ROLE OF ICT IN THE MODERN ORGANIZATION

Information technology (IT) has become a vital and integral part of every business plan. From
multi-national corporations who maintain mainframe systems and databases to small businesses
that own a single computer, IT plays a role. The reasons for the omnipresent use of computer
technology in business can best be determined by looking at how it is being used across the
business world.

Communication

For many companies, email is the principal means of communication between employees,
suppliers and customers. Email was one of the early drivers of the Internet, providing a simple
and inexpensive means to communicate. Over the years, a number of other communications tools
have also evolved, allowing staff to communicate using live chat systems, online meeting tools
and video-conferencing systems. Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) telephones and
smartphones offer even more high-tech ways for employees to communicate.

Inventory Management

When it comes to managing inventory, organizations need to maintain enough stock to meet
demand without investing in more than they require. Inventory management systems track the
quantity of each item a company maintains, triggering an order of additional stock when the
quantities fall below a pre-determined amount. These systems are best used when the inventory
management system is connected to the point-of-sale (POS) system. The POS system ensures
that each time an item is sold, one of that item is removed from the inventory count, creating a
closed information loop between all departments.
Data Management

The days of large file rooms, rows of filing cabinets and the mailing of documents is fading fast.
Today, most companies store digital versions of documents on servers and storage devices. These
documents become instantly available to everyone in the company, regardless of their
geographical location. Companies are able to store and maintain a tremendous amount of
historical data economically, and employees benefit from immediate access to the documents
they need.

Management Information Systems

Storing data is only a benefit if that data can be used effectively. Progressive companies use that
data as part of their strategic planning process as well as the tactical execution of that strategy.
Management Information Systems (MIS) enable companies to track sales data, expenses and
productivity levels. The information can be used to track profitability over time, maximize return
on investment and identify areas of improvement. Managers can track sales on a daily basis,
allowing them to immediately react to lower-than-expected numbers by boosting employee
productivity or reducing the cost of an item.

Customer Relationship Management

Companies are using IT to improve the way they design and manage customer relationships.
Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems capture every interaction a company has
with a customer, so that a more enriching experience is possible. If a customer calls a call center
with an issue, the customer support representative will be able to see what the customer has
purchased, view shipping information, call up the training manual for that item and effectively
respond to the issue. The entire interaction is stored in the CRM system, ready to be recalled if
the customer calls again. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company
benefits from improved productivity.

USES OF ICT IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Information technology is an essential partner in management of your business, regardless of the

kind of enterprise you operate. Whether you need computers for storage, transfer, retrieval or
transmission of information, you can manage your business with greater accuracy and efficiency
with the assistance of information technology and computer applications. The U.S. Small
Business Administration suggests it‘s time to get connected. Storage

You may already use a computer for data storage for your business. Inventory, sales, receivables
and payables stored in Excel, Open Office or a similar program keeps these figures at your
fingertips. Accounting software stores your payroll information, tax records and specialized data
for your business. Once you‘re acquainted with a program, you won‘t know how you functioned
without it. You can eliminate much of the physical storage at the office by using information
technology to scan and store old personnel and payroll files, tax files or client files. You may
need less square footage with information technology.

Marketing

Large and small businesses are on a level playing field on the Internet. You can have a Web
presence, take orders, buy merchandise, sell excess or even operate some businesses entirely
online. A marketing tool that uses information technology is the Quick Response or QR Code
that looks like a bar code but is square. A scan advertises your website address and includes any
text you choose. You can use your business management skills to direct employees or contractors
to do your Internet marketing, or you can choose to learn a new set of skills in information
technology.

Information

Whether you learned business management by the book or by practical experience, you‘ll need
updates all of your life. The Internet is a wealth of information to keep you current with trends,
techniques, software and human resources. You can draw on online databases and websites to
locate potential employees, compare insurance proposals, tackle employee issues or check out the
competition. Managing your business with information gleaned from the Internet keeps you
knowledgeable and on the cutting edge.

Communication

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Communication by email is faster and costs less than sending a paper letter in the mail. You can
transform your business to the 21st century with the use of email for communication with clients
or customers. Information technology allows you to organize email file folders by client or by
type of communication, such as orders or billing. You can drag and drop your email files to
closed folders as your company completes projects. Your communication files become closed
files, placed in storage on CD or on a hard drive with a duplicate copy or backup automated by a
program or service.

BENEFITS OF ICT IN BUSINESS

Information technology, also known as IT, is a comprehensive term that includes all types of
technology used to exchange, store, use or create information. Commonly used information
technology equipment includes computers, servers, peripheral devices, Internet connectivity
equipment and phone systems. From basic computer terminals to IP-based telephony systems,
information technology is an integral part of most modern business operations.

Communication

Rapid communications can help increase productivity, allow for better business decision-making
and ease a company‘s expansion into new territories or countries. Email servers, routers, internal
company billboards and chat services can serve as the backbone of a company‘s
communications. These electronically based communication systems are used to disseminate
routine and critical business information in a quick and efficient manner. IT equipment can be
used to send business status reports to executives, to update employees on critical business
projects and to connect with business partners and customers.

