Transient DC Circuits

The currents in circuits containing sources of e.m.f. and resistors do not vary in time. However, there are
circuits which contain capacitors as well as sources of e.m.f. and resistors. These circuits have currents
that vary with time. How do circuit elements such as capacitors and inductors respond when supplies are
switched on or off, or new connections are made. Such changes generally result in transients – that is
brief bursts of current and voltage whose behaviour is characteristic of the component (or network of
components) involved.

Transient currents in an RC circuit

The figure below shows a capacitor being charged through a resistor by a d.c. supply.

An RC circuit for charging a capacitor through a resistor.

When the switch is first closed, at t = 0, the potential difference across the capacitor is initially zero, but
it will increase with time as charge accumulates in the capacitor. This increasing potential difference VC (t)
may be measured using a high impedance voltmeter (such as a cathode ray oscilloscope) and will change
with time.

Eventually, the charge stored in the capacitor will build up to a maximum value q0 = V0C, where V0 is the
voltage of the d.c. supply and C is the capacitance of the capacitor. If the capacitor is fully charged, and
the battery is then replaced by a piece of wire the capacitor will discharge through the resistor. The stored
charge will then decrease with time.

Charging a capacitor
When charging the capacitor, according to Kirchoff’s voltage law (KCL), the supplied voltage V0 must
equal the sum of the voltage drops across the resistor and the capacitor at any time t. At t = 0, there is no
charge on the capacitor. When the switch is closed, a time-dependent current I(t) begins to flow. The
dQ
charge Q on the capacitor increases in accordance with I = . Applying KVL in the clockwise direction,
dt
we obtain
Q
VR + VC = E  IR + = E
C
dQ Q
R + =E
dt C
Rearranging, we have
dQ 1
=− dt
Q − EC RC
Integration gives,
dQ 1
 Q − EC = − RC  dt

1
 t
ln(Q − EC ) = − + ln C1
RC
 Q(t ) = EC ) + C1e−t RC
where C1 is the arbitrary constant of integration that is determined by the initial condition.
Q = 0 at t = 0 ,  C1 = − EC
 Q(t ) = EC (1 − e −t RC ) (1)

Graphs showing the change in potential difference, VC(t) and stored charge, q (t)
as a function of time.

By differentiating Q(t ) , we obtain the expression for the time dependence of the current.
dQ E − t RC
I (t ) = = e (2)
dt R
The product RC has the dimensions of time and is referred to as the time constant τ of the circuit.
 = RC (3)
e.g. for R = 100 Ω and C = 10 F,  = RC = 100 10 = 10 s .
-9 −9 −7

dQ E
Equation (3) shows that the initial rate of charging of the capacitor (i.e. at t = 0) is = and the rate
dt R
decreases with time as the capacitor approaches the fully charged condition, Q = EC . This charge is
reached strictly only after an infinite time. For all practical purposes, the capacitor may be considered to
be fully charged after a time t  5 .
Q Q
= = 1 − e −5 = 0.993
EC Q
Similarly, after a time of 5τ, the charging current is essentially zero.

Discharging a capacitor
When a charged capacitor is allowed to discharge through a resistor a changing current I (t ) flows through
the circuit until the stored charge has been reduced to zero. In this case, since the stored charge is
decreasing with time, we know that its rate of change dQ dt will be negative. It follows that the current
in the circuit I (t ) = dQ dt will also be a negative quantity, indicating that it flows anticlockwise, in
opposition to the arrow shown in the figure.

The differential equation for the discharging condition can be obtained by simply setting E = 0 in equation
(1). Kirchoff’s law round a clockwise path gives

2
 Q
IR + =0
C
dQ Q
I= =−
dt RC
I  0 i.e. -ve, which means that the current actually flows in the counterclockwise direction.
Q = Q0 at t = 0
Q(t ) = Q0e−t RC (4)

Discharge of a capacitor through a resistor allows the stored charge to fall from Q0 to 0.

Example 1
In the circuit below, C = 0.1 µF, E = 3 V, and R = 1000 Ω (the internal resistance of the battery is small
compared with R). The capacitor is initially uncharged, and then the switch is closed to position S 1.
(a) Determine the initial current.
(b) Determine the charge Q on the capacitor when it is fully charged.
(c) Find the time required for the charge on the capacitor to reach 99% of Q .
(d) Find the time required for the field energy in the capacitor to reach 99% of its final value.
Solution:
dQ E − t RC E 3.0V
(a) From I (t ) = = e , the initial current is I 0 = = = 3mA
dt R R 1000Ω
(b) The final charge is Q = EC = (3.0V)(0.110−6 F) = 3 10−7 C
(c) For Q = 0.99Q

(
Q = Q 1 − e−t RC  ) Q
Q
= 1 − e−t RC = 0.99

e −t RC = 0.01
t = − RC ln 0.01 = −(103Ω)(10−7 F)(ln 0.01) = 4.6110−4 s
1 Q2
(d) The stored energy is W = (i)
2 C
2
1 Q
W = (ii)
2 C
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), gives
W Q2
 = = 0.99
W Q2
Q2
= 0.99 = 0.995
Q2
1 − e−t RC = 0.995  e−t RC = 0.005

3
t = − RC ln 0.005 = −(103Ω)(10−7 F)(ln 0.005) = 5.30 10−4 s

Transient currents in an LR circuit

An LR circuit for building the current through an inductor.

The figure above shows a resistor and an inductor connected in series to a d.c. supply of voltage V0. At
any time after the switch is closed, the total voltage across the circuit is given by the sum of the voltages
across the individual components. At t = 0, the switch is closed and a time-dependent (increasing) current
dI
I (t ) begin to flow. Because of this changing current in the inductor, there is a back e.m.f. L , that
dt
opposes the driving e.m.f. E. In applying Kirchoff’s rule, this back e.m.f. appears as a voltage drop VL.
Thus, for a clockwise path, we have
VL + VR = E
dI L dI E
L + IR = E  +I =
dt R dt R
L dI E
− =I−
R dt R
dI R
= − dt
 E L
I − 
 R
 E  −Rt
ln  I −  = e L + ln c1
 R
E −Rt
I (t ) = + c1e L
R
E
I = 0 at t = 0  c1 = −
R
(E
)
I (t ) = 1 − e−( R L )t
R
(5)
The expression for I (t ) is illustrated graphically in the figure below.

