Lab Manual # 01

Network Topologies
Introduction

Network topology refers to the arrangement of network devices and how they communicate with one
another. The choice of topology impacts network performance, scalability, and fault tolerance. Topologies
can be broadly classified into physical topologies (how devices are physically connected) and logical
topologies (how data flows in the network).

Types of Network Topologies

1. Bus Topology

 Description: All devices share a single communication line (backbone cable).

 Advantages:
o Cost-effective as it requires minimal cabling.
o Simple to install and extend.
 Disadvantages:
o Performance degrades with more devices.
o A cable failure affects the entire network.
 Example: Used in small office or home networks (SOHO) in earlier networking models.

2. Star Topology

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 Description: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
 Advantages:
o High performance and easy to troubleshoot.
o Failure of one node does not affect others.
 Disadvantages:
o Failure of the central hub/switch disrupts the network.
 Example: Commonly used in modern Ethernet LANs.

3. Ring Topology

 Description: Devices are connected in a circular manner, where data travels in one or both
directions.
 Advantages:
o Predictable data transfer with reduced collision risks.
 Disadvantages:
o A single failure can disrupt the network unless a dual-ring setup is used.
 Example: Used in legacy Token Ring networks.

4. Mesh Topology

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 Description: Every device is connected to every other device.
 Advantages:
o High reliability and fault tolerance.
o Provides multiple paths for data transmission.
 Disadvantages:
o Expensive due to high cabling and hardware costs.
 Example: Used in mission-critical networks like military and financial institutions.

5. Hybrid Topology

 Description: A combination of two or more topologies.

 Advantages:
o Flexible, scalable, and adaptable to network needs.
 Disadvantages:
o Can be costly and complex to manage.
 Example: A mix of Star and Mesh topologies in enterprise networks.

Comparison of Network Topologies

Topology Cost Perfomance Reliability Scalability
Bus Low Medium Low Low
Star Medium High Medium High
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 Ring Medium Medium Medium Medium
Mesh High High High Low
Hybrid High High High High

Conclusion

Network topologies define the structure and efficiency of a network. Choosing the right topology depends
on cost, scalability, performance, and reliability needs. Modern networks often use Star or Hybrid
topologies due to their balance of performance and flexibility.

Basic Commands
In this lab we will do some networking basic commands to better understand networking and in
its troubleshooting as well as its administration.
1-Ipconfig:
Ipconfig (ifconfig in Linux distributions) is a network administration utility, which helps to
get information about hosts’ ip address, default gateway, physical address etc.

1. Verify that your machine is connected to the internet

 Click on Start > All Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt

OR
 Click on Start > Run, type cmd and click on ok.
2. Type ipconfig (short for IP configuration) and press Enter.

Ipconfig /all ?

getmac ?

What is default gateway?

What is IP address?
Types of IP address
- Static
- Dynamic
IP Versions
- Ipv4
- Ipv6
IPv4 Classes?
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 IP Classes IP Address Range No. of Hosts and Networks

A 1.0.0.0 to Supports 16.7 million hosts on each of 126

126.255.255.255 networks
B 128.0.0.0 to Supports 65,534 hosts on each of 16,382
191.255.255.255 networks.
C 192.0.0.0 to Supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million
223.255.254.255 networks
D 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 Reserved for multicast groups.

E 240.0.0.0 to Reserved for future use, or Research and Devel-

254.255.255.255 opment Purposes.

2-Ping:
Ping is also a network administration utility that is used to test the ability of the source
computer to reach a specified destination computer. The ping command is usually used as a
simple way to verify that a computer can communicate over the network with another
computer or network device.

Type the following command on cmd to check connectivity with a specified host on
a network:

>>>> ping host_ip_address

Ping yahoo.com and take a screenshot of the output.

Ping google.com and take a screenshot of the output.

(74.125.24.100)

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What things you noticed in the alert?
What is TTL?
exit command?

3-Tracert:
Also known as Traceroute in Linux, is a computer network diagnostic tool that is used to
show several details about the path that a packet takes from the computer or device you're
on to whatever destination you specify. It will show every step between your host machine
to your destination machine, that you will specify using tracert command.
If you have problem connecting to a website server, tracert can help you finding where
actually the problem is. Tracert shows us the path traffic takes to reach the website. It also
displays the delays that occur at each stop. If you’re having issues reaching a website and
that website is working properly, it’s possible there’s a problem somewhere on the path
between your computer and the website’s servers. Tracert would show you where that
problem is.
1. Verify that your machine is connected to internet
 Click on Start > All Programs > Accessories > Command Prompt

OR
 Click on Start > Run, type cmd and click on ok.
2. Type ipconfig (short for IP configuration) and press Enter, the screen will show the
IP address, subnet mask, and default gateway for your computer’s connection. (we
have already discussed these three parameters)

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 For tracert all available switches or options, type: >> tracert \?

Type the following command on your command line:

>>>>tracert google.com OR

>>>>tracert IP_address

In a successful output, you will see listings of all routers the tracert requests had to pass
through to get to the destination.

3. Format of output will be:

Hop RTT1 RTT2 RTT3 Domain Name [IP Address]

First line represents the router address you are behind and each line further down
represents a router that’s further away.

4. Use different switches and note down their outputs as well as explain them.
5. Explain in Hop, RTT1, RTT2, RTT3 and Domain name in step 5.

4-Netstat: netstat (network statistics) is a command line diagnostic tool that displays
network connections (both incoming and outgoing), port numbers, connection state and
protocol type etc. It can help find you any malicious or Illegitimate connections
established with your machine and also help finding installed rootkits.

6. For all available switches or options, type on command line as:

>>netstat /?

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7. Note down the netstat command output and briefly explain it.

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