Efficiency

Streamlined work flow systems, shared storage and collaborative work spaces can increase
efficiency in a business and allow employees to process a greater level of work in a shorter
period of time. Information technology systems can be used to automate routine tasks, to make
data analysis easier and to store data in a manner that can easily be retrieved for future use.
Technology can also be used to answer customer questions through email, in a real-time chat
session or through a telephone routing system that connects a customer to an available customer
service agent.

Competitive Advantage

Adoption of information technology resources allows companies to maintain a competitive

advantage over their rivals. Companies using a first-movers strategy can use information
technology to create new products, distance their products from the existing market or enhance
their customer services. Companies that follow a low-cost product strategy can look to
information technology solutions to reduce their costs through increased productivity and
reduced need for employee overhead. Businesses can also build-in information technology to
their products that makes it difficult for customers to switch platforms or products.

Economic Efficiencies

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Companies can harness information technology resources to lower their costs. Using IT
infrastructure, redundant tasks can be centralized at one location. For example, a large company
could centralize their payroll function at one location to lower employee costs. Economic
efficiencies can also be realized by migrating high-cost functions into an online environment.
Companies can offer email support for customers that may have a lower cost than a live customer
support call. Cost savings could also be found through outsourcing opportunities, remote work
options and lower-cost communication options.

THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT

As it is known from time immemorial that everything in life is like the two side of a coin, there is
always a positive and negative side of every phenomenon. But whether the effect is positive or
negative the effects of Information Communication Technology (ICT) is far reaching and cannot
be overemphasized. The Effects of ICT lens looks at how our lives have been changed, for better
and for worse, by the impact of ICT. It includes both positive effects and negative effects and
looks at how individuals, organisations and society are affected.

POSITIVE IMPACTS OF ICT

ICT CAN HAVE POSITIVE IMPACTS ON PEOPLE

• Access to information: Possibly the greatest effect of ICT on individuals is the huge
increase in access to information and services that has accompanied the growth of the
Internet. Some of the positive aspects of this increased access are better, and often
cheaper, communications, such as VoIP phone and Instant Messaging. In addition, the use
of ICT to access information has brought new opportunities for leisure and entertainment,
the facility to make contacts and form relationships with people around the world, and the
ability to obtain goods and services from a wider range of suppliers.
• Improved access to education, e.g. distance learning and on-line tutorials. New ways of
learning, e.g. interactive multi-media and virtual reality. New job opportunities, e.g.
flexible and mobile working, virtual offices and jobs in the communications industry.
• New tools, new opportunities: The second big effect of ICT is that it gives access to new
tools that did not previously exist. A lot of these are tied into the access to information
mentioned above, but there are many examples of stand-alone ICT systems as well:

a) ICT can be used for processes that had previously been out of the reach of most
individuals, e.g. photography, where digital cameras, photo-editing software and high quality
printers have enabled people to produce results that would previously required a photographic
studio.

b) ICT can be used to help people overcome disabilities. e.g. screen magnification or screen
reading software enables partially sighted or blind people to work with ordinary text
rather than Braille.

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NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT ON PEOPLE

• Job loss: One of the largest negative effects of ICT can be the loss of a person‘s job. This
has both economic consequences, loss of income, and social consequences, loss of status
and self esteem. Job losses may occur for several reasons, including: Manual operations
being replaced by automation. e.g. robots replacing people on an assembly line.Job
export. e.g. Data processing work being sent to other countries where operating costs are
lower. Multiple workers being replaced by a smaller number who are able to do the same
amount of work. e.g. A worker on a supermarket checkout can serve more customers per
hour if a bar-code scanner linked to a computerized till is used to detect goods instead of
the worker having to enter the item and price manually

• Reduced personal interaction: Being able to work from home is usually regarded as
being a positive effect of using ICT, but there can be negative aspects as well. Most
people need some form of social interaction in their daily lives and if they do not get the
chance to meet and talk with other people they may feel isolated and unhappy.

• Reduced physical activity: A third negative effect of ICT is that users may adopt a more
sedentary lifestyle. This can lead to health problems such as obesity, heart disease, and
diabetes. Many countries have workplace regulations to prevent problems such as
repetitive strain injury or eyestrain, but lack of physical exercise is rarely addressed as a
specific health hazard.

ICT CAN HAVE A POSITIVE EFFECT ON ORGANIZATIONS

There are three main areas in which organisations are affected by the use of ICT,
communications, information management, and security. The three areas have considerable
overlap.

• Communication: By using ICT has brought a number of benefits to organisations, such

as: Cost savings by using e.g. VoIP instead of normal telephone, email / messaging
instead of post, video conferencing instead of traveling to meetings, e-commerce web
sites instead of sales catalogues. Access to larger, even worldwide, markets. Web sites
can be seen from all parts of the world and orders can be taken wherever there is a
compatible banking system to process payments, e.g. credit / debit card, Pay-Pal, bank
transfer facility. Web sites also have 24 hour opening and are available every day of the
year. Flexible response. Organisations with good communications can respond to changes
quickly. This may mean better customer relations, an improved supply chain for goods
and services, faster development of new products to meet a new opportunity, etc.

• Information management: Organisations can benefit from using ICT for information
management. e.g. Data mining of customer information to produce lists for targeted
advertising. Improved stock control, resulting in less wastage, better cash flow,
etc.Mangers are better informed and will have more reliable and up-to-date information
on which to base their decisions.