4
 Graph showing the growth of the current as a function of time.

The quotient L/R is the time constant τ of the circuit. When t L/R, the current approaches the asymptotic
E
value, I  = . For all practical purposes, this current is taken to have reached (and the inductor fully
R
E
energized) after a time of approximately 5τ, for the I = 0.993 .
R
De-energizing an inductor
After the inductor has been fully energized and the voltage supply is replaced by a piece of wire (i.e.
energy source disconnected), then the current across the inductor will begin to decay with time. The
current decreases from its initial value I 0 .
From VL + VR = E
E is now zero.
VL + VR = 0
dI
L + IR = 0
dt
L dI dI R
− =I = − dt
R dt I L
−( R L )t
ln I = e + ln c2  I = c2e−( R L )t
At t = 0, I = I 0  c2 = I 0
I = I 0 e− ( R L )t (6)

LC Circuits
Having looked at the response of capacitors and inductors individually to transient currents and voltages,
the next step is to look at how they behave when connected together, as shown in the figure below.

A combination of a charged capacitor and an inductor (an LC circuit).

In drawing the circuit, arbitrary ‘positive’ directions have been assigned to the current I (t ) and the
potential differences VC(t) and VL(t). At all times the total voltage drops around the whole circuit must be
zero. Applying Kirchoff’s second rule.
VL (t ) + VC (t ) = 0
dI Q
L + =0
dt C
Eliminating the current explicitly gives
d  dQ  Q d 2Q Q
L   + = 0  L + =0
dt  dt  C dt 2 C
d 2Q Q
2
=− (7)
dt LC

5
 d 2x k
Comparing the above equation with 2
= − x for a mass m oscillating on the end of a spring with
dt m
k
spring constant k, where the solution is x(t ) = A sin(0t + 0 ) ; where 0 = . Therefore, we may write
m
the solution as
Q(t ) = Qm sin(0t + 0 ) (8)
1
Here 0 = (9)
LC
Thus the capacitor charge Q(t ) is a simple harmonic function of time, oscillating alternately between
+Qm and −Qm at an angular frequency 0 .
0 1 1
f0 = = (10)
2 2 LC
1
T = = 2 LC (11)
f0
f 0 is the natural frequency and T is the period of oscillation of the circuit.
The circuit current is
dQ
I (t ) = + = 0Qm cos(0t + 0 ) (12)
dt

The oscillating value of the stored charge in the capacitor.

Example 2
At time t = 0, an LC circuit has equal amount of energy stored in the field of the capacitor and in the field
of the inductor each amounting to 500 µJ. The circuit current is in the sense such that I0 > 0. If the
capacitance is 20 µF and the current amplitude is 15 A.
(a) What is the natural frequency of oscillation of oscillation f 0 ?
(b) What is the value of the inductance L?
(c) Determine the equations for Q(t) and I(t).
Solution:
(a) The maximum energy stored in the capacitor is the total field energy
2(500 J) = 10−3 J
Qm2 = 2CE = 2(20 10−6 F)(10−3 J)
Qm = 20 10−4 C
Im
I m = 0Qm  0 =
Qm

6
 0.2A
0 = = 1000 rad/s
2 10−4 C
 1000 rad/s
f0 = 0 = = 159 Hz
2 2

1 1
(b) 0 = L= 2
LC 0 C
1
L= = 50 mH
(1000 rad/s) 2 (20 10−6 F)

(c) The general solution for the charge and current in the LC circuit at t = 0 are
Q0 = Qm sin 0
I 0 = 0Qm cos 0
Q
tan 0 = 0 0
I0
Q02
Also, 1
2 LI 02 = 1
2
C
Q02 1
= LC = 2
2
I0 0
Q
 0 0 =1
I0
 tan 0 = 1
And with I 0  0 , we have 0 =  4
Q(t ) = 2 10−4 sin(1000t +  4)C
I (t ) = 0.20cos(1000t +  4)A

RLC Circuits (Damped oscillations)

It is assumed that no energy is lost from an LC circuit, so the oscillations should continue forever without
any decrease in L amplitude or change of frequency. However, in reality, electromagnetic energy will be
lost due to heating because real inductors always have some resistance and this will alter the phase
relationship between the current and the voltage. This phenomenon of decaying oscillatory behaviour is
called damping. A more realistic circuit, containing a resistor as well as an inductor and a capacitor is
shown in the figure below. In this case the capacitor can be charged when the switch is set at A, and
discharged through the inductor and the resistor when the switch is at B.

Circuit containing an inductor, a capacitor and a resistor. When the switch is moved from A to B

7
the capacitor discharges through the resistor and the inductor.

Applying Kirchoff’s second rule gives

VL + VR + VC = 0
dI Q
L + RI + = 0
dt C
dQ
I=
dt
2
d Q dQ Q
L 2 +R + =0 (13)
dt dt C
Equation (13) is a second order linear differential equation. The general solution for the value of R2 which
are less than 4L/C may be written as:
Q(t ) = Ae − ( R 2 L )t cos(t +  ) (14)
1 R2
where  = − 2 (15)
LC 4 L
The boundary conditions (such as the values of Q (t) and dQ dt = I (t ) at some particular values of t are
required to determine the values of the arbitrary constants A and φ. However, irrespective of those values,
provided A is not zero, it is possible to interpret Equation (14) as the mathematical description of a quantity
that oscillates with angular frequency ω and with an amplitude Ae − ( R 2 L )t that decays exponentially with
time. This kind of oscillation is an example of a damped oscillation and is illustrated by the dashed line
in the figure below.

