
• Sometimes standard m/c vises are adapted
with special jaws

• Special jaws are designed for workpieces

with irregular contours

• Used with various types of m/c tools

SPECIAL VISE JAWS
 MILLING FIXTURES
• Used to hold the w.piece in correct relation
to the cutter
• Attached to m/c table with T-slots

PARTS OF MILLING FIXTURE:

(1) Base (2) Clamps (3) Rest Blocks
(4) Locating Points (5) Gaging Surfaces
BASE:
• Consists of base plate with flat & accurate lower
surface
• Various components are mounted on it
• It mates with the surface of milling m/c table
• Used as reference plane
• Has slots to clamp fixture to the table
• It has a keyway running lengthwise in the base for
two keys used to align the fixture on the milling
machine table
BASE:
• The fixture is attached to the milling-
machine table and held in alignment by
two keys attached to the fixture base
• These keys fit very closely into the T slot
of the mill table
• The fixture is held firmly to the table by T
bolts or hold-down clamps
Underside of Mill-fixture Base
Data required before starting the
design of a milling fixture
• The type of milling machine
• Dimensions of T slots
• The center-to-center distance of T slots
• The dimensions of the milling machine table
• The length of table travel in all three feed
movements

❖The center-to-center distance of T slots varies

from machine to machine
❖If the fixture is to be used on more than one
machine, it may be well to hold the fixture with
strap clamps
Strap Clamp Holding Fixture to
Machine Table
 Effect of Cutting Forces on
Workpiece at Beginning of Cut
• Cutting forces exerted by a milling cutter
change as the cutter leaves or enters the
work and throw an extra load on clamps
• Clamps must not loosen by vibration
caused by interrupted cutting of mill cutter
• Interrupted cutting occurs at the beginning
and end of the cut
 Effect of Cutting Forces on
Workpiece at Beginning of Cut
(a) Conventional milling: work is lifted up at
beginning of cut
(b) Climb milling: work is forced down at one
end but lifted up at the other
 TYPES OF MILLING FIXTURES

• Milling Fixtures can be classified in a

variety of ways:
(1) According to the way the workpiece is
clamped, such as hand-clamping fixtures,
power-clamping fixtures, toggle fixtures
etc.
(2) According to the way the workpiece is
located, such as center fixtures, V-block
fixtures etc.
 TYPES OF MILLING FIXTURES

(3) According to the method of presenting the

workpiece to the cutter, as rotary fixtures
where the workpiece is rotated under the
cutter. Indexing fixtures where the workpiece
is indexed into the next position during the
machining cycle.
(4) According to the milling operation performed
on work, such as face-milling fixtures, slab-
milling fixtures, slotting fixtures, string-milling
fixtures etc.
 MILLING FIXTURES
VACUUM FIXTURE:
• It’s a suction holding device
• Used where holding without distortion is
vital
• Uses a vacuum pump
• Part acted upon by atm. Pressure
• It exerts a downward force on all sides
exposed to vacuum
VACUUM FIXTURE
GRINDING FIXTURES (Magnetic
chucking devices)
• Workpiece can be quickly mounted &
removed
• Distortion caused by mechanical clamping
eliminated
• Mild steel plates separated by nonferrous
ones
• Magnetic flux passes from magnetic chuck
through steel plates and workpiece
GRINDING FIXTURES
GRINDING FIXTURES (use of
magnetic chuck parallels)
GRINDING FIXTURES (use of
magnetic-chuck V block)
GRINDING FIXTURES
 LATHE FIXTURES
Three-jaw Universal Chucks:
• Three-jaw chucks used for circular and
hexagonal work
• Three-jaw chucks are usually self-centering
• Three jaws move simultaneously when adjusted
• This simultaneous movement is caused by a
scroll plate into which all three jaws fit
• They are usually provided with two set of jaws,
one for outside chucking and the other for
inside chucking
THREE-JAW UNIVERSAL
CHUCK
 LATHE FIXTURES
Four-jaw Independent Chucks:
• 4-jaw chucks are usually non-self-centering
• Each jaw can be moved independently
• Ideal for gripping round, square, hexagonal and
irregularly shaped workpieces
• The jaws can be reversed to hold work by
inside diameter
• Multi-jaw chucks (6 or 8 jaws) for special
purpose and high standards of accuracy
FOUR-JAW AND SIX-JAW
CHUCKS
 LATHE FIXTURES
Magnetic Chuck:
• It has the advantage of holding iron or steel
parts
• The parts that are too thin or that may be
damaged if held in a conventional chuck
• Suitable only for light operations
• A magnetic chuck consists of an accurately
centered permanent magnet face
MAGNETIC CHUCKS
 LATHE FIXTURES
Faceplates:
• Circular metal plate fixed to the end of spindle
• Used to hold work that is too large or of such a
shape that it cannot be held in a chuck or
between centers
• It has slots or threaded holes
• Workpiece is clamped using T-nuts in the slots
or threaded holes
FACEPLATE AND T-NUTS
FACEPLATES
FACEPLATES
 LATHE FIXTURES
Collet Chucks:
• that forms a collar around the object to be held and exerts a strong
clamping force on the object when it is tightened.
• A external collet is a sleeve with a (normally) cylindrical inner
surface and a conical outer surface
• Used for very small parts
 LATHE FIXTURES
Collet Chucks:
 LATHE FIXTURES
Mandrels:
• Mandrels are internal locators used for machining of the
outside diameter of the workpiece concentric with finished
bores.
• Mandrels are shafts specially made to hold work to be
machined concentrically around a previously bored or drilled
hole
• There are two general types, plain and expanding
• Plain mandrels have a 0.006-in. taper per foot
• There must be a mandrel for each hole size
 LATHE FIXTURES
Plain Mandrels:
 TYPES OF DRILL JIGS
• Open Jigs:
Used for simple operations
Work is done only on one side of the part

• Closed or Box Jigs:

Used for parts that must be machined on
more than one side
Operations Common to a Drill Jig
 TEMPLATE JIGS
▪ It is the form of jig consisting of a suitable
material having holes for correct location
▪ The plate serve as a template which is fixed on
the component to be drilled
▪ Template jigs are normally used for accuracy
rather than speed.
▪ Used for locating hole pattern on large
workpieces
▪ Usually not clamped (self-clamping)
▪ It is the least expensive
▪ Simplest type of jigs
TEMPLATE JIGS
 PLATE JIGS
▪ It is the modified form of the template jig with
jig bushes incorporated on the template
▪ Consist of a single bush plate with a provision
for locating and clamping of w.p.
▪ They have built-in clamps to hold the work
▪ They use a flat plate containing bushing as
their main structural member
▪ All the details are attached and referenced to
this plate
▪ May or may not have legs
 PLATE JIGS
• Easy part loading and unloading, chip removal by
providing clearance b/w plate and the w.p.
• Also called open jig
• Slip bushings for operations other than drilling
• Thin parts stacked for drilling several parts at one time
• These jigs are sometimes made with legs to raise the jig
off the table for large work.
• This style is called a table jig
• The feet provide square resting surface to the jig.
• The diameter of the jig feet should be bigger than the slot
of machining table to prevent the feet from falling into the
slots.
PLATE JIG
 SANDWICH JIGS
▪ A form of plate jig with a back plate
▪ The w.p is clamped like a sandwich b/w
the base plate and the jig plate.
▪ This type of jig is ideal for thin or soft parts
that could bend or wrap in another style of
jig.
▪ Here, the use of bushings is determined
by the number of parts to be made and
diameter of the hole.
SANDWICH JIG
 ANGLE-PLATE JIGS
• Used to machine parts at right angles to
their locators
• Pulleys and Gears use this type of jig
MODIFIED ANGLE-PLATE JIG
▪ which is used for machining angles
other than 90 degrees.
▪ Both of these examples have clearance
problems with the cutting tool.
MODIFIED ANGLE-PLATE JIG
MODIFIED ANGLE-PLATE JIG
 BOX JIGS
• Surround the part totally
• Shape resembles a box
• In the figure, for loading, the cam rod is taken
out of the jig and the w.p placed in position
inside the jig
• The cam rod is then replaced and rotated to its
locking position
• This holds the work-piece firmly so that the
drilling operation can be performed
• Such jigs are generally used for components
having irregular shapes or that cannot be held
by common methods.
 BOX JIGS
• Number of holes can be drilled
economically with box jig.
• One side is open for loading and
unloading the w.p and provided bushing
arrangements.
• The box jig can permits drilling of holes in
three sides of the work-piece and saves
times and increase production.
BOX JIG
 CHANNEL JIGS
• The work-piece is mounted against the top and
one side of the jig
• It is clamped from the third side
• It’s a type of box jig
• Provides better stability and support for work-
piece
• This type is limited to work-pieces of simple
symmetrical shapes
• It mainly consist of the jig body, jig bush and
screws and w.p is clamped inside the channel
with the help of screw.
CHANNEL JIGS
 V-BLOCK JIGS
• Used to drilling radial holes in cylindrical or
spherical workpiece.
• It mainly consist of the V-block clamping plate.
• The component is placed on the V-block and
clamped rigidly by means of a clamping plate
and bolt.
 V-BLOCK JIGS
• These jigs may also be called diameter
jigs by some toolmakers.
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
THE DESIGN OF DRILL JIGS
Rigidity:
• Jig must be strong enough to withstand all forces
applied to it
• It must also resist deflections that may be the result
of excessive tightening of clamps that hold the w.p
in place
• The work must also be supported so that it does
not bend under drilling pressure
• Cast iron is generally used because it absorb
shocks and compressive forces.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
THE DESIGN OF DRILL JIGS
▪ The layout of the jig must provide adequate
hand clearance for easily loading and unloading
and process for loading and unloading must be
quick
▪ Errors arise in components due to wear, dirt,
chips burns should be minimum
▪ Bushes are provided on a jig for guiding drills,
reamers and borings, for the desired positioning
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
THE DESIGN OF DRILL JIGS
▪ Entry provision of coolant: to increase tool life
and keep the components cool, a coolant is
provided in cutting edge in sufficient quantity.
▪ Design considerations require easy ejection of
the component from jig (particularly for heavy
ones) to save the operation time and increase
the productivity, pneumatic devices are very
suitable for easy and quick ejection.
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
THE DESIGN OF DRILL JIGS
Chip Control:
• Types of chips: segmental and continuous
• The segmental chip is preferred
• Space between the work and bottom of drill
bushings to allow chips to pass b/w the work
and busing plate (1- 1.5 times dia. of drill)
• Three ways of chip removal: coolant,
manually with brush or hook, compressed air
Chip Control:
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
THE DESIGN OF DRILL JIGS
Jig feet and legs:
• A drill jig should stand on four feet (Or legs)
rather than a flat surface
• Jig feet may be built into the jig body or purchased as
standard parts
• They are usually placed on the extremities of the jig
• Feet should be ground so that they are all in one
plane after they are mounted on the jig base
• When jig is bolted to machine table, usually provides
with four feet instead of a flat bottom, squaring
provides easily chip removal and sustainability.
Types of Standard Jig Feet:
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
THE DESIGN OF DRILL JIGS
Miscellaneous considerations:
• Sharp corners should be eliminated
• Provisions should be made for the coolant to get
to the drill
• Holes or passages for escape of the coolant
• Gripping surfaces should be knurled
• The jig should be large enough to hold it against
the torque of the drilling machine
• It must be easy to handle
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
• Generally jigs are constructed by holding the
components together mechanically
• This is referred to as built-up construction
• Adv.: All parts can be completely machined before
assembly and worn parts can be easily replaced
• Minor adjustments can be made during assembly
• Jigs of this type are held together by socket-head
cap screws and dowels
• Screw serve to hold the components together while
the dowels serve to hold the parts in alignment
METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION
• Welded construction is also used in
building a drill jig
• Drill jigs are sometimes constructed by a
combination of welding and mechanical
assembly
• The main body may be of welded
construction with the smaller components
attached by screws and dowels
• The main body of a drill jig may also be
cast
 LOCATING PRINCIPLES
and
LOCATORS
Locating and clamping are the critical functions of any
workholder. As such, the fundamental principles of locating
and clamping, as well as the numerous standard
components available for these operations
Locators
❑ To perform properly, workholders must accurately
and consistently position the workpiece relative to
the cutting tool, part after part. To accomplish this,
the locators must ensure that the workpiece is
properly referenced and the process is repeatable.
❑ The devices that restrict a workpiece's movement
are the locators. The locators, therefore, must be
strong enough to maintain the position of the
workpiece and to resist the cutting forces.
Basic Principles

I. Positioning the locator

II. Accuracy & tolerances
III. Fool proofing
IV. Duplicate location
V. Motion economy
Positioning the locator
❑ Locators should contact the work on a solid and
stable point:
▪This permits accurate placement of the part in
the tool & ensures the repeatability of the jig
and fixture.
❑ Position the locators such that they contact the
workpiece on a machined surface. The machined
surface usually offers a more-stable form of
location.
❑ Proper spacing of locator is necessary.
Locating Guidelines
Locating Guidelines
Accuracy & Tolerances

❑ The workpiece itself determines the overall size of a

locating element.
❑ Locators must be made to suit the MMC (Maximum-
Material Condition) of the area to be located. (The
MMC of a feature is the size of the feature where is has
the maximum amount of material).
❑ With external features, like shafts, the MMC is the
largest size within the limits.
❑ With internal features, like holes, it is the smallest size
within the limits.
Maximum-Material Condition
Fool proofing
❑Ensures that the part fits into the tool in its correct
position only.
❑The simplest and most cost effective method is
positioning a fool proof pin.
Duplicate location

❑Redundant, or duplicate locators should be avoided.