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 • Security: Although the use of ICT can bring its own security issues, see next section, it
can also solve or reduce some security problems, e.g. Encryption methods can keep data
safe from unauthorized people, both while it is being stored or while it is being sent
electronically. This is important for reasons such as data protection legislation or
commercial secrecy. ICT enables physical security systems such as fingerprint, iris or
facial recognition.

NEGATIVE IMPACTS OF ICT ON ORGANIZATIONS

a) Cost: the cost of using ICT may cause a number of problems for organisations. A lot of
ICT hardware and software is expensive, both to purchase and to maintain. An ICT system
usually requires specialist staff to run it and there is also the challenge of keeping up with
everchanging technology. These extra costs should be offset by the poitive effects of using ICT,
but if an organisation gets its cost-benefit analysis wrong it may lose money.

b) Competition: this is usually thought of as being a good thing, but for some organisations
being exposed to greater competition can be a problem. If the organisation is competing for
customers, donations, or other means of funding nationally or even internationally, they may lose
out to other organisations that can offer the same service for less money.

c) Security: this is always a problem for any organisation that uses ICT. Data must be kept
secure, Internet connections must be protected from attack, new viruses and other forms of
malware are released nearly every day.

Organisations will usually have legal obligations to protect data such as customer information.
Even if the organisation does not have to comply with a specific data protection law it will
usually be in the organisation‘s interest to protect data from rivals.

ICT CAN HAVE POSITIVE EFFECT ON THE SOCIETY

Probably the largest effect that ICT use has on society is allowing members of society to have
greatly increased access to information. This can have numerous positive effects, such as:

a) Increasing opportunities for education

b) Improving communication
c) Allowing people to participate in a wider, even worldwide, society.

The positive impact of ICT on education: On the positive side, the use of ICT in education can
provide opportunities that might not otherwise exist, such as:

i. Distance learning, where students can access teaching materials from all over the world,
ii. The ability to perform ‗impossible‘ experiments‘ by using simulations,
iii. The possibility for students to have individual learning programs within a topic, rather than
everybody having to do the same thing at the same time at the same pace. More able

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 students can be given more challenging work, less able students can access remedial
lessons.

The negative impact of ICT on education:

I. There are large costs involved and poorer students / educational establishments
establishments can end up being disadvantaged. This is often referred to as being a factor
in the digital divide
II. Students, and sometimes teachers, can get hooked on the technology aspect, rather than the
subject content. Just because a topic can be taught via ICT, does not mean that it is taught
most effectively via ICT.
Even if a subject can be taught effectively via ICT, and there is the money available, it
does not always follow that there is any advantage to it. There have been a lot of studies /
assessments carried out, looking to see if ICT usage improves learning. The results are
mixed. Much simplified, it would appear that:

1. There is some initial impact of using ICT in that students get a wider range of resources
and experience some extra motivation.
2. The motivation effect soon fades as using ICT becomes the new normal
3. The wider resource range remains a positive factor
4. There are some well documented positive effects in specific. e.g. simulation and
modelling is effective in improving science standards, use of word processing and
communication software is effective in developing language skills, but there is concern
that large areas of the curriculum are not benefiting.

The manner in which the subject is taught probably has a larger effect than the mere use of ICT.
i.e. if the teacher does not adapt their methods in order to make best use of ICT, the students do
not gain from that use.

The attitude of the educational establishment also seems to have a greater effect. i.e. the people
running them may not have the knowledge and experience, or often the money, to enable
widespread and effective use of ICT in their schools.

The attitude of society / government can have a large impact of how ICT is perceived and thus
how effectively it is used. Countries where the government encourages ICT usage and where the
majority of the people use ICT on a daily basis are likely to make better use of ICT in education
as well as in the larger society.
On the other hand, in countries where some uses of ICT are restricted because of e.g political or
religious reasons, the use of ICT in education becomes less effective and may even be seen as a
threat to those in power and thus actively discouraged

NEGATIVE IMPACT OF ICT ON SOCIETY

Probably the largest effect that ICT use has on on society is allowing members of society to have
greatly increased access to information. This can have numerous negative effects, such as:
causing a digital divide between those who can access information and those who cannot,

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reducing levels of education and understanding due to the vast amount of incorrect and
misleading information that is available causing moral and ethical problems due to the nature of
some of the material available.

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Introduction

A computer is a device that can receive, process and store data. They are used as tools in every
part of society together with the Internet. Computers nowadays are complex; there are a lot of
different components inside them, and they all serve different purposes. They all need to work
together for the computer to work; knowing how a computer works makes it easier to use a
computer by being able to understand how a computer will respond.

A computer system is a system of interconnected computers that share a central storage system
and various peripheral devices such as a printers, scanners, or routers. Each computer connected
to the system can operate independently, but has the ability to communicate with other external
devices and computers.

COMPUTERISATION

It‘s the process of taking activities or tasks not previously done on the computer and shifting
them to being done on the computer.

Advantages of computerisation in an organisation

1. Response time is greatly reduced

2. Very large data are stored for information and decision-making
3. Accuracy of information is considerably improved, thereby improving the quality of the
decision
4. Problems are handled more easily by using various operation research models
5. The cost involved in the decision-making process is reduced
6. More secrecy is observed as compared to manual file system

Disadvantages of computerisation
1. Unemployment
Different tasks are performed automatically by using computers. It reduces the need of
people and increases unemployment in society.