Damped oscillation in a series LCR circuit for which R2 < 4L/C. Note that the value of Q (t) at t = 0
is related to the arbitrary constants, since Q (0) = A cos ϕ.

If we identify 1 LC as the natural angular frequency ω0 in the case where R = 0, then we can write
R 2C
 = 0 1 − (16)
4 L2
This shows that the angular frequency of a damped LCR circuit is lower than the natural frequency ω0 of
a pure (undamped) LC circuit. The exponentially decaying damped oscillations describes:
(i) those which arise for R2 < 4L/C, are said to exhibit underdamping. Underdamping occurs with
relatively small values of R.
(ii) If R2 is very large compared with 4L/C then the capacitor takes a relatively long time to discharge and
no oscillation takes place. In this case, the circuit is said to exhibit overdamping.

8
(iii) In critical damping R2 = 4L/C and the behaviour of Q(t) lies between these two extremes, with no full
oscillation but, in general, with a single overshot of the Q = 0 condition.

Driven oscillations in LCR circuits

Whether the amplitude decay is so rapid or slow, oscillations in a resistive circuit (i.e. one which has a
resistance) will always decay with time. However, if a supply of alternating current is made part of such
a circuit it can supply the electromagnetic power that is dissipated and sustain the oscillations indefinitely.
The oscillations that occur under these circumstances are called driven oscillations or forced oscillations,
since their (angular) frequency will generally be that of the alternating supply rather than any ‘natural’
(angular) frequency associated with the circuit itself.

A driven LCR circuit is shown in the figure below.

A driven LCR circuit.

If the a.c. supply provides an alternating voltage V (t ) = V0 sin t , then the sum of the voltages around the
circuit must be zero and so the stored charge Q (t) must satisfy the second–order differential equation:
d 2Q dQ Q
L 2 +R + = V0 sin t (17)
dt dt C
where Ω is the angular frequency of the supply.
This equation is harder to solve than those we dealt with earlier, so we will not bother to write down the
general solution, we will simply round off our discussion of electrical oscillations by noting some of its
main features. The first thing to note is that after any initial transient behaviour has died away the solutions
will take the form of simple harmonic oscillations described by
Q(t ) = A sin(t +  ) (18)
where
V0
A= (19)
2
1 2
 − L  + ( R)
2

C 
 
 − R 
 = tan 
−1
 (20)
1
 − L 2 
C 
It should be noted that the amplitude A of these driven oscillations depends on Ω, the angular frequency
of the a.c. supply.

9
Graph showing the oscillatory behaviour of Q (t) after any transients have died away. The current in the circuit will show similar
oscillations, though their amplitude will be AΩ and they will lead the charge oscillations by π/2.

A graph showing the variation of A with Ω is given in the figure below.

(a) Graphs showing the variation of reactance with angular frequency Ω. (b) A graph showing the variation of the amplitude of
the oscillations with Ω.

As can be seen in the above figure, the amplitude shows a pronounced maximum when Ω is close to the
natural angular frequency 0 = 1 LC . This is the phenomenon of resonance, the existence of a driving
frequency which provokes an exceptionally strong response from the circuit. Since 0 = 1 LC at
resonance, or very nearly, we can rewrite the approximate resonance condition as
1
0 L = (20a)
0 C
that is, the reactances of the inductor and capacitor are equal
X L = XC (20b)
This means that the impedance of a series LCR circuit Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 has its minimum value, R,
at resonance. The voltage leads the current by

10
  X L − XC 
 = tan −1   (21)
 R 
The rms current flowing in the circuit will be given by Irms = Vrms /Z, so (for a constant rms supply voltage)
the rms current will be a maximum at resonance in a series LCR circuit.

Although the resonance frequency is determined only by the values of L and C, the behaviour of the circuit
at other frequencies depends on the relative values of L, C, and R. A quality called the quality factor, Q,
of the circuit is defined as
L 1 L
Q= 0 = (22)
R R C

Below resonance (   0 ), the capacitive reactance dominates, which produces −  2    0 , whereas

above resonance (   0 ), the inductive reactance dominates and 0    −  2 .
R
cos  = (23)
Z
Therefore, the average power dissipated to the resistor is
1 1  V  R 
P ( ) = V0 I 0 cos  = V0  0   
2 2  Z  Z 
2 1 2
V R 2 V0 R
P ( ) = 0 = 2
2Z  1 
R + L −
2

 C 
At resonance, Z = R , so that
V02 R
Pmax = (24)
2R

The two frequencies, 1 and 2 , at which the power absorbed from the source is one-half the maximum
power, i.e. P = 12 Pmax , are called the one-half power points and are such that
0
2 − 1 =  = (25)
Q
Thus, the larger the value of Q, the narrower is the resonance curve.

11
Parallel LCR
The voltage in a parallel LCR circuit shows similar resonant behaviour.

A parallel LCR circuit, the current phasors at t = 0, and the resultant phasor that represents the current drawn from the supply.

2
1 1  1 1 
= 2
+ −  (26)
Z R  XC X L 
So, 1/Z is a minimum at resonance. Consequently, Z has its maximum value R at resonance. The rms
voltage across each component is the same in this case, and is related to the rms current in the circuit
by Vrms = I rms Z , so (for a constant rms supply current) the rms voltage is a maximum at resonance in a
parallel LCR circuit. The current leads the voltage by
 1 1 1
 = tan −1  −  (27)
 XC X L R 

Example 3
An RLC circuit has L = 10 mH, C = 1 µF, R = 3.3 Ω and V0 = 1 V.
(a) Determine the resonance frequency 0 , the Q of the circuit, and the frequency interval between the one-
half power points.
(b) Calculate the current amplitude at resonance, and determine the average power dissipated per period
at resonance.
(c) Calculate the current amplitude and the average power dissipated per period at a frequency that is 5%
lower than the resonance frequency.
Solution:
(a) The resonance frequency is
1 1
0 = = = 104 rad/s
−2 −6
LC (10 H)(10 F)
The Q of the circuit is
 L (104 rad/s)(10−2 H)
0 = 0 = = 30
R 3.3
The half-power interval is
0 104 rad/s
 = = = 333 s −1
Q 30

