ELECTRICITY

&

MAGNETISM
PHY121
(Patrick Joseph Cardinal Mzaza)
ELECTRICITY
 Electric Charges
• There are two types of charge, labeled
positive ( + ) and negative ( - ), with the
following basic property:

• Like charges (of the same sign) repel each

other.

• Unlike charges (of the opposite sign) attract

each other.

• Charge is never created nor destroyed - it is

conserved.
• Charge always comes in an integral
multiple of a basic unit - it is quantized.
• This basic unit of charge is conventionally
denoted by e :
• e = 1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs (C) .
• In an atom, the charge on an electron is
- e and that on a proton is + e .
Electric Charge – The specifics
•The symbol for CHARGE
is “q” •The unit is the
COULOMB(C), named
after Charles Coulomb
•If we are talking about a
SINGLE charged particle
such as 1 electron or 1
proton we are referring to
an ELEMENTARY charge
and often use, e , to
symbolize this
 Conductors and Insulators
• The movement of charge is limited by the
substance the charge is trying to pass through.
There are generally 2 types of substances.
•Conductors: Allow charge to move readily
through them, example: copper wire.
•Insulators: Restrict the movement of charge
through them, example: plastic shealth
 Charging and Discharging

• There are basically 2 ways you can

charge something.
1. Charge by friction
•
2. Induction
 Induction and Grounding

•The second way to charge something is via

INDUCTION, which requires NO PHYSICAL
CONTACT.
• We bring a negatively charged rod near a
neutral sphere. The protons in the sphere
localize near the rod, while the electrons
are repelled to the other side of the
sphere.
A wire can then be brought in contact with the negative
side and allowed to touch the GROUND. The electrons
will always move towards a more massive object to
increase separation from other electrons, leaving a NET
positive sphere behind.
 Force Between Point Charges

• Coulomb's Law: Charles Coulomb

(1736-1806)
• We want to know how strong the
attraction or repulsion is between charged
objects - this is given by Coulomb's Law
that gives the strength of force between
two charged objects. (Point charges –
charge's physical size is much smaller than
the distance between them.)
• Electrostatic force between two charges is
given by:

If you double the charge on one object, the force

doubles. If you double the distance, the force
decreases by a factor of four.

Coulomb's law gives the magnitude of the force

directed along a line between the two charges.
The direction is determined from the sign of the
charges.
• To solve problems with Coulomb's law, you
must always use the absolute value of the
charges, then determine the direction from
the sign of the charges.
• The constant k has the value of 8.988×109
N×m2/C2. It is sometimes given in terms of the
permittivity of free space ϵo as k = 1/(4πϵo)
where ϵo = 8.85×10-12 C2/(N×m2).
 EXAMPLE 1

• What is the force between the two point

-9 -9
charges? (q1= +12×10 C, q2= -18×10
C)

2 -5
•F= kq1q2/r = 2.2×10 N attractive
 The Force is a Vector quantity
•The electric force is a vector. This
means that when working with it, you must
separate the components of the force into x
and y components and add them up as
vectors.
 EXAMPLE 2
• What is the total force on q3 from q2 and
q1? Given that:
q1 = 6.00×10-9 C, q2 = -2.00×10-9 C, q3 =
5.00×10-9 C
• We know θ = tan-1 (3m/4m) = 36.9°
• F13 = 1.079×10 -8 N ( away from q1 )
• F23 = 5.617×10 -9 N ( toward q2 )
• Now determine the total xy-components.
• ΣFy = F13y + F23y

• Fy = F13sin(36.9°) + 0 = 6.476×10-9 N

• ΣFx = -F23x + F13x

• Fx = -F23+ F13cos(36.9°) = 3.011×10-9 N

• FT = √(Fx + Fy) = 7.14×10-9 N

• tan(ϕ) = Fy /Fx, so force makes an angle of ϕ = 65.1° with

respect to the x axis
 EXAMPLE 3
• What is the angle and tension in the string? At
the end of the string the mass is m = 8.0×10-2kg
and the charges are q1 = 0.6×10-6C and
q2 = -0.9×10-6 C. g = 9.8 m/s2
EXAMPLE 3 CONT…
 Sum the forces acting on q
1

ΣF : T – mg = 0 or Tcos( θ) = mg …… (i)
y y

2
Σ F : F – T = 0 or Tsin(θ) = kq q /r ……(ii)
x x 1 2

(Divide (ii) by (i) to get tanθ).

2
tanθ = kq q /mgr = 0.275
1 2
-1 o
θ = tan (0.275) = 15.4
 Electric Field: Michael Faraday
(1791-1867)
• Electric Fields and Test Charges
• An electric field is a vector quantity meaning it
has a magnitude and a direction.
• The direction is defined as the direction
of the electrical force that would be
exerted on a small positive test charge.
The magnitude of the electric field does not
depend on the test charge.
• A test charge doesn't disturb field.