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 2. Wastage of time and energy
Many people use computers without positive purpose. They play games and chat for a
long period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young generation is now
spending a lot of time on the social media websites like Facebook, Twitter etc or texting
their friends all night through smartphones which is bad for both studies and their health.
And it also has adverse effects on the social life.
3. Data Security
The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons through
networks. It has created serious problems for the data security.
4. Computer Crimes
People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card numbers of the
people and misuse them or they can steal important data from big organizations.
5. Privacy violation
The computers are used to store personal data of the people. The privacy of a person can
be violated if the personal and confidential records are not protected properly.
6. Health risks
The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries or disorders of hands,
wrists, elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid health risks by using the
computer in proper position. They must also take regular breaks while using the computer
for longer period of time. It is recommended to take a couple of minutes break after 30
minutes of computer usage.
7. Impact on Environment
The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are polluting the
environment. The wasted parts of computer can release dangerous toxic materials. Green
computer is a method to reduce tire electricity consumed and environmental waste
generated when using a computer. It includes recycling and regulating manufacturing
processes. The used computers must be donated or disposed off properly.

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM:

A computer system is a set of six elements viz.:

i. Hardware, ii. Software, iii.

People, iv. Procedures, v. Data
and vi. Connectivity.

(i) Hardware:

The physical components of a computer constitute its Hardware. These include keyboard, mouse,
monitor and processor. Hardware consists of input devices and output devices that make a
complete computer system.

Examples of input devices are keyboard, optical scanner, mouse and joystick which are used to
feed data into the computer. Output devices such as monitor and printer are media to get the
output from the computer.

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(ii) Software:

A set of programs that form an interface between the hardware and the user of a computer system
are referred to as Software.

They are of six types:

(a) System software:

A set of programs to control the internal operations such as reading data from input devices,
giving results to output devices and ensuring proper functioning of components is called system
software.

(b) Application software:

Programs designed by the user to perform a specific function, such as accounting software,
payroll software etc.

(c) Operating system:

A set of tools and programs to manage the overall working of a computer using a defined set of
hardware components is called an operating system. It is the interface between the user and the
computer system.

(d) Utility software:

Certain special purpose programs that are designed to perform a specialized task, such as
functions to copy, cut or paste files in a computer, formatting a disk etc.

(e) Language processors:

Special software to accept data and interpret it in the form of Machine /Assembly language
understandable by a computer. It also ensures the correctness of language syntax and errors.

(f) Connectivity software:

A set of programs and instructions to connect the computer with the main server to enable
sharing of resources and information with the server and other connected computers.

(iii) People:

The most important element of a computer system is its users. They are also called live-ware of
the computer system.

The following types of people interact with a computer system:

(a) System Analysts:

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People who design the operation and processing of the system.

(b) System Programmers:

People who write codes and programs to implement the working of the system

(c) System Operators:

People who operate the system and use it for different purposes. Also called the end users. (iv)

Procedures:

Procedure is a step by step series of instructions to perform a specific function and achieve
desired output.

In a computer system, there are three types of procedures:

(a) Hardware oriented procedure:

It defines the working of a hardware component.

(b) Software oriented procedure:

It is a set of detailed instructions for using the software.

(c) Internal procedure:

It maintains the overall internal working of each part of a computer system by directing the flow
of information.

(v) Data:

The facts and figures that are fed into a computer for further processing are called data. Data is
raw until the computer system interprets it using machine language, stores it in memory,
classifies it for processing and produces results in conformance with the instructions given to it.
Processed and useful data is called information which is used for decision making.

(vi) Connectivity:

When two or more computers are connected to each other, they can share information and
resources such as sharing of files (data/music etc.), sharing of printer, sharing of facilities like the
internet etc. This sharing is possible using wires, cables, satellite, infra-red, Bluetooth,
microwave transmission etc.

Components of A Computer System:

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A computer system mainly has three components viz. Input Unit, Central Processing Unit and
Output Unit. These components are the building blocks of a computer and define its architecture.
The relationship among these components is well established by the following diagram:

(i) Input Unit:

Input unit is responsible for controlling the various input devices that are used to enter data into
the computer. The commonly used input devices are mouse, keyboard, light pen, optical scanner
etc. While some input devices are designed for special purposes such as Optical Character
Recognition (OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) and Bar Code Reader etc,
there are other devices that accept input by responding to physical touch and voice such as
ATMs.

(ii) Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The CPU ensures the flow of data into the system by directing the data to enter the system,
storing it into the memory and retrieving it when needed to produce the output.

It has three parts:

(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):

It performs all the arithmetical calculations and computations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It is also responsible for logical calculations like comparisons among
data items.

(b) Memory Unit:

The data has to be stored in the memory blocks of the computer before it is retrieved for actual
processing.

(c) Control Unit:

As the name suggests, control unit controls and coordinates the activities of all the components of
the computer system. It reads data from the memory, decodes the instructions, looks after its
execution, and fetches the next instruction and so on.
(iii) Output Unit:

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It controls various output devices like printer, graphic plotter, speech synthesizer, monitor (also
known as Visual Display Unit or VDU) to produce the desired output and present it to the user. It
ensures the convertibility of output into human readable form that is understandable by the user.