(b) At resonance, we have

12
 V0 1V
I 0 (max) = = = 0.30A
R 3.3
V02 (1V) 2
Pmax = = = 0.15W
2 R 2(3.3)

(c) When  = 0.950 = 9500s−1

1 1
X = X L − XC = L − = (9500s −1 )(10−2 H) − = −10.3
C −1
(9500s )(10−6 F)
The fact that X is negative indicates that the load is dominantly capacitive.
Then the impedance is
Z = R 2 + X 2 = (3.3)2 + (−10.3) = 10.8
Thus, the current amplitude is
V 1V
I0 = 0 = = 0.093A
Z 10.8
I0 is approximately one-third of the maximum current I0(max).

The phase angle is

X  −10.3 
 = tan −1 = tan −1   = −1.26 rad
R  3.3 
The average power is
P = 12 V0 I 0 cos  = 12 (1V)(0.093A) cos 72.2o = 0.014W
P is about 10% of the maximum power Pmax

AC circuits
Alternating currents and voltages
We should already be familiar with the properties of a simple d.c. circuit of the kind shown in the figure
below.

A simple d.c. circuit showing the measurement of potential difference and current using a voltmeter and ammeter, respectively.

The box symbol represents a resistor, and the battery symbol represents a source of voltage (i.e. potential
difference). The current I in the circuit is such that the voltage drop V across the resistance R is equal to
the voltage supplied by the battery. The voltage drop across the resistor can be measured using a voltmeter
connected in parallel whilst the current flowing through the resistor can be measured using an ammeter
connected in series. The resistance R can then be determined using Ohm’s law, V = IR.

In analyzing a d.c. circuit, we generally think of the battery as a source of constant voltage, so that the
current in any part of the circuit is a steady flow of electric charge in a single direction i.e. d.c. (direct
current). However, not all voltage sources are constant and neither are all currents direct. For example,

13
the mains voltage supplied by standard wall sockets varies rapidly with time, the potential difference
between the ‘live’ and ‘neutral’ terminals changing not just in magnitude but also in sign e.g. 60 times a
second. The currents that such varying voltages produce in circuits will also vary with time, generally
altering both their magnitude and direction in response to the variations in the voltage. A current that
periodically reverses its direction in this way is called an alternating current (a.c.). The simplest kind of
alternating current is represented in the figure below.

Two cycles of an alternating current with peak value I0 and period T.

The current changes smoothly and regularly with time in a manner that may be described by
a sinusoidal function (i.e. a sine or a cosine function), just like a simple harmonic oscillator. Its peak
value (or amplitude) is I0, and the period over which it goes through one complete oscillatory cycle is T.
We have chosen the time t = 0 to be a moment at which the current is zero, consequently, it is marginally
easier to represent this particular current by means of a sine function rather than a cosine function so we
can write
 2 t 
I = I 0 sin   (28)
 T 
Note that we have chosen to represent the current by I (t) in order to emphasize that the value of I is
changing with time and will generally depend on the value of t at which we choose to measure it.

Equation (28) is very similar in form to the equation used to describe the displacement of a simple
harmonic oscillator from its equilibrium position. The quantity 2πt/T, is called the phase of the oscillator,
and increases by 2π each time t increases by an amount T. Since an increase of phase by 2π corresponds
to a complete oscillation, the phase has many of the characteristics of an angle measured in radians and it
may be called the phase angle.

The frequency f of an oscillation is related to the period by f = 1/T, so it is always possible to replace
2πt/T by 2πft. We can also introduce a related quantity called the angular frequency which is defined
by ω = 2π/T so that the phase 2πt/T may be simply written as t . In terms of frequency and angular
frequency, the alternating current may therefore be written in the following equivalent forms:
I = I 0 sin 2 ft (29a)
I = I 0 sin t (29b)
where f = 1/T and ω = 2π/T
Frequency and angular frequency are defined in such a way that either quantity may be measured in units
of s−1, thus the SI unit of each quantity is the hertz (Hz) since 1 Hz = 1 s−1.

So far, our mathematical descriptions of alternating currents have all been limited to the case where I = 0
when t = 0. Obviously, this need not be the case; it is quite possible for an alternating current to have any
one of its allowed values at t = 0. The figure below indicates the general situation that can arise.

14
Sketch graph showing I1 = I0 sinωt and I2 = I0 sin(ωt + ϕ), in which I2 leads I1 by a phase constant ϕ.

The current I1 is of the kind already described and is given by:

I1 = I 0 sin t
But the current I2, which has the same angular frequency and amplitude as I1, has some other value at t =
0. This more general current may be represented by the expression
I 2 = I 0 sin(t +  )
where the constant ϕ is called the phase constant. The phase constant is the value of the phase at t = 0 and
determines the current at that time since I2(0) = I0 sin ϕ.

Given any two quantities that oscillate with the same angular frequency, such as I1 and I2, it is always
possible to relate the oscillations of one to those of the other by describing the way in which the phase of
one is related to that of the other. In the case of I1 and I2 we can describe this phase relationship by saying
that I2 leads I1 by ϕ or that I1 lags I2 by ϕ. Note that ϕ could have many values, though it is customary to
limit it to the range −π < ϕ ≤ +π since adding or subtracting an integer multiple of 2π to the phase makes
no difference to the value of the current.

The phasor representation

Another way of representing an alternating current is in terms of a rotating phasor, as shown in the figure
below.

The projection of a phasor on to the y–axis is a sinusoidal function of the angle θ.

A phasor is just like the hand on a clock which rotates in the anticlockwise direction. A phasor has a
magnitude A and rotates at a fixed angular speed ω, so that the angle θ from the x–axis to the phasor
increases with time. The y–component of the phasor (i.e. its ‘projection’ y = A sin θ on to the y–axis) varies
sinusoidally with θ, as indicated in the above figure.