• A field leads to a force on a charged

object.

• From a point charge. F = kqoq/r2 and since

E =F/qo, E = kq/r2

• A parallel plate capacitor makes a uniform

electric field
 Electric Field Lines
(Acting at a distance)
• We illustrate electric fields with electric
field lines.
• They point in the direction that a positive
charge would move.
• Their density is proportional to the
magnitude of the electric field.
Illustration of electric fields with
electric field lines
 Force From an Electric Field
(Vector Addition)
• Electric fields can exist due to a variety of
sources.
• There may be a small charge nearby, or
from a capacitor nearby.
• If a charge is placed in an electric field, it
then feels a force.
 HOW BIG IS THE FORCE?
• It depends on the size of the field and on
the size of the charge since F = Eq.

• NB: Both the force and the field are

vectors.
 EXAMPLE 4
(a) What is the total electric field 30 cm
-6
above a point charge q2 if q1 = -25×10 C
-6
and q2 = 25×10 C?
 EXAMPLE 4 cont..

• The angle that E1 makes with the x-axis is

given by:
cos θ= (40cm)/(50cm)
or θ =36.9°.
Electric Field from q1:
E• 1= kq1/r2 = (9.0×109 N×m2/C2)(25×106 C)/(0.50m)2
= 9.0×105 N/C
Electric Field from q2:
E• 2= kq2/r2 = (9.0×109 N×m2/C2)(25×106 C)/(0.30m)2
= 2.5×106 N/C
 EXAMPLE 4 cont..
• Sum the Vector xy-components:

•ΣEx = E1x = E1cos(36.9o) =7.2×105 N/C

ΣEy = E2-E1y
= E2 - E1sin(36.9o) = 2.0×106 N/C
ETotal= √(Ex2 +Ey2) = 2.1×106 N/C

•
• The angle the field makes with the x axis is given
ϕ= tan-1(Ey/Ex) = 70°
 Vector representation of the net
E-field

• (b) What is force on a particle there?

It depends on the charge of the particle you
put there since F = qE.
Electric Potential Energy & Potential
Differences
• Recall that near the surface of the earth, the
acceleration due to gravity is a constant.
• This is analogous to saying that the gravitational
field is a constant. Therefore, a constant
electric field interacts with charge the same
way a constant gravitational field interacts
with mass. Positive charge plays the role of
mass.
 There is potential energy in gravity, and in electricity.
A constant electric field can be produced with a parallel plate
capacitor.
In General
The electric potential is not the same as the electric
potential energy. It is related to the electric potential
energy by the formula
V= UE/q

where V is the electric potential and UE is the electric

potential energy.

• Note that this is a scalar so potentials can be added like

scalars. The SI Units of Electric Potential is joule/coulomb =
volt (V).
•The electric field, like the gravitational field, is a
conservative field. That means the work done to
move a charged object from one point to another in
an electric field does not depend on the path taken,
but just on the total displacement.
•We don't have any absolute reference frame for
electric potential, just like we do not have one for
gravitational potential, and like gravity we can only
measure changes in potential energy.

qΔV = ΔU (NB U means Ufinal - Uinitial.)

•The work done to move a charge in a
conservative field, like a gravitational or electrical
field is given by:
•
W = Fd(cosθ) In a constant conservative field (like
gravity) W = Eqd(cosθ) In a constant electric field
• Recall that we can relate the change in potential
energy to work done.

• The work done by the conservative field on an

object is always the negative of the change in
potential energy.
The work done by the electric field to move an
object from b to a is given by;
W =-q(Vfinal-Vinitial) = -q(Va - Vb) = -qΔV.
• V = ∆Uc/q = -Wc/q = -Eqd(cosθ)/q = -Ed

(Since E and d are parallel, cos(0) =1. Note the

minus sign).
• But the relationship between the change in
potential energy (∆UE) and the work done (W)
depends on whether we talk about the work done
by the field or by an object against the field.

• If it is the work done by the conservative field we

get WC =-∆UC.

• But if it is work done by an object against the

field, we get W = +∆UC. Everything about work
and potential energy can be applied in the case of
the electric field.
 EXAMPLE 5
• A proton with a charge of 1.6x10-19C is
released from rest in a uniform electric
4
field of magnitude 8x10 V/m. After the
proton has moved 0.5 meters:
(a) What is the change in
electric potential?
∆V = -Ed = -4.0x104 V

(b) What is the change in

potential energy?
∆UE = Uf - Ui = q∆V = -6.4x10-15 J.
The sign shows that it’s at
a lower potential
(c) What is the speed of the proton?
(mp = 1.67 x 10-27Kg)
 Potential of a Point Charge
The point charge creates an electric potential.
We need to use calculus to determine the
potential because the force varies as r changes
(it’s not a constant field). We find
V= kq/r.