Examples include:

 Disk drive
 CD
 Ear phones
 Floppy Disk
 Pen drive
 Monitor
 Printers
 speakers

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Hardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware are following:

• Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.

• Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.
• Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.

• Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.

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Components of a computer

All types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

Operation Description

The process of entering data and instructions into the computer

1 Take Input
system
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing
2 Store Data
as and when required.
Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to
3 Processing Data

4 Output The process of producing useful information or results for the

Information user, such as a printed report or visual display. convert them into
useful information.
Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
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workflow operations are performed.

INPUT DEVICES

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
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Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr.No Keys Description
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9)
1 Typing Keys
which generally give same layout as that of typewriters.
It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally,
2 Numeric Keypad it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which
3 Function Keys are arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function
key has unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End,
Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as
5 Special Purpose Keys Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock,
Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.

Advantages

• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in
a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

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Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding
signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the
digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

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Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone
is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing
music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

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Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a
hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar
code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which
bar code reader is connected.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially
used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

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PROCESSING DEVICES
These are devices that transform inputs into outputs

CPU(Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program). It controls the operation
of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components

• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

• Memory Unit
• Control Unit
CPU consists of the following features:

• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
• It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program). It controls the
operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

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 • Memory or Storage Unit
• Control Unit
• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main
memory or primary storage or Random access memory(RAM).

Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of memory unit are:

• It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
• It stores intermediate results of processing.
• It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.

Functions of this unit are:

• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
It does not process or store data.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

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This unit consists of two subsections namely

• Arithmetic section
• Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching
and merging of data.
MEMORY

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types

• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

• Cache memory is faster than main memory.

• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time. It stores data
for temporary use.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

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 • Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and
ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

• These are semiconductor memories It is known as main memory.

• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary

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memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example : disk,
CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

• These are magnetic and optical memories It is known as backup memory.

• It is non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without secondary memory. Slower than primary memories.

Random access memory-RAM

RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and
program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon
as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers.
RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

• Static RAM (SRAM)

• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

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The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.

Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache
memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

• It has long life

• There is no need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

• It has short data lifetime

• Need to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Lesser in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption
Read Only Memory-ROM

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

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Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are
small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is
not erasable.

EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is
flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
• Non-volatile in nature
• These cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs

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 • These are static and do not require refreshing
• Its contents are always known and can be verified

Motherboard

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. A
motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and
other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a
computer.

Features of Motherboard

A motherboard comes with following features:

• Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.
• Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.
• Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible with motherboard to
function properly
• Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.
Description of Motherboard

The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through
pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It
provides a single socket for CPU whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available.
Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon
cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards
and other expansion cards can be connected to motherboard.

On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor, printer, mouse,
keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports which allow
compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion for example, pen drive, digital
cameras etc.

Memory Units

Memory unit is:

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 • the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.
• that in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

Sr.No. Unit Description

A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an
1 Bit (Binary Digit)
active state of a component in an electric circuit.
2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit
3 Byte
which can represent a data item or a character.
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits
processed as a unit which varies from computer to computer
but is fixed for each computer.
4 Word
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word
length and it may be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96
bits. A computer stores the information in the form of computer
words.

Few higher storage units are following

Sr.No. Unit Description

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes
2 Megabyte (MB) 1 MB = 1024 KB
3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB
4 TeraByte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB
5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

Ports

What is a Port?

A port:

• is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer.

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 • can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a program
to computer or over the internet.

Characteristics

A port has the following characteristics:

• External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

• Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.
• Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers etc.

Following are few important types of ports:

Serial Port

• Used for external modems and older computer mouse

• Two versions : 9 pin, 25 pin model
• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port

• Used for scanners and printers

• Also called printer port
• 25 pin model
• Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port

• Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

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 • Also called mouse port
• Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard
• Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

• It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
• It was introduced in 1997.
• Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
• Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds
• USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port

• Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

• Has 15 holes.
• Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.

Power Connector

• Three-pronged plug
• Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket

Firewire Port

• Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

• Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer
• Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds
• Invented by Apple
• Three variants : 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin
FireWire 800 connector

Modem Port

• Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network

Ethernet Port

• Connects to a network and high speed Internet.

• Connect network cable to a computer.
• This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
• Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.

Game Port

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 • Connect a joystick to a PC

• Now replaced by USB.

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

• Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
• Very popular among video card manufacturers. Sockets

• Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

Relationship between Hardware and Software

• Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work
together to make a computer produce a useful output.
• Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
• Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
• To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the
hardware
• Hardware is a one-time expense.
• Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
• Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.
• A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
• If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are
complimentary to each other.

OUTPUT DEVICES

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.

• Monitors
• Printer
• Speakers

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

• Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

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The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole
character, such as the letter ‗e‘ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT:

• Large in Size
• High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

• Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is
LCD(LiquidCrystal Device)

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers:

• Impact Printers
• Non-Impact Printers

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Impact Printers

The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on
the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

• Very low consumable costs

• Very noisy
• Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
• There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

• Character printers
• Line printers Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

• Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

• Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

• Inexpensive
• Widely Used
• Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages
• Slow Speed
• Poor Quality

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Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower
name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for
wordprocessing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice
quality.