A graph showing the variation of this y–component with time will be identical to a sinusoid provided the
following requirements are met:
i. The magnitude A of the phasor is equal to the amplitude (or peak value) I0 of the current.
ii. At any time t, the angle θ of the phasor is equal to the phase (generally, t +  ) of the current.

15
Phasor representation becomes very useful when we have to determine the combined effect of several
alternating currents that differ in phase and amplitude.

AC power and rms current

When dealing with direct current, the power dissipated by a current passing through a resistor may be
calculated using the formula: P = I 2 R . Resistors can become hot as a result of this power dissipation when
current passes through them. When dealing with alternating current the situation is not so simple, since
the current changes continuously. If the current at any instant is given by I = I 0 sin t , then
the instantaneous a.c. power dissipation is given by
P = I 02 R sin 2 t (30)
This instantaneous power is shown in the figure below.

The waveform for instantaneous power dissipation

The instantaneous power it is not really of much direct relevance when dealing with everyday a.c. devices
such as light bulbs and electric heaters. The frequency of the mains supply (60 Hz, for example in Nigeria)
is such that the instantaneous power rises and falls 120 times every second, which is much too fast for any
changes in heating effect to be seen or felt. When dealing with such everyday devices it is more useful to
have an expression for the average a.c. power dissipated over a time that is much larger than the oscillation
period of the current.

Over one complete period of oscillation T, the average value of an alternating current I = I 0 sin t will be
zero since every positive contribution to the average current will be counterbalanced by a negative
contribution of equal magnitude. Nonetheless, an alternating current really does cause power dissipation
in a resistor. The reason for this is because the instantaneous power is proportional to I 2, so the
instantaneous power is positive whenever I is non-zero, irrespective of its sign. Thus, the average
power ⟨P⟩ dissipated over one full period T will be equal to the mean of I 2 over that period. We may
indicate this by using angular brackets to denote the mean and writer
 P =  I 02 R sin 2 t  = I 02 Rsin 2 t  (31)
Since the angular brackets indicate an average over a full period of oscillation, the time at which we start
timing is unimportant, so we could equally well write
 P =  I 02 R cos2 t  = I 02 Rcos2 t  (32)
If we add the right–hand sides of these last two equations (28 and 29) we find:
2 P = I 02 Rsin 2 t  + I 02 Rcos2 t  = I 02 R(sin 2 t + cos2 t  )
Since sin 2 t + cos 2 t = 1 , which is a constant, so its average value over a full period is the same as its
instantaneous value, i.e. 1. Thus, sin 2 t + cos 2 t  = 1
2 P = I 02 R
 P = 12 I 02 R (33)

16
This amounts to saying that sin 2 t  = 12 , so the mean of I 2 over a full period is I02/2.

When an alternating current of peak value I0 passes through a resistance R, the power dissipation is the
same as that which would occur if a direct current of steady value I0/2 were to flow through the resistor.
Because of the way it has been derived – by taking the square root of the mean of I 2 over a full period –
this ‘effective average current’ is called the root–mean–square current or rms current. The root-mean-
square current is usually denoted I rms , so we can write:
 P = I rms
2
R (34)
where,
2
I rms = 12 I 02  I rms = I 0 2 = 0.7071I 0 (35)
If we had started the calculation of the power dissipated by a resistor connected to an a.c. supply by
considering an alternating voltage V = V0 sin(t +  ) across the resistor rather than an alternating current
through the resistor, we could have used the d.c. expression P = V 2/R to lead us to the a.c. results:
V2
 P = rms (36)
R
Vrms = V0 2 = 0.7071V0 (37)
In this case Vrms is the root–mean–square voltage. Finally, note that by multiplying together the right–
hand sides of Equations (31) and (33), and then taking the square root, it can be seen that the average
power dissipated by the resistor is also given by:
 P = I rmsVrms (38)

Alternating current in resistors

The figure below shows a simple a.c. circuit that supplies an alternating voltage V (t ) = V0 sin t across a
resistor.

A circuit supplying an alternating voltage across a resistor. The arrows show the positive direction for the voltages,
with an arrowhead at the positive end.

Since Ohm’s law V = IR can be applied at any instant, we can expect that the varying voltage will produce
a varying current given by
V (t ) V0 sin t
I (t ) = =
R R
V
I0 = 0
R
I (t ) = I 0 sin t (39)
A graph of this current, and the voltage that caused it, is shown in the figure below, along with the
corresponding current and voltage phasors at an arbitrary time t.

17
 The current produced in the circuit is in phase with the voltage that causes it, as shown by the graph and the
corresponding phasor diagram.

The peak current I0 has been chosen for graphical convenience; in practice it would be determined by the
values of V0 and R. The main point to notice is that the current and the voltage rise and fall together, neither
one leads or lags the other so there is no phase difference, which means that they are in phase. This is
also clear from the phasors which rotate together, one on top of the other.

Alternating current in capacitors

A capacitor acts to store charge, and may generally be thought of as a pair of parallel conducting plates
holding charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign. An alternating voltage V (t ) = V0 sin t may be
applied across a capacitor of fixed capacitance C as shown in the circuit below.

A circuit supplying an alternating voltage across a capacitor.

No conduction current actually passes through the capacitor in the circuit but there is a flow of charge
from the capacitor as it is alternately charged and discharged; it is this flow that constitutes the current in
the circuit. Predicting this current is a slightly indirect process. Recall that Q = CV.
Q(t ) = CV (t ) = CV0 sin t
Note that our (arbitrary) choice of direction for the arrow indicating the positive sense of voltages across
the capacitor in the circuit means that the stored charge Q (t) must be interpreted as the charge on
the upper plate of the capacitor. Whenever V (t) is negative, the upper plate is at the lower potential), Q (t)
will also be negative.