Motion economy

❑It involves use of easy, quick and economic loading of

work pieces.
The Mechanics of Locating

❑ A workpiece free in space can move in an infinite

number of directions. For analysis, this motion can be
broken down into twelve directional movements, or
"degrees of freedom."
3-2-1 Locating Principle

3-2-1 principle may be stated as:

“To locate an object fully, place and hold

it against three points in a base plane,
two points in a vertical plane, and one
point in a plane, perpendicular with the
first two.”
3-2-1 Locating Principle
3-2-1 Locating Principle
3-2-1 Locating Principle

❑ Motions: Motion is restricted using clamps and

locators.
❑ A three pin base can restrict five Rotation about X,Y
axes. (4 motions) Translation along -ve z-axis (1 motion)
❑ Directions nine, ten and eleven are restricted
by a clamping device. (3 motions)
❑ To restrict the movement of the part around the ZZ
axis and in direction eight, two more pin type locators
are positioned in a vertical plane.(3 motions)
❑ A single pin locator in vertical plane restricts motion
along direction 7.( 1 motion).
3-2-1 Locating Principle
❑ Motion in all 12 directions are thus restricted.
❑ This is the most common locating method
employed for square or rectangular parts.
❑ Flat bases may also be used, but these should be
installed rather than machining into the base.
❑ But pin/button type locators offers more accuracy
as the area of contact is less. Moreover, they raise
the work above the base so that chips wont
interrupt the operation.
Workpieces with holes:
❑ Holes provide an excellent method for locating.
❑ A round pin inside the hole(primary) and a
diamond pin(secondary) can restrict 11 motions!
Locating Methods:
1. Locating from a Flat Surface
2. Locating from an Internal Diameter
1. Locating from a Flat Surface

There are three primary methods of locating

work from a flat surface:
I. Solid supports
II. Adjustable supports,
III. Equalizing supports
Solid supports:
❑ Easiest and cheapest.
❑ Less accurate.
❑ Used where machined surface acts as a
locating point.
Adjustable supports:
❑ Used where surfaces are uneven (casting, forging..)
❑ Threaded style is the easiest and more economical.
❑ Adjustable locators are normally used with one or
more solid locators to allow any adjustment needed
to level the work.
Equalizing supports:
❑ They provide equal support through two connected
contact points.
❑ As one point is depressed, the other raises and
maintains contact with the part.
❑ This feature is especially necessary on uneven cast
surfaces.
2. Locating from an Internal Diameter

❑ Locating a part from a hole or pattern is the most

effective way to accurately position work.
❑ Nine of the twelve directions of movement are
restricted by using a single pin, and eleven directions of
movement are restricted with two pins.
❑ When possible, it is logical to use holes as primary part
locators.
Locating Cylindrical Surfaces (Externally)
“V”-locators
❑ Vee locators are used mainly for round work.
❑ They can locate flat work with rounded or angular
ends and flat discs.
❑ Two types: Fixed and Adjustable
Locating from an External Profile

❑ Nesting locators position a part

by enclosing it in a depression, or
recess, of the same shape as the
part.
❑ Nesting is the most accurate
locating device for profile
location.
❑ Obviously, the height of the nest
should be lesser than the height
of the workpiece.
❑ In case of sheet-metals or thin
workpieces, finger slots or ejector
pins should be provided.
Types of locators

1) Pin and button locator

2) Rest pad and plates
3) Diamond & round pin locator
4) Nesting locator or cavity locator etc.
1. Pin and button locator

❑ Locator used to support or hold the workpiece in

position.
❑ Pins locators are longer and for horizontal locations.
Button locators shorter, vertical locations.
❑ Locating buttons-press fit and screwed(wear and
tear more – replaceable)
Pin and button locator
2. Rest pads and plates
❑Used with heavier and larger workpiece.
❑To support and locate the work vertically.
3. Diamond pin locator

❑ Work piece with the drilled holes

use two round pins.
❑ If there is variation between
center to center distance of the
holes, one round and diamond pin
locators are used.
❑ Prevents movement around the
pin and are relieved on two sides
to allow variation.
Diamond pin locator
Diamond pin locator
Diamond pin locator
❑ There are other ways of utilizing diamond locating
pins. This is one example, where you need to perfectly
align the center of the part, but the angular orientation
is not critical.
Nesting locator or cavity locator
❑ Used to position the work piece
❑ Accurate method for profile location
❑ No need of supplementary locating devices
❑ But it is difficult to lift out of cavity
❑ Common types:-
I. Ring nest
II. Full nest
Nesting locator or cavity locator
 Exact alignment of the guided parts
 Availability of means to compensate wear
 Minimum friction (No stick slip at low speed)
 Ease of assembly and economy of manufacture
 Allow freedom from restraint
 Prevention of chip and dirt accumulation
 Effective lubrication must be possible.
 High stiffness, should not deform under load.
Based upon the nature of friction between
bearing surface:

 Guideways with sliding friction: slideways

 Guideways with rolling friction: anti-friction
slideways
1. The type of load and direction
2. Effective lubrication
3. How far chip and dirt accumulation is a
problem
4. Type & position of transmitting element
5. Wear characteristics and adjustment
6. Manufacturing economy
a. Flat
b. Vee or Prism
c. Dovetail
d. Cylindrical
 Advantage
◦ Simple to manufacture
◦ Self adjusting in case of wear
◦ Saddle is well supported
 Disadvantages
◦ Tendency to accumulate dirt and chips
◦ Need adjustment for clearance
◦ Poor in lubricant retention
 Use
◦ High supporting force on long slideway
◦ Bigger machine tool with high force
 Two types: Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical
 Symmetrical if load is evenly distributed
 Usually combined with flat slideway for better
guidance and load bearing
 Symmetrical Vee
◦ Employed when the load on the slideway is
vertical, which is rare.
 Unsymmetrical Vee
◦ More commonly used in machine tool
◦ Longer face should be placed perpendicular to the
direction of the resultant force.
 Advantages
◦ Self adjusting capability
◦ Surrounded vee prevents dirt accumulation
◦ Easy traverse and accurate guiding
 Disadvantages
◦ Cannot retain lubricant
◦ Surrounded type weakens the saddle
◦ Wears rapidly
 Use
◦ Medium and small lathe
◦ Planer machine
 Advantages
◦ Require small space
◦ Simple clearance adjustment
◦ Can stand vertical upward force
 Disadvantage
◦ Relatively costly to manufacture
◦ Poor retention of lubricant
 Use
◦ Cross slides in lathe
◦ Milling machine tables
◦ Saddles and knees
 Theoretically fully constrained slideway
 Easy to manufacture
 Disadvantages
◦ Low rigidity
◦ Clearance is difficult to adjust
 Use
◦ Column drilling machine
◦ Over-arm of milling machine
◦ Tailstock sleeve
Selection of Materials depends on:
 wear resistance
 strength, specially bearing and bending strength,
 damping capacity
 heat capacity (It should not build up much heat.),
 environmentally neutral (It must stand hostile
environment like new coolant, lubricant etc.)
 the cost of production
• Gray cast iron is the most commonly used material
for slideways.
• Nickel and chromium is added to increase the wear
resistance and the bending strength
• The surface hardness can be increased by flame or
induction hardening.
• Hardness attained is 40-52 RC for ordinary gray cast
iron and 45-55 RC in nodular cast iron.
• Hardness upto 60-62 RC can be attained by Hardened
steel
Laminated plastics strips backed by cast iron or steel
pieces can be used.
Advantages :
• Uniform pressure
• Less seizure (uniform motion)
• Reduced friction
• Reduction of wear
• Easy to fabricate
• Lower cost
Disadvantages:
 lower strength and hardness, usually designed
for pressure l0 kg/cm2
 tendency to-swell when they absorb oil.
 poor thermal conductivity, resulting in thermal
distortion.
 low speed range, v< 40m/min for satisfactory
running.
Wear is caused by factors such as:
 the properties of the material of the mating parts
 the surface roughness of the mating parts
 the pressure on the slideways
 the sliding velocity
 the total working life
 the dirt and chip accumulation on the slideways.
 Life and smooth functioning of slideways depends on
clearance between sliding surface
 Too small clearance – give rise to excessive frictional
force
 Too large clearance – adversely affect the uniformity
of travel
 Initial clearance alters in the course of slideway
operation due to its wear
 Necessary to provide devices for periodic
adjustments of clearances in the slideway
 Flat slideways
◦ Flat strip (adjusted by laterally arranged screws)
 Flat slideways
◦ Taper strip
 Vee slideways
 Dovetail Slideways
◦ Flat strip
 Dovetail Slideways
◦ Taper strip
 Dovetail Slideways
◦ Wedge Strip
➢High rigidity can be attained by
removing clearance.
➢12-25 micrometer is maintained for
high quality surface.
 Any shape of slideways can be hydro-statically
lubricated.
 High load capacity and high rigidity are independent
of the sliding velocity.
 There is no stick slip, because there is no metal to
metal contact.
 Little wear of the sliding elements and thus longer
life.
 Oil forces dust and chips out of the bearing area.
 Oil leakage also facilitates heat dissipation.
 High machining precision.
 Good damping property.
Compressed air is passed through a filter and a pressure
regulating valve. It then enters the pocket at a pressure of
3-4 kg/cm2
• The aperture
diameter varies
from 0.2 to 0.5 mm
• humidity in air is to
be reduced to a
minimum value to
avoid corrosion
ADVANTAGES:
• low friction, coefficient of friction is approximately
0.001 for ground steel slideways and 0.0025 for
scrapped cast iron slideways.
• Less stick slip effect.
• highly accurate movement.
• Uniform slow motion is possible
• less wear and considerably long service life
• operation without external lubrication.
DRAWBACKS :
• The cost of a such slideway system is high, because it
is highly finished and hardened.
• Because the contact is at a point or along a line, the
waviness of the surface impairs accuracy of motion.
• The rolling elements (balls, rollers etc.) lags behind the
sliding member (Fig.3.28). Hence recirculation of the
rolling elements is a must, if the travelling distance is
long
 The motion of tool or job in NC machine
tool faces the problem of friction and
backlash.
 To eliminate and compensate these
problem, ball-nut screw assembly is
used.
 The balls roll in the helical channel of the
thread from.
Control in Machine Tools
Introduction

• Any manufacturing of a machine tool is achieved through the change

of the shape and the size of a blank (or raw material) usually by
removal, addition and/or plastic deformation of the material of the
blank.

• This demands a pre-determined relative motion between the tool and

the blank.

• The characteristics objective of the control elements of a machine

tool is to attain this pre-determined relative motion.
Different Control Elements
Requirement of Machine Tool Control

1. Accuracy:
• Accuracy of the tool with respect to job under various condition.
• The desired accuracy may vary from few millimeters to nanometers.
2. Rapid action:
• The time taken by a control element to respond should be minimum.
• This leads to automated and semi automated system.
3. Mnemonic feature:
• Larger the number of control variables, it becomes more difficult to
memorize and control.
• Modern machine tool thus have reduced the number of control elements.
Requirement of Machine Tool Control

4. Control against excessive force, torque etc.:

• If an element of machine tool is subjected to overload it maybe damaged.
• So, some mechanism is incorporated to save it from damage.
• They are known as overload safety device.
5. Interlocking feature:
• This prevents unwanted simultaneous engagement or operation of two or
more machine tool elements.
 Requirement of Machine Tool Control
6. Additional requirements for manual control: Design of
machine tool elements should be based on anthropometric data
and ergonomics.
➢ Ease and convenience to operate:
o Force should be limited to:
(i) 40-45 N (Levers and hand wheels are frequently operated
from sitting position)
(ii) 80-160 (Combined manual and mechanical operation)
• The control elements should be within the reach of the worker.
• Control elements should be easy to approach.
• If the control element is on travelling unit which may cause
inconvenience to operate, there should be duplicate one.
• Emergency switches should be highlghted.
 Requirement of Machine Tool Control
➢ The fatigue of the operator should be reduced.
➢ Safety of the operator.

7. Reliability:
• Higher the degree of sophistication in a control system the greater
reliability should be there.
Mechanical Control Elements-Cam Control
Mechanical Control Elements-Cam Control

• Plate control- When movement is short and perpendicular to the

cam axis. Feed of parting tool.

• Face type- When movement is short and perpendicular to cam axis at

an offset.

• Drum type- When movement is parallel to the cam axis.

Mechanical Control Elements-Feeding a
bar stock
Mechanical Control Elements-Safety Control
To avoid erroneous simultaneous engagement of mechanical drives, Safety
control devices are used.
Hydraulic and Hydro-mechanical control
elements- Directional Valve
Hydraulic and Hydro-mechanical control
elements- Directional Valve

• Designed to change the direction or to open and close the passage of

the oil in two or more lines.

• They can reverse the motion or stop them.