Advantages

• More reliable than DMP

• Better quality
• The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

• Slower than DMP

• Noisy
• More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

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These are of further two types

• Drum Printer
• Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided
into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132
characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different
character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation
of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per
minute.

Advantages

• Very high speed

Disadvantages

• Very expensive
• Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character
set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

• Character fonts can easily be changed.

• Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

• Noisy

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Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

• Faster than impact printers.

• They are not noisy.
• High quality.
• Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

• Very high speed

• Very high quality output
• Give good graphics quality
• Support many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

• Expensive.
• Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

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Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

• High quality printing

• More reliable

Disadvantages

• Expensive as cost per page is high

• Slow as compared to laser printer

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Speakers

There are two types of speakers used in computers. Those that are inbuilt and external speakers

COMMUNICATIONS DEVICE

A communication device is piece of equipment or hardware designed to move information or

data from one place to another, in other words, allowing one computer device to communicate
with another. There are many examples of communication devices and we will look at a few
below.

Network interface card (NIC) or Network connector

Computers on a network need to be able to communicate with the server and with other
computers. In order to do this, a network interface card (NIC) is required or a built-in network
chip is included on the motherboard, such as in the laptop opposite..

The hardware handles all the physical network signals.

The NIC allows data to be communicated to and from a networked computer.

Wi-fi cards

When you are using your computer on a wireless network, you need to be able to send data to
and receive data from the server and other computers on the network. This may be done by a
built-in wi-fi in your laptop or mobile device connected to a local network.
If your laptop needs to connect via a mobile wi-fi network whilst on the move, then you can also
purchase a Wi-Fi 'dongle' that looks like a memory stick and is inserted into a USB port. It works
in just the same way but is designed to work with a specific mobile internet network provider.

Router

This is a very important network communication device. It is responsible for sending network
traffic to its correct destination. It works by reading the destination network address within each
data packet and sends it along its way. There can be many routers on a large network.

Modem

A Modem is a device used to convert digital data to analogue data in order to transmit it over the
telephone network (MODulation).

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It will also convert the analogue data back into digital data when the computer is receiving data
from the telephone network (DEModulation).

So together the device MODulates and DEModulates, hence MODEM

FACTORS DETERMINING THE PROCESSING POWER OF A COMPUTER

There are many factors which affect how fast your computer can process data and instructions:

1. Registers
2. RAM
3. The System Clock
4. The Bus
5. Cache Memory

1. Registers

• The CPU contains of small memory areas: called registers, which store data and
instructions while the CPU processes them.
• The size of the registers determines the amount of data with which the computer can work
at a one time.
• Today most PC`s have 32-bit registers, mean the CPU can process four bytes data at one
time. Register sizes are rapidly growing to 64 bits.

2. RAM
• The amount of RAM in a PC has a direct affect on the system`s speed.
• The more RAM a PC has. the more program instructions and data can be held in memory,
which is faster than storage on disk.
• If a PC does not have enough memory to run a program, it must move data between RAM
and the hard disk frequently. This process called swapping, can greatly slow a PC`s
performance.

3. The System Clock • The computer`s system clock sets the pace the CPU by using a

vibrating quartz crystal.

• A single "tick" of the clock is the time required to turn a transistor off and back on.This is
called a clock cycle.
• Clock cycles are measured in Hertz(Hz),a measure of cycles per second.If a computer has
a clock speed of 300 MHz, then its system clock"ticks" 300 million times every seconds.
• The faster a PCs clock runs,the more instructions the PC can execute each second.

4. The Bus

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 • A bus is a path between the components of a computer.Data and instructions travel along
these paths.
• The data bus width determines how many bits can be transmitted between the CPU and
other devices.
• The address buss runs only between the CPU and RAM, and carries nothing but memory
addresses for the CPU to use.
• Peripheral devices are connected to the CPU by an expansion bus.

5. Cache Memory

• Cache memory is high-speed memory that holds the most recent data and instructions that
have been loaded by the CPU.
• Cache is located directly on the CPU or between the CPU and RAM,making it faster than
normal RAM.
• CPU-resident cache is called Level-1 (L1)cache.External cache is called Level-2 (L2)
cache.
• The amount of cache memory has a tremendous impact on the computer`s speed.

Hardware Acquisition
In acquiring hardware, organization needs to keep in mind that "Software" is the heart of the
system, when selecting the system, those software to be used must efficiently and effectively
satisfy organizaton's overall needs first, and the "Hardware" to be acquired must be able to
support that selected software.

Hardware acquisition will normally involve those acquiring individuals or organizations in lots
of learning about the new advancement in technology. The typical process will need to be
wellorganized, and it always requires buyers to conduct thorough analysis of the available
equipment in order to ensure an appropriate selection that will perfectly satisfy their needs.

Factors to consider in selection of computer hardware

1. The volume of the data and the urgency of processing
2. Hardware availability and its cost of acquisition and maintenance
3. The cost of the mode
4. The computer response time
5. The required operating systems its cost and sustainability
6. The geographical separation between the terminal and the processors
7. Availability of required personnel including the cost of training them
8. The reliability efficiency, security of the mode

TOPIC 4: COMPUTER SOFTWARE

OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

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Software is detailed step-by-step sequence of instructions known as programme which guide
computer hardware. A computer programme is a sequence of instructions that tell the computer
hardware what to do. Programmes are written in (programming) languages, which consist of a set
of symbols combined according to a given syntax.