Now, the current at any point in a circuit is determined by the rate of flow of charge at that point in the
circuit. In the circuit, positive direction assigned to the current is such that a positive current will
cause Q (t) to increase. So, using the derivative notation of differential calculus, we find
dQ (t )
I (t ) =
dt
d (CV0 sin t )
I (t ) =
dt
I (t ) = CV0 cos t
If we define I 0 = CV0
I (t ) = I 0 cos t

18
The above can be rewritten in terms of sine function as
 
I (t ) = I 0 sin  t +  (40)
 2
With the current expressed in terms of a sine function it is easy to see that in a circuit containing just a
capacitor the current and the voltage are not in phase. The current leads the voltage by π/2. The figure
below shows this relationship in graphical form, along with the associated phasors.

The current produced in the circuit leads the voltage that causes it by π/2, as shown by the graph and the corresponding
phasor diagram. The inner circle represents the peak voltage V0.

The current phasor and the voltage phasor rotate at the same rate, but the current phasor is 90° ahead of
the voltage phasor.

Alternating current in inductors

An inductor is essentially a coil of wire. When a current is made to flow through an inductor a magnetic
field is produced in the coil. When the current is changed, the changing magnetic flux in the coil causes
an induced voltage in the coil (Faraday’s law) and the polarity of this voltage acts to oppose any change
in the current. The figure below shows a simple circuit that applies an alternating voltage V (t ) = V0 sin t
across an ideal inductor.

A circuit supplying an alternating voltage across an inductor.

As the voltage changes the current will also tend to change. If the derivative dI/dt represents the rate of
change of the current I (t) passing through the inductor then the size of the voltage drop across the inductor
at any instant will be
dI
V (t ) = L
dt
where the constant L is called the inductance of the inductor expressed in units of V s A−1; such a unit is
called a henry (H), so 1 H = 1 V s A−1. Widely used inductances vary from a few microhenry to hundreds
of henry.

Since V (t ) = V0 sin t
dI V0
= sin t
dt L

19
The solution to the above equation, subject to the condition that there is no source of steady current in the
circuit, is
V V
I (t ) =  0 sin tdt = − 0 cos t
L L
V0
If we define I 0 =
L
Then we can write
I (t ) = − I 0 cos t
This can be rewritten in terms of a sine function as
 
I (t ) = I 0 sin  t −  (41)
 2
With the current expressed in terms of a sine function we can again determine its phase relationship to the
applied voltage V (t). In this case the current lags the voltage by π/2. The figure below shows this
relationship in graphical form, along with the associated phasors. Note that the current phasor is 90° behind
the voltage phasor.

The current produced in the circuit lags the voltage that causes it by π/2, as shown by the graph and the corresponding
phasor diagram.
Resistance, reactance and impedance
The description of alternating currents in resistors shows no real surprises. In particular, if we measure the
peak value V0 of the voltage across a resistor and the peak value I0 of the current that it causes to flow
through the resistor (or the corresponding rms values), then we can easily determine the resistance R. It is
given by
V V
R = 0 = rms
I 0 I rms
This resistance does not depend on the frequency of the a.c. supply and does not give rise to any phase
difference between the voltage and the current. In a similar way, we can use the quantity V0/I0 to define a
sort of ‘effective a.c. resistance’ for capacitors and inductors. However, for these components the value
of V0/I0 does depend on the frequency of the supply and there will be a phase difference between the
voltage and the current. Since the response of capacitors and inductors depends on the nature of the supply,
they are said to be reactive components, and V0/I0 is called the reactance of a capacitor or an inductor,
rather than its ‘resistance’. The unit of reactance, like that of resistance, is still the ohm (Ω).

Using the symbols XC and XL to represent, respectively, the reactance of a capacitor and an inductor we
have
V 1
XC = 0 =
I 0 C
V
X L = 0 = L
I0

20
These results, along with the relevant phase relationships, are summarized in the table below.

Component Resistance/reactance Phase relationship

resistor V V and I in phase
R= 0
I0
capacitor 1 
XC = I leads V by
C 2
inductor X L = L 
I lags V by
2

Graphs showing how resistance and reactance vary with angular frequency are shown in the figure below.

Graphs of R, XC and XL plotted as a function of angular frequency ω.

Frequency does not affect the conduction through a resistor but the conduction through a capacitor
increases with frequency while that through an inductor decreases with frequency. For direct current the
reactance of a capacitor becomes infinite while that for an inductor falls to zero. At very high frequencies
the inductor reactance rises without limit while that for the capacitor falls to zero. Inductors tend to block
high frequency currents while capacitors block d.c. currents.

Impedance
Resistance and reactance are both special cases of a more general a.c. phenomenon known as impedance.
In the figure below, an alternating voltage V (t ) = V0 sin t is applied to some general network of resistors,
capacitors and inductors. The current I (t) that the network draws from the supply will have the general
form I (t ) = I 0 sin(t +  ) , where I0 represents the peak value of the current and ϕ determines the phase
relationship between the voltage and the current.

When a network of resistors, capacitors and inductors (with two external connections) is attached to a source of
alternating voltage the effect is equivalent to that of a ‘load’ of impedance Z which causes the current to lead the
voltage by a fixed phase difference ϕ.
The values of I0 and ϕ will depend on the resistances and reactances of the various components of the
network, but in general terms we say that the impedance Z of the network is
V V
Z = 0 = rms
I 0 I rms

21
If the network consisted of a single resistor, its impedance would simply be the resistance of that resistor
and ϕ would be zero. Similarly, if the network consisted of a single capacitor or inductor then its
impedance would equal the reactance of that capacitor or inductor and the value of ϕ would be +π/2 or
−π/2, respectively.

It is important to note that the instantaneous power supplied to the network in the circuit above is given
by
P(t ) = V (t ) I (t ) = V0 sin t  I 0 sin(t +  )
In the case of a resistor (or even a network of resistors), where the phase difference ϕ = 0, we have already
seen that the average a.c. power over a full period (T = 2π/ω) is
P = V0 I 0 2 = Vrms I rms
However, for a network containing capacitors and inductors ϕ will not generally be zero and it may be
shown that
P = Vrms I rms c os  (42)
It follows that both the instantaneous and average power dissipated when the network consists of a single
capacitor or a single inductor is zero since ϕ = π/2 in these cases, and cos(π/2) = 0.