• Directional valve can be hand operated, mechanical, electrical etc

Electrical and electro-mechanical control
elements

• Push Button Control

• Electrical Limit Switch

• Electric tracer Control

 Electrical Limit Switch

The limit switch supplies a limit signal when an adjusted limit is

exceeded in either direction, especially when a control valve has
reached a final position

This signal is suitable for reversing control signals, initiating visual or

audible alarms and for connection to central control or alarm systems.
Electrical Limit Switch
Numerical Control (NC) of Machine Tools
Numerical control is a method to control the motion of the machine tool
components by means of coded instructions.
NC machine tool consists of
• Machine tool
• MCU(Machine tool Control unit)
MCU Consists of
a) An Input unit
b) Reading and Parity Check circuits
c) Decoder
d) Interpolator and comparator
e) Position Control Circuit DPU
f) Velocity Control Circuit (Data Processing
g) Acceleration Circuit Unit)
h) Control for other functions
CLU
(Control Loop
Unit)
NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) OF MACHINE TOOLS

• Drawbacks of NC machine tool

• Much time needed to correct any mistake in program.
• Data input tapes damages easily.
• Cutting and feed speed cannot be changed during cutting.
• Mechanical moving parts for tape reading is not suitable for high speed
operation.
CNC Machine Tool

• Due to technological advancement, a dedicated computer is used as

DPU in NC machine tool.
• Fairley complex program can be written with key board and stored in
memory.
• This system is commonly known as Computer Numeric Control (CNC).
• Advantages of CNC machine Tools:
• Enhanced consistency in product quality
• Greater manufacturing flexibility
• Reduced production lead time
• Reduced inspection
• Complex machining
CNC Machine Tool

• Higher effective machining time

• Effect of change of design of a part is less
• Machine tool damage reduced
• Less material handling
• Reduce skill of operator
• Significant reduction of cost
• Safety of the operator is ensured
• Disadvantages of CNC machine Tool
• High Investment
• High skilled programmer and electrician required
• High rigidity and better dynamic characteristics are necessary to
incorporate when building
Digital Displacement Measurement Device

• A feedback transducer monitors the position of the moving element

of a machine tool and converts a minimum displacement into
discrete numerical values.
• The photo diodes of the scanning element send a signal every time a
mark on the scale is encountered.
• Signals are added in electronic counter, which provide an accurate
measure of distance travelled.
Digital Displacement Measurement Device
Digital absolute measurement of position

See also: Diffraction Grating

ACCEPTANCE TESTS AND
MAINTENANCE OF MACHINE
TOOLS
INTRODUCTION
 The basic function of a machine tool is to
 produce a workpiece of the required geometric form
 with an acceptable surface finish
 at high rate of production
 To evaluate the relative merits of machine tools it is
essential to perform the acceptance tests
 Machine tools, which satisfy the specified accuracies
in the standards of machine tool acceptance tests, will
produce components that will meet the requirements
of modern production in accordance with standard
limits and fits
 Acceptance Testing of a Machine Tool can be defined
as checking alignment of a component relative to the
other component. It includes:
1. Geometrical tests or alignment tests,
2. Dynamic performance tests or practical tests.
GEOMETRICAL TEST
What is checked during Geometrical Tests or alignment
Tests?
1. Straightness

2. Flatness

3. Parallelism, equidistance and coincidence

4. Squareness of the straight lines and planes

5. Rotation: Eccentricity, out of true running, out of round

etc.
6. Movement of all working components.
EQUIPMENT FOR GEOMETRICAL TESTS:
 Dial Gauges
 Test Mandrels

 Straight edges and Squares

 Spirit Levels

 Autocollimator

 Optical Alignment telescope

 Waviness-Meter

 Water level
GEOMETRICAL TESTING OF A LATHE
MACHINE
1. Leveling of Machine bed
2. Parallelism of spindle axis to bed
3. Parallelism of tailstock quill movement to the carriage movement.
4. Parallelism of spindle axis to the carriage movement.
5. Parallelism of tailstock guideways with the movement of carriage.
6. Parallelism of longitudinal movements of tool slide to the spindle axis
7. Straightness of carriage movement in horizontal plane
8. Squareness of the transverse movement of the cross-slide to the spindle axis.
9. Difference in the height between headstock and tailstock.
10. Run –out of spindle nose - centering sieve or cone.
11. True running of the taper bore of the spindle.
12. True running of headstock center.
13. true running of shoulder face of spindle nose
14. Axial slip of lead screw.
15. Axial slip of main spindle
16. Accuracy of pitch of lead screw
GEOMETRICAL TESTING OF A LATHE
MACHINE
 Leveling of Machine bed:
a) Longitudinal direction b) Transverse direction.
 Measuring equipment: Spirit level

 Permissible error: 0.01 to 0.02 mm

GEOMETRICAL TESTING OF A LATHE
MACHINE
 Parallelism of spindle axis to bed.
 Measuring equipment: Test mandrel and dial gauge.

 Permissible error: 0.08 mm per meter

GEOMETRICAL TESTING OF A LATHE
MACHINE
 Straightness of carriage movement in
horizontal plane
 Measuring equipment: Dial gauge and test
mandrel.
 Permissible error: 0.015 to 0.02 mm
GEOMETRICAL TESTING OF A LATHE
MACHINE
 Parallelism of tailstock quill movement to
the carriage movement
 Measuring equipment: Dial gauge

 Permissible error: 0.02 to 0.04 mm

GEOMETRICAL TESTING OF A LATHE
MACHINE
 Run-out/ true running of spindle nose
 Measuring equipment: Dial gauge

 Permissible error: 0.01mm

GEOMETRICAL TESTING OF A LATHE
MACHINE
 Parallelism of tailstock guideways with the
movement of carriage.
 Measuring equipment: Dial gauge and a block