A programme must be in main memory (RAM) to be executed. These invisible, intangible

components of a computer that direct and control the operations of the hardware when processing
data are referred to as software.

Features of software

• An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the
computer hardware.
• It is an integrated set of specialised programs that are used to manage overall resources
and operations of the computer.
• It is specialised software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs
that reside in the computer, including application programs and other system software.

Software is classified into two major types: System and Application software.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

System software consists of programmes that coordinates the activities of hardware and other
programs. System software is designed for a specific CPU and hardware class. The combination
of a particular hardware configuration and operating system is called a computer platform. These
programmes manage the ―behind the scenes‖ operation of the computer.

Examples

 Operating systems
 Utility Programmes - Utility programmes often come installed in computer systems or
packaged with operating systems. Utilities can also be purchased individually. Utility
programmes perform useful tasks, such as virus detection, tracking computer jobs and
compressing data.
 Language processors – Compilers and interpreters
Operating systems
The functions of an operating system include:
1. Performing common hardware functions
2. Accepting input and store data on disks and send data to output devices
3. Providing a user interface
4. Providing hardware independence
5. Managing system memory
6. Managing processing
7. Controlling access to system resources
- Protection against unauthorised access

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 - Logins and passwords
8. Managing files- Physical storage location
- File permissions
- File access

Examples of operating systems include: -

• DOS – Disk Operating System

• Windows XP, 7,8
• Linux, Unix, MAC OS, System/7

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Applications software include programmes designed to help end users solve particular problems
using the computer or to perform specific tasks.

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PROPRIETARY SOFTWARE

Is a computer software which is legal property of one party. The terms of use for otherparties is
defined by contracts or licensing agreements.

Advantages of proprietary software

• You can get exactly what you need in terms of reports, features etc.
• Being involved in development offers a further level in control over results. may be
required to counteract a new initiative by a competitor or to meet new supplier or
customer requirements. A merger with another firm or an acquisition will also necessitate
software changes to meet new business needs.

Disadvantages of proprietary software

• It can take a long time and significant resources to develop required features.
• Inhouse system development staff may become hard pressed to provide the required level
of ongoing support and maintenance because of pressure to get on to other new projects.
• There is more risk concerning the features and performance of the software that has yet to
be developed.

OFF-THE-SHELF SOFTWARE
Off-the-shelf is a term for software or hardware, generally technology or computer products that
are ready-made and available for sale, lease or license to the general public.

Advantages of off-the-shelf software

 The initial cost is lower since the software firm is able to spread the development costs
over a large number of customers.
 There is lower risk that the software will fail to meet the basic business needs
 You can analyse existing features and performance of the package
 Package is likely to be of high quality since many customer firms have tested the software
and helped identify many of its bugs.

Disadvantages of off-the-shelf software

 An organisation may have to pay for features that are not required or never used.
 The software may lack important features, thus requiring future modifications or
customisation. This can be very expensive because users must adopt future releases of the
software.
 Software may not match current work processes and data standards.

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Application software is further classified into general-purpose software and applications which
include:

 Word processing – Create, edit and print text documents, e.g. MS Word and Word
Perfect.

 Spreadsheets – Provide a wide range of built-in functions for statistical, logical, financial,
database, graphics, data and time calculations, e.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Excel and Quattro Pro.
 Database management systems (DBMS) – Store, manipulate and retrieve data. e.g.
Access, FoxPro and dBase.
 Online Information Services – Obtain a broad range of information from commercial
services. e.g. America Online and CompuServe
 Communications - Ms Outlook for email
 Browsers e.g Internet Explorer and Eudora
 Graphics – Develop graphs, illustrations and drawings. e.g. PaintShop, FreeHand and
Corel
 Project Management – Plan, schedule, allocate and control people and resources needed to
complete a project according to schedule. e.g. Project for Windows andTime Line.
 Financial Management – Provide income and expense tracking and reporting to monitor
and plan budgets, e.g. Quicken
 Desktop publishing - used to create high-quality printed output including text and
graphics; various styles of pages can be laid out; art and text from other programmes can
also be integrated into published pages, e.g. PageMaker and Publisher.  Presentation
packages like MS PowerPoint

COMPUTER PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Programming languages are collections of commands, statements and words that are combined
using a particular syntax, or rules, to write both systems and application software. This results
in meaningful instructions to the CPU.

GENERATIONS OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Machine Language (1st Generation Languages)

A machine language consists of binary digit, that is, zeroes (0) and ones (1). Instructions and
addresses are written in binary (0,1) code. Binary is the only ―language‖ a CPU can understand.
The CPU directly interprets and executes this language, therefore making its execution of
instructions fast. Machine language programmes directly instructed the computer hardware, so
they were not portable. That is, a programme written for computer model A could not be run on
computer model B without being rewritten. All software in other languages must ultimately be

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translated down to machine language form. The translation process makes the other languages
slower.

Advantage

• The only advantage is that programmes of machine languages run very fast because no
translation programme is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages
 It is very difficult to programmes in machine language. The programmer has to know
details of hardware to write the programme.
 The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a programme, which sometimes
result in errors.
 It is difficult to debug a programme.