P for a network in terms of the impedance Z and the peak current I0 is given as
V0 I 0 VI (I Z )I0 I2
P =  cos  = 0 0 cos  = 0 cos  = 0 Z cos  = I rms
2
Z cos  (43)
2 2 2 2 2
It is also true that for any network consisting only of pure inductors and capacitors, there is no power
dissipation, since in each component the current and voltage are 90° out of phase. Power dissipation
requires the presence of resistance in the circuit.

The series LCR circuit

Combining C and R
The figure below shows a capacitor and a resistor connected in series. When circuit components are
connected in this way the same current I (t) flows through each of them, but the total instantaneous
voltage V (t) across them is the sum of the instantaneous voltages VR(t) and VC(t) across the individual
components.

A capacitor and resistor in a series a.c. circuit (an RC circuit).

Since the voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current while that across the capacitor is not, it
follows that the voltage across the capacitor cannot be in phase with the voltage across the resistor. This
means that the total voltage across the resistor and capacitor, which is just the applied voltage V (t), will
not be in phase with the voltage across either component. Nor therefore can the applied voltage be in
phase with the current in the circuit.

There is need to determine the relationship between the applied voltage and the current in this circuit,
which will involve finding expressions for the ratio of their peaks Z = V0/I0 and for the phase

22
difference ϕ between them. The easiest way to find the relationship between the peak voltages (and this is
the key to finding the impedance) is to use phasor diagrams. If the current is assumed to be of the
form I 0 sin(t +  ) , then at t = 0 it can be represented by a horizontal phasor. The voltage across the
resistor VR(t) is in phase with this current so it can also be represented by a horizontal phasor at t = 0. This
voltage phasor is shown and it has amplitude I0R.

The voltage phasors at t = 0 are shown, as is their sum which represents the total voltage that must be
supplied at t = 0.
The voltage across a capacitor lags the current through it by π/2 (since the current leads the voltage
by π/2) we see that at t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is represented by a phasor that points vertically
downwards. This phasor is also shown in the figure, and has amplitude I0XC, where XC is the reactance of
the capacitor. The phasor representing the total voltage across the resistor and capacitor at t = 0 is obtained
by adding the other two phasors together as though they were vectors. Using Pythagoras’s theorem, the
amplitude V0 of this resultant phasor, which represents the total voltage across the circuit, is given by
V02 = I 02 R + I 02 X C
V02 = I 02 ( R 2 + X C2 )  V0 = I 0 R 2 + X C2
It follows that the impedance Z = V0/I0 of the series combination of a resistor and a capacitor is given by
Z = R 2 + X C2 (44)
It can also be seen from the figure that the total voltage lags the voltage in the resistor by ϕ. If we take the
current phase as our reference zero then the voltage phase lag ϕ is given by
X X 
tan  = − C   = − tan −1  C  (45)
R  R 
Since the voltage in the resistor is in phase with the current in the circuit, and since we chose to represent
the current by I (t ) = I 0 sin t , it follows that we can represent the total voltage by V (t ) = V0 sin(t +  ) .

Combining L and R
The same thing can be done for a series combination of an inductor and a resistor – which is actually how
a real inductor would behave. The relevant circuit is shown in the figure below. Once again it will be
assumed that the current is of the form I (t ) = I 0 sin t and as before we will write the applied voltage
as V (t ) = V0 sin(t +  ) .

A resistor and an inductor in a series a.c. circuit (an LR circuit).

23
We need to find the ratio V0/I0 and the value of ϕ that are appropriate to this case. Since V0/I0 can always
be written as Z, which is the impedance of the series combination. The current in each series component
is the same, and the voltage across the resistor is in phase with that current, so at t = 0 the phasor for the
voltage across the resistor is horizontal and points to the right. The voltage across an inductor leads the
current through it, so the phasor for the voltage across the inductor points vertically upwards in this case.
The phasor representing the total voltage is the (phasor) sum of these two, as indicated in the figure below.

The voltage phasors at t = 0 are shown, as is their sum which represents the total voltage
that must be supplied at t = 0.
Following a similar argument to that used earlier, the impedance of the LR combination will be
Z = R 2 + X L2 (46)
In this case the current (which is in phase with the resistor voltage) lags the total voltage.
So V (t ) = V0 sin(t +  ) , where in this case ϕ must be a positive quantity.
XL X 
tan  =   = tan −1  L  (47)
R  R 

Combining L, C and R
The figure below shows a resistor, a capacitor and an inductor combined in a series a.c. circuit. The current
in each component is the same and so has the same phase.

A series LCR a.c. circuit

It is sensible to take this current as defining our phase zero, with the voltages across each component
having phase angles with respect to the current phase. Here, we must add together three voltage phasors
at t = 0.

The relevant phasor diagram showing how the individual voltages are combined. (In this case XC > XL).

24
Two of the voltages point in opposite directions along the same line, so their resultant is easy to determine,
and this can be combined with the third phasor in the usual way. Thus,
V02 = I 02 R 2 + I 02 ( X L − X C )2
V02 = I 02  R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 
but the impedance Z is given by Z = V0/I0, hence
V
Z = 0 = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 (48a)
I0
Substituting for the reactances (XL = ωL and XC = 1/(ωC)) gives us
2
 1 
Z = R2 +   L − (48b)
 C 
The constant ϕ that determines the phase relationship between the current in the circuit and the supply
voltage can also be deduced from the final phasor diagram. The value of ϕ is given by
X − XC  X − XC 
tan  = L   = tan −1  L  (49)
R  R 
Hence, in a series LCR circuit, if X C is greater than XL then ϕ will be negative and the current in the circuit
will lead the total voltage (as shown in the phasor diagram). However, if XC is less than X L, Equation (45)
will yield a positive value for ϕ, which corresponds to the case in which the current lags the total voltage.
In this convention we are taking the conventional voltage in the resistor to define the zero phase condition,
so I (t ) = I 0 sin t and the voltage applied to the whole circuit is then V (t ) = V0 sin(t +  ) ,
where V0 = ZI0 and ϕ is given by Equation (49).