 Permissible error: 0.015 to 0.02 mm

DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE TESTS OR
PRACTICAL TESTS
According to approved general specifications,
performance tests or practical acceptance tests of
machine tools should include:
1. Idle run tests, operation checks of mechanisms
2. Load tests and productive output tests,
3. Checks of the geometrical accuracy, surface
roughness, and accuracy of the work-pieces being
machined
4. Rigidity tests of machine tools
5. Tests for vibration proof properties of machine tools in
cutting
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE TEST FOR LATHE
The dynamic performance of a machine tool can be compared by the
results of cutting tests. These cutting tests have procedure must be
followed accurately as follows:
1. Condition of the Lathe:
i. Mounting: The lathe to be tested must be either mounted as
specified by the manufacture, or as envisaged when in normal use.
ii. Locking of joints and sliding elements: All bolted joints, and
sliding elements not required to be in motion during the test must
be locked or clamped. Also, the tailstock, if not in use, must be
either locked at the far end of the slideway, or removed.
iii. Warm-up time: Before any test the spindle must be run at two-
thirds maximum speed for one hour. The temperature of the bearing
housing nearest the workpiece should then be recorded and this
temperature maintained through all the tests to within ±2°C.
iv. Ambient temperature: The ambient temperature must have been
kept within ±5°C of a mean ambient temperature, which is
recommended as 20°C, for at least 12 hours before the tests are
commenced.
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE TEST FOR LATHE
2. Workpiece:
i. Material: If the lathe is intended for machining a particular
material then this should be used for the workpiece; otherwise a
normalized carbon steel should be used. All workpieces for test
must be manufactured from the same bar.
ii. Initial preparation: The outer 5 mm of the stock as supplied
must be removed before the workpiece is manufactured.
iii. Shape: If the lathe is intended for machining a particular shape of
workpiece then this should be used for the tests. For else, the
following shapes and sizes of workpiece are recommended for
“turning” . The diameter ‘Dm’ refers to the maximum diameter of
workpiece that may be machined.
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE TEST FOR LATHE
3. Cutting Tool:
i. Geometry: Considerable care should be taken to
maintain cutting angles, radii and tool material
characteristics constant
ii. Tool Material: The tip grade must be kept
constant for the same series of tests.
iii. Fixing of tips: The position of the tip in the
toolholder must be carefully maintained for each
series of tests.
iv. Tool height: The tool center height at the start of
a test must be kept within +0.005 R of the true
workpiece center
DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE TEST FOR LATHE
4. Cutting condition:
i. Approach angle: For all parallel turning
and boring an approach angle of 60° or 75°
should be used and for facing operations an
approach angle of 0°, as shown in figure
ii. Position of toolpost: For parallel turning
and initial position when facing, the leading
edge of the top slide should be made level
with the cross slide
iii. Speed: The recommended speeds according
to the used workpiece material should be
used.
iv. Feed: Whenever possible a feed in the range
0.1 - 0.25 mm/rev should be used. However,
if, in facing operations, the use of such a feed
would lead to an excessive diameter
reduction a smaller feed should be used.
MACHINE TOOL MAINTENANCE
The maintenance of the machine tool includes:
 Checking the accuracy of the finished workpiece.

 Lubrication of the moving components.

 Checking clearances between slideways.

 Preparation of materials and component parts

necessary for repair work. Any repair work must be
carefully planned beforehand.
 Instructions to machine shop foremen and operators
in order to ensure correct use of the machines.
 Provision for emergency repairs.

 Estimates of maintenance and repair cost.

Regulation of Speed and Feed
Rates
Aim of Speed and Feed Regulation
 A machining operation should be conducted at such values of cutting
parameters (speed, feed, depth of cut, etc.) that ensure the minimum
cost price of the machined component
 The machining cost can be expressed by the equation:
C = Cmt + Cnpt + Ctc + Ct
Cmt = (W+ E)tm represents the cost of machining time; W is the
wage rate, E is cost of operating the machine tool per unit
time and tm, the machining time
Cnpt = (W + E)tnpt represents the cost of non-productive time; tnpt is
the total time of non-productive operations, such as loading
and unloading, idle travel of cutting tool
Ctc = (W+E)ttc/Q represents the tool changing cost per
component; ttc is the time required for replacing a blunt tool and
setting the new one and Q the number of components
machined during the period of tool life.
Ctc = T/Q represents the cost of the tool per component; T is the
cost of the tool for a period equal to the tool life
Aim of Speed and Feed Regulation
 If the machining cost is optimized, it yields a particular value of tool
life which corresponds to minimum machining cost.
 This optimum tool life can be achieved on a particular operation
only by working at optimum values of cutting speed v, feed s, and
depth of cut t.
 In order to machine a part of arbitrary diameter, the spindle rpm
must be set as n = 1000v/πD, i.e., there must be a stepless
regulation of v so that any desired value of the spindle rpm may be
set corresponding to the optimum cutting speed.
 By a similar logic, the machine tool should have provision for
stepless variation of the feed rate.
 Economically, viable systems of stepless speed and feed rate
regulation have, however, not yet been designed for a majority of
machine tools.
 On such machine tools only certain discrete values of the spindle
rpm and feed rate are available.
Determination of Maximum &
Minimum Speed
 The maximum and minimum cutting and feed speeds are specified
by a number of extreme conditions under which the machine is
supposed to operate.
 These conditions include materials of the workpiece and tool,
cutting environment etc.
Various Laws of Stepped Regulation
 It was stated above that in stepped regulation of speed only certain
discrete values of the spindle rpm are available on the machine tool.
 A pertinent question that arises is what should be the criterion for
choosing these discrete steps?
 Between two extreme available values n1 and nz of the spindle rpm,
the same number of z intermediate steps may be placed in a number
of ways.
 The various series of rpm values will have different operational
characteristics.
 Let us analyze four cases and select the most suitable law of speed
range distribution
◦ Arithmetic Progression
◦ Geometric Progression
◦ Harmonic Progression
◦ Logarithmic Progression
Arithmetic Progression
Geometric Progression
Harmonic Progression
Logarithmic Progression
Kinematic advantages of GP series
1. Constant Loss of Economic Cutting Speed in the Whole rpm Range:
 Suppose the spindle rpm values constitute the following series:

 Consider that the optimum cutting speed vopt is such that it lies between
the rpm values nj and nj+1, i.e.

 Obviously, of the two rpm values, nj and nj+1 we select the one which
gives a cutting speed closer to vopt.
 The difference between the actual cutting speed and the optimum cutting
speed is known as the loss of economic cutting speed.
 The difference between the actual cutting speed and vopt, and hence the
loss of economic cutting speed is maximum when the optimum cutting
speed lies at the middle of two speeds provided by nj and nj+1.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
 The maximum loss of economic cutting speed is then:

 From the above two equations, we obtain:

 It may be concluded that in order that may be constant in the

whole range of exploitation of the machine tool, the ratio must be
constant.
 This means that the spindle rpm values must lie in a geometric
progression.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
2. Constant Loss of Productivity in the Whole rpm Range:
 The productivity of a machining operation can be expressed as the
surface area of metal removed in unit time, i.e., by the quantity:

 where v is the cutting speed, m/min

s is the feed, mm/rev
3. Better Design Features:
 When all the rpm values of a spindle are obtained from a single
transmission, then any of the series discussed above can be utilized for
designing the speed box;
 The desired rpm values are obtained by using appropriate transmission
ratios of various gear pairs.
 If the rpm values are changed by mounting a new pair of gears on the
shaft every time, then changing of speeds becomes time consuming,
inconvenient and economically infeasible.
 If the rpm values are obtained by mounting gear pairs of the appropriate
transmission ratio on the shafts permanently, then the axial dimensions
of such a speed box become too large.
 Kinematic advantages of GP series
 These considerations underline the fact that speed steps in a speed box
should be obtained not through a single transmission between two shafts
but through a group of transmissions between a number of shafts.
 This features can be realized in an actual speed box design only if the
rpm values lie in a geometric progression and may be explained by the
following properties of a geometric progression:
 Initial Information Required for Designing a
Speed Box: Selection of Range Ratio
 The following information is essentially required
before we can start designing a stepped drive.
1. The highest output rpm, nmax
2. The lowest output rpm, nmin
3. The number of steps z into which the range
between nmax and nmin is divided.
4. The number of stages in which the required
number of speed steps are to be achieved.
 There is a tendency of assigning higher cutting
speeds for machining operations as new tool
materials permitting higher cutting speeds are
developed.
 While selecting the lowest and highest speed
limits for a new machine tool, we must take into
account its exploitation in actual production
conditions.
 Initial Information Required for Designing a
Speed Box: Selection of Range Ratio
 An important parameter in designing speed boxes is the range ratio Rn
given by:

 Here Rv represents the range of cutting speeds employed on the

machine tool and Rd the range of workpiece diameters machined.
 A very wide speed range is generally neither practicable nor
economically feasible, thus value of Rv should, therefore, be kept
within reasonable limits.
 The range of diameters should also be selected on the basis of the
statistical study of the working of similar machine tools.
 Investigations conducted by ENIMS (Machine Tool Research Institute,
Moscow, Russia) reveal that a ratio of Rd = dmax/dmin = 4 covers
more than 85% of the workpieces, while Rd = 6 covers 92% of the
workpieces.
 Initial Information Required for Designing a
Speed Box: Selection of Range Ratio
 Typical values of Rn for some groups of machine tools are given in the
following Table:

 A variety of cutting tools of different shapes and compositions are used

on general-purpose machine tools, and therefore, Rn values are
relatively large.
 On the other hand, in grinding machines the grinding wheel diameter
generally varies in the range Rd < 2 and the wheel material being the
same, Rn values are small.
 Initial Information Required for Designing a
Speed Box: Selection of Speed Step
 The number of speed steps in which the total range of rpm values
available on the machine tool is divided is determined as follows:
Suppose the rpm values n1, n2,……nz constitute a geometric
progression. Then,

Which can also be written as:

 The value of z can be determined provided Rn and φ are known.

Standard Values of Geometric Progression
Ratio and Guidelines for Selecting a Proper
Value
 The standard values of φ are established from the following two main
considerations:
1. In machine tool drives, two speed motors are often used; the ratio
of the two speeds is generally equal to 2 (e.g., motors have rpm
values of 3000 and 1500, or 1500 and 750, etc.). If the spindle rpm
values constitute a geometric progression for the lower rpm of the
motor, then according to the property of geometric progression,
the spindle speeds should increase two times when the motor
speed is switched to the higher one.

2. The geometric progression should be developed by keeping the

standards of preferred numbers and preferred series in mind. The
geometric progression should then satisfy the condition:
Standard Values of Geometric Progression
Ratio and Guidelines for Selecting a Proper
Value
 The standard values of φ are obtained from the condition that they must
simultaneously satisfy the previous two equations:

 where S' is an arbitrary whole number, then

 The standard values of S2 from the series of preferred numbers are 40,
20, 10 and 5. Correspondingly S'= S2/l0 = 4, 2, 1 and 0.5 and S1 = 3S' =
12, 6, 3 and 1.5. The corresponding standard values of φ are:
Standard Values of Geometric Progression
Ratio and Guidelines for Selecting a Proper
Value
 The standard values of φ, their characteristics and the specific loss of
economic cutting speed:

 It is desirable to select a small value of φ so that the loss of economic cutting

speed and, hence, productivity loss is low.
 Also, for a particular value of the range ratio, the number of speed steps
increases with a reduction in the value of φ.
 On the other hand, a large number of speed steps make the drive complicated
and expensive.
 The proper value of φ must be selected by weighing these contradictory
factors and striking a judicial balance.
Standard Values of Geometric Progression
Ratio and Guidelines for Selecting a Proper
Value
 Recommended values of φ in machine tools:

 The most commonly used values of φ are 1.26, 1.41 and 1.58.
 Smaller values of φ(φ = 1.12 and 1.06) complicate the drive to an extent
where it cannot normally compete with step less regulation.
 Large values of φ (φ = 1.78 and 2.0) result in very rough regulation
leading to large productivity losses. They are rarely used and that too
only in special-purpose machine tools
 Large values of φ are used on small-sized machine
tools whereas small values of φ are used on large-
sized machine tools
 The diameter range which can be accommodated at a constant cutting
speed by two adjacent values of the spindle rpm is given by:

 Rolled bars are often used as blanks for manufacturing various

components. The bars are marketed in a range of diameters.
 Large values of φ are used on small-sized machine
tools whereas small values of φ are used on large-
sized machine tools
 For a small-sized bar stock the diameter interval is naturally small, i.e.,
Ddb is a small quantity.
 Therefore, in order to keep the value of dj-1 reasonably small we must
use a small value of multiplication factor A = φ/(φ - 1).
 As is evident from Table 2.8 a small value of A is obtained by using a
large value of φ.
 Since a small-sized bar stock is generally machined on small-sized
machine tools, this explains why large values of φ are recommended for
small-sized machine tools.
 By a similar logic, we can explain the recommendation of small values
of φ for large-sized machine tools.
Break up of Speed Steps
 The value of the number of speed steps z found is rounded off to the
nearest whole number, preference being given to the number which
can be broken into multiples of 2 and 3.
 For example,
Numbers between 5 and 7 are rounded off to z = 6
Numbers between 7 and 8.5 are rounded off to z = 8
Numbers between 8.5 and 10 are rounded off to z = 9
Numbers between 10 and 11 are rounded off to z = 10
Numbers between 11 and 13 are rounded off to z = 12
Numbers between 13 and 15 are rounded off to z = 14
Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
 Suppose a speed on one shaft yields two speed values on the next
shaft, i.e., the number of speed steps of the particular transmission
group is p = 2.
 The maximum reduction of speed is limited to four times to keep
the radial dimensions of the speed box within reasonable limits,
while the maximum increase of speed is restricted to two times due
to limitations of the pitch line velocity. The transmission range of
the group is given by

 Suppose there are z speed steps n1, n2, n3…….nz in a particular

transmission group such that
Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
 Since the speeds on the last shaft of the speed box must constitute a
geometric progression, the following relationship must be satisfied:

 Here X is known as the characteristic of the transmission group and

it denotes the number of steps of the spindle rpm geometric
progression by which two adjacent rpm values of the particular
group are separated.
 As earlier explained, the number of speed steps is represented in the
form
 This expression can be written in a number of ways by arranging
p1, p2, p3,…..pu in different positions.
 The total number of possible combinations = u!/q! , where q is the
number of groups with identical transmissions.
Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
 Since the rpm values of the output shaft of the speed box ought to
be in a geometric progression, there must be one transmission group
that has a characteristic X1 = 1; this group is known as the main
transmission group and it has a progression ratio = φ1 = φ
 The next transmission group has a characteristic X2 = p1 and
a progression ratio = φX2 = φp1 where p1 is the number of speed
steps in the first group; similarly, the third transmission group has a
characteristic X3 = p1 * p2 and a progression ratio φp1p2 .
 Thus, a more elaborate expression for z may be written as follows:

Where,
The following equation is known as the structural formula of the speed
box.
 Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
Let us consider an example. Suppose the number of speed steps z = 12 of
a speed box are to be realized in three stages, i.e., u = 3. The number 12
may be written as a multiplication of 2 and 3 in three different ways.
Let us consider one such combination, z = 2 x 3 x 2
Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
 The structural formulae are represented in the form of special
graphs known as structural diagrams.
 For plotting the structural diagram, we draw u + 1 vertical lines at a
convenient distance from each other; the first vertical line represents
the transmission from the motor shaft and the rest represent the
transmission groups of the speed box
 We now draw an array of horizontal lines intersecting the vertical
lines at a distance of log φ from each other.
 The number of horizontal lines is equal to the number of speed steps
z of the speed box.
 The structural diagram gives information about
1. the number of shafts in the speed box.
2. the number of gears on each shaft.
3. the order of changing transmissions in individual groups to get
the desired spindle speed.
4. the transmission range and characteristic of each group.
Structural Diagrams and Their
Analysis to Select the Best One
The selection of the best structural
diagram
The selection of the best version is guided by the following two factors:
1. Transmission ratio restriction: This requirement has already
been discussed and it need only be emphasized that the maximum
value of the transmission range of a group is ig < 8.
2. Minimum total shaft size: The dimensions of a shaft are
determined for the lowest rpm at which it rotates, because the
lower the rpm of the shaft, the higher is the torque that the shaft
has to transmit and hence the larger its diameter. The required
accuracy of machining of a shaft depends upon the highest rpm at
which it rotates; the higher the rpm of the shaft the higher should
be its accuracy and surface finish. In a speed box the nmax and
nmin values on the last shaft (spindle) must necessarily be the
same in all the versions of structural diagrams. However, the nmin
and nmax values for the intermediate shafts will differ for each
version. The best version is the one which ensures,
The selection of the best structural
diagram
 Besides factors (a) and (b) discussed above the following guidelines,
which stem from rationality of the speed box design and its exploitation
can also be helpful in selecting the best diagram:
1. The number of gears on the last shaft (spindle) should be the
minimum possible.
2. The transmission ratio between the spindle and the shaft
preceding it should be the maximum possible, i.e., speed reduction
should be the maximum possible.
3. The number of gears on the shafts should not generally be more
than three, though in exceptional cases it may be four.
4. imax * imin = 1 favors the least radial dimensions of the gear
box.
The selection of the best structural
diagram
 Let us now analyze structural diagrams a and e that we have drawn.

 Diagram e
The selection of the best structural
diagram
 We can similarly analyze the remaining four structural diagrams also.
Upon analysis, we find that,

 Hence, if the selected value of the progression ratio is φ = 1.26, then all
the six structural diagrams qualify for selection as far as consideration
of factor (a) is concerned.
If φ = 1.41, then diagrams b and e are ruled out.
If φ > 1.41, then none of the structural diagrams is suitable for
designing the speed box and an attempt must be made with a different
arrangement of the speed step distribution, e.g., z = 3 x 2 x 2
The selection of the best structural
diagram
 If more than one structural diagram satisfies the
transmission-range constraint, then these must be
analyzed keeping factor (b) and the additional
guidelines in mind.
 A comparison of the six structural diagrams
reveals that diagrams a and c are better than the
rest because nmin values of shaft III in both these
diagrams are maximum.
 However, diagram a scores over diagram c when
shaft II is compared; the nmin value of shaft II in
diagram a is higher as compared to the
corresponding values of diagram c.
 It may be thus seen that structural diagram a is
the best among all the considered versions.
General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
 All requirements that are essential for the
proper functioning of a gear transmission must
be satisfied and gear-box dimensions kept
minimum.
1. These essential requirements for proper
functioning of a gear transmission may be
summed up as:
(i) The number of teeth on the smallest
gear of a transmission should be such that
there is no undercutting of gear teeth;
generally for gears with an uncorrected
profile and 20° pressure angle, Zmin > 17.
(ii) If gear pairs on parallel shafts have
the same module, the sum of the number of
teeth of mating gear pairs must be the same.
(iii) The spacing between adjacent gears
on a shaft should be such that one gear pair
gets completely disengaged before the
next begins to mesh (Fig. 2.18).
General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
(iv) The number of teeth of adjacent gears must differ by at least four. This
point may be proved by considering the following example (Fig. 2.19).
The sliding block mounted on shaft I provides three speeds on shaft II
depending upon which of the gear pairs is used for transmission. The
centre distance between the shafts is

where m is the module of all the gears.

The sum of the addendum radii of gears
Z5 and Z4 is

When the sliding gear is moved rightward

to make gear Z1 mesh with Z2, gear Z5 will
pass over Z4 without interference only if
General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
 Besides the four essential requirements, a major consideration is how to
achieve minimum possible dimensions of the gear box.
 It is helpful to remember that the radial dimensions of a gear box are
minimum when the maximum speed reduction and maximum speed
increase in a transmission group are equal.

 The radial dimensions can be reduced by making coincident the axes of

shafts of adjacent transmission groups, e.g., shafts I and III in Fig. 2.20
have been made coincident.
General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
2. Specific features peculiar to the functioning of the machine tool for
which the gear box is being designed should be taken into account.
Some of these features are discussed below:
(i) In machine tools with large inertia of the driven member, such as vertical
turret lathes, planers, etc., a friction clutch and brake should be provided
on the input shaft.
(ii) Reversing devices with friction clutches should be provided on turret
lathes, thread-cutting lathes, radial drilling machines, etc., so that after
cutting the thread, the tool can be returned to its initial position. The
reversal speed should be 1.3-1.5 times greater than the cutting speed.
However, in light machine tools having a drive motor rating of up to
N = 3.5 kW, spindle rotation may be reversed by applying an opposing
current, e.g., by reversing two connections of the stator winding.
(iii) If the spindle head traverses during the working operation, the electric
motor should be mounted on the speed box and the transmission from
motor shaft to the input shaft of the speed box obtained through a clutch
or gear pair.
General Recommendations for Developing the
Gearing Diagram
(iv) If the spindle is kinematically linked to the feed mechanism, the
transmission from the spindle to the feed train must be shown on the
gearing diagram.
(v) Gear transmissions that do not slide during speed changing should be
made helical to provide smooth running of the spindle; this is especially
desirable of gears mounted on the spindle.