Assembly Language (2nd Generation Languages)

Uses symbols and codes instead of binary digits to represent programme instructions. It is a
symbolic language meaning that instructions and addresses are written using alphanumeric labels
that are meaningful to the programmer.

The resulting programmes still directly instruct the computer hardware. For example, an assembly
language instruction might move a piece of data stored at a particular location in RAM into a
particular location on the CPU. Therefore, like their first generation counterparts, second
generation programmes were not easily portable.

Assembly languages were designed to run in a small amount of RAM. Furthermore, they are
lowlevel languages; that is the instructions directly manipulate the hardware. Therefore,
programmes written in assembly language execute efficiently and quickly. As a result, more
systems software is still written using assembly languages.

The language has a one-to-one mapping with machine instructions but has macros added to it. A
macro is a group of multiple machine instructions, which are considered as one instruction in
assembly language. A macro performs a specific task, for example adding and subtracting. A one-
to-one mapping means that for every assembly instruction, there is corresponding single or
multiple instructions in machine language.

An assembler is used to translate the assembly language statements into machine language.

Advantages:
 The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves a lot
of time and effort of the programmer.
 It is easier to correct errors and modify programme instructions.

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  Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level language.
This is because this is a one-to-one translator between assembly language programme and
its corresponding machine language programme.

Disadvantages:

 One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent. A

programme written for one computer might not run in other computers with a different
hardware configuration.

High-level languages (3rd Generation Languages)

Third generation languages are easier to learn and use than were earlier generations. Thus
programmers are more productive when using third generation languages. For most applications,
this increased productivity and compensates for the decrease in speed and efficiency of the
resulting programmes. Furthermore, programmes written in third generation languages are
portable, that is, a program written to run on a particular type of computer can be run with little or
no modification on another type of computer. Portability is possible because third generation
languages are ―high-level languages‖; that is, instructions do not directly manipulate the
computer hardware.

Third generation languages are sometimes referred to as ―procedural‖ languages since

programme instructions, must give the computer detailed instructions of how to reach the desired
result.

High-level languages incorporated greater use of symbolic code. Its statements are more
English– like, for example print, get and while. They are easier to learn but the resulting
programme is slower in execution. Examples include Basic, Cobol, C and Fortran. They have first
to be compiled (translated into corresponding machine language statements) through the use of
compilers.

Advantages of High Level Languages

• Higher level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly languages
since they high are easy to learn and use.
• Are portable

SELECTION AND ACQUISITION OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Here are five things to consider when selecting a software solution as the plan is put in place.

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 1. What the Software Needs to Do:

Compile a list of the tasks. Ask everyone who will use the solution to make a list of their top 10
tasks. Be specific: Weekly Sales Reports by City, print invoices or e-mail receipts are specific
features. It is also important to identify the information that needs to be stored or tracked such as
customer names and addresses; vendors who send holiday gifts; past trip history; specific travel
requirements; and more.

2. Custom Designed or Pre-Written

You will find that almost any type business has a choice of pre-written, off-the-shelf software
solutions. These will include basic functions such as customer relations management (CRM),
sales, accounting, vendor and product management and reporting, tailored for your specific
industry or product. Pre-written solutions can save a great deal of time and money over custom
solutions – they come pre-tested and ready to run. Custom solutions provide the best fit if your
business is truly unique but time, money and the patience of Job will be required. My
recommendation: a pre-written solution that allows a great deal of customization offers the best of
both worlds.
3. Where the Solution Will Run

Your business solution will typically be shared by all or most of the computers on your office
network. It can be hosted on a local computer or it can be hosted on a server somewhere on the
Internet. The functions of your solution will determine the best method of hosting. Solutions or
applications that are more specific or generic in function make good candidates for internet
hosting. Internet applications are developed to be a ―one-size-fits-all‖, they are generally
―rented‖ and they are not as customizable as an in-office solution. On the other hand, solutions
that have a broader range of functionality or are more customized are better implemented on your
local network. For your development dollar, generally you can get more features if the solution is
designed to be hosted on your local network. Other considerations: security, backups, access to
your data. If the solution and data are in your office, you have more control.

4. Budget

Set a realistic budget by speaking with other, similar companies who have recently implemented a
solution. Trade groups are a good source for contacts. Don‘t forget to consider required hardware
upgrades, customization of the solution, training and support.

5. Demonstrations and References

One would assume that the salesperson can make the software look good but try to find one that
has practical experience in your line of business. Ask about the developers or programmers, it‘s a
big plus if they have experience in your industry beyond the ―programming‖. Speak with actual
users about their implementation experience, software‘s performance, solution‘s reliability,
customer service team, scalability, and more.

When an integrated software solution is thoughtfully selected and systematically integrated into
the office‘s operation, the return on investment can be immediate and huge. Any office task you
might think of can be completed more quickly with a well-designed, integrated solution. Rooming
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lists can be generated with a button click instead of editing or typing a document. Accounting
reports can be automatically updated if a reservation changes, and invoices or receipts can be
automatically queued and delivered. Tours or a series of tours can be ―set up‖ in the system
ready for booking with no more effort than creating the first one.

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