The parallel LCR circuit

The basic principle that underlies the analysis of a parallel LCR circuit, of the type shown in the figure
below is that the instantaneous voltage V (t) is the same across each element but the current will generally
differ from one component to another.

A parallel LCR circuit.

When dealing with a series circuit, a phasor diagram was used to combine the voltages across the
components using the currents through each component, but with a parallel circuit, phasors must be used
to combine currents through each component. The total current supplied to the combination of resistor,
capacitor and inductor will therefore be the phasor sum of the individual currents in each component. The
current in the resistor IR(t) is in phase with the supply voltage V (t); the current in the capacitor IC(t)
leads V (t) by π/2, and the current in the inductor IL(t) lags V (t) by π/2. Hence, if the supply voltage is
given by V (t ) = V0 sin t , the currents in the resistor, capacitor and inductor at t = 0 can be represented by

25
the phasors shown in the phasor diagram below. These phasors may be added together (like vectors) giving
a resultant phasor that represents the current I (t) drawn from the supply.

The current phasors at t = 0, and the resultant phasor that represents the current drawn from the supply.
If we use Pythagoras’s theorem to evaluate the amplitude of the resultant phasor, we find that the peak
value of the total current in the circuit is given by
2
 1 1  V02
I0 = V 0
2
−  + 2
 XC X L  R
2
I0  1 1  1
=  −  + 2
V0  XC X L  R
but the impedance Z = V0/I0. Hence,
2
1  1 1  1
=  −  + 2 (50a)
Z  XC X L  R
Substituting for the reactances (XC = 1/(ωC) and XL = ωL) we can rewrite this in the equivalent form
2
1  1  1
=  C −  + 2 (50b)
Z  L  R
The constant ϕ that determines the phase relationship between the total current and the current through the
resistor (and hence the voltage) may also be expressed in terms of the amplitudes of the three current
phasors:
 1 1  1 
−1  1 1  1
tan  =  −     = tan  −   (51)
 X C X L  R   X C X L  R 
So, in a parallel LCR circuit, if 1/XC is greater than 1/XL, then ϕ will be positive and the current will lead
the voltage, but if 1/XC is less than 1/XL, ϕ will be negative and the current will lag the voltage. In other
words, if the voltage in the circuit is V (t ) = V0 sin t , the current will be given by I (t ) = I 0 sin(t +  ) ,
where I0 = V0/Z and ϕ is given by Equation (51).

Combining series and parallel circuits

A circuit with a parallel combination of an inductor L and a capacitor C in series with a resistance R.

26
Using the rules that have been deduced above for calculating the impedance of components that are joined
in series or in parallel (Equations (45) and (47), respectively).
Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
2
1  1 1  1
=  −  + 2
Z  XC X L  R
it is now possible to work out the impedance of more complicated networks. For example, in the case of
the circuit shown in the figure above a capacitor and an inductor are joined in parallel, and that
combination is connected in series with a resistor.

The parallel part of the circuit is equivalent to a single reactance X given by

1 1 1 X L XC
= − X=
X XC X L X L − XC
The total impedance Z of that reactance and the resistance with which it is in series is given by
Z 2 = R2 + X 2
2
 X L XC 
Z = R +
2
 (52)
 X L − XC 
The voltage is the same across the inductor and the capacitor, whilst the (phasor) sum of the currents
through the combination of inductor and capacitor is the same as the current through the resistor.

Exercises
1. An inductor L of value 0.50 H, a resistor R of value 10 Ω and a capacitance C of value 5.07 μF are
connected in series (an LCR circuit) to an alternating supply of frequency 100 Hz. What is the total
impedance due to the three components? If the rms value of the supply voltage is 120 V calculate
the peak value of the resulting current. What is the phase relationship between the current and the voltage?

2. A 50 Ω resistor is connected to a 120 V d.c. supply. Calculate the current flowing in this resistor and
hence the energy dissipated as heat in 5 min.

3. A 100 μF capacitor is connected to a 6 V d.c. supply until it is fully charged. Calculate the
maximum charge on the capacitor. If this capacitor is then discharged through a 10 Ω resistor, calculate
the maximum current which will flow.

4. A resistor and a capacitor are connected in series to a d.c. supply. Draw a diagram representing this
electrical circuit. The two components are now re–connected in parallel with the same d.c. supply. Draw
a diagram representing this new circuit.

5. A 10 Ω resistor is supplied using a 6 V d.c. supply. Calculate the following quantities:

(a) The current flowing through the resistor.
(b) The energy dissipated every second in the resistor.
(c) The rms current and rms voltage which would produce identical energy dissipation with the resistor
connected to an alternating supply.
(d) The corresponding peak values of alternating voltage and current.

27
6. A series LCR circuit has a supply current I (t) = I0 sin(2πft) where = 0.1 A and the supply frequency f =
50 Hz. If the components have values R = 100 Ω, C = 50 μF (i.e. 50 × 10−6 F) and L = 0.5 H, calculate the
impedance of the circuit and hence obtain an expression for the supply voltage.

7. A parallel LCR circuit has a supply voltage of the form V = V0 sin(2πft), where V0 = 100 V and the
supply frequency f = 50 Hz. If the components have values R = 100 Ω, C = 50 μF and L = 0.5 H, calculate
the impedance of the circuit and hence write an expression for the supply current.

8. A circuit shown in the figure has components with values R = 10 Ω, L = 50 mH and C = 500 μF.

If the supply voltage has Vrms = 12 V and f = 50 Hz, calculate the impedance of the circuit and hence the
currents through, and voltages across, each of the components of the circuit.

28