• Note that this means that the potential from a

point charge at an infinite distance away is
usually chosen to be zero, since 1/∞ = 0.
 The Electron Volt

• This is unit of energy (NOT SI). It’s the

amount of energy one electron gains when it
moves through a potential of 1 volt.
-19 -19
1 eV = (1.6x10 C)(1 V) = 1.6x10 Joules
 EXAMPLE 6

How much work does it take to move a

charge of q = -3.0μC in the diagram below to a
point 0.5 meters from a charge of Q2= 20μC?
 Solution
r = ∞ , so
initial

W = ∆UE = q∆V = q(kQ2/rfinal – kQ2/rinitial),

9 2 2
W=(-3.0μC)(8.99x10 N-m /C )(20.0μC)/0.5m
= -1.08 J.
 EXAMPLE 6 cont..
What if I add another charge as the figure below
shows?

From above, the work to move q=-3.0 μC to a

point 0.5 meters from a charge of Q2 is -1.08 J.
• What is the total work done by the system?
• Now we must move Q1 to within 0.3 m of Q2
and to within 0.6 m of q. The work to move it to
within 0.3 m of Q2 is the same calculation as
above with r2 = 0.3 m and r1= ∞,

• W2 = ∆UE = Q1∆V = Q1(kQ2/r2 – kQ2/r1) =

3.0 J
and finally, the work it takes to move Q1 to within
0.6 m of q is given by the same equation,

W3 = ∆UE = Q1∆V = Q1(kq/r2 - kq/r1) = -0.22 J

So the total work is given by

W =W1 + W2 + W3 = 1.70 J
 Capacitors

• In most systems, the output changes as

soon as there is an appropriate change
in input.
• For some applications this is unsuitable
and it would be more appropriate for the
output to change some time after the
input change has occurred.
• In other applications it could be
appropriate for the output to revert back
to its initial state after a certain time has
elapsed, even if the input has not
changed. In order to implement these
timing functions it is necessary to use
capacitors.
• A capacitor consists of two overlapping
conducting plates separated by an insulator called
the dielectric. The separation of the two plates is
often very small.

• When a voltage, V, is applied across the two

conducting plates they store electrical charge, Q
(+Q on one plate and –Q on the other).

• The charge stored per volt is called the

capacitance, C.
⇒ C = Q/V
• The unit of capacitance is the farad (F). This
is the capacitance required to store a charge
of 1 coulomb when there is a voltage of 1 volt
across the plates.
• 1 Farad is a very large unit hence sub-units
are used:
1 microfarad (1µF) = 1 x 10-6F
1 nanofarad (1nF)= 1 x 10-9F
1 picofarad (1pF)= 1 x 10-12F
 • For a parallel plate capacitor, C = ϵ0A/d
where A is the area of the plates and d is
the distance between them.
i.e The capacitance increases when:
- the area of overlap of the plates is
increased, the distance between the plates is
decreased,
- an insulator (dielectric) with a higher
dielectric constant is used.
• When selecting capacitors for a particular use, the
factors to be considered are as follows:

1. the capacitance
2. the tolerance
3. the working voltage (This is the largest voltage
which can be applied across the plate before the
dielectric breaks down and conducts.)
4. the leakage current (No dielectric is a perfect
insulator but the loss of charge through it should be
small.)
 Capacitors cont..

•The Markings On A Fixed Capacitor

 Capacitors cont..

• Types (a) and (b) are typical of close

tolerance capacitors which have their value,
working voltage and tolerance marked.

• Type (c) represents a ceramic capacitor with

its value (474 470000pF 0.47F) and working
voltage marked.
• Type (d) represents an electrolytic capacitor
and has its value, maximum working voltage
and polarity marked.
 Electrolytic capacitors
• Are made by electrolysis; the two plates
are coated with liquid and a current
passed between them. This forms a very
thin layer of dielectric on one plate.
Electrolytic and tantulum capacitors are
polarised and must be connected the
correct way round.
 Uses of Capacitors

• smoothing out variations in power

supplies,
• removing alternating signals,
• blocking the passage of direct current
while allowing the passage of
alternating current,
• combination with inductors for resonant
tuned circuits,
• combination with resistors as charging
and discharging circuits.
 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

• The energy stored in the capacitor is the amount

of work it took to put the charge on the capacitor.

• This is the work done against the capacitor to

charge it up, not the work done by the capacitor.

• Suppose we move charge from one plate to the

other. The work required to do that is given by
the change in potential energy, or
W = ∆UE=∆(qV), so ∆W = q∆V.
• Initially V is 0 so it takes almost no work to
move a charge across the plates. (It is an
equipotential surface).

• However, as soon as we move some charge we

now have a potential and V = q/C.

• By the time we are moving the last bit of charge

we are doing work against the full voltage.
• The work required, then, is the average of
the work required to move the first
charges and the work required to move
the last charges.

W = E = (1/2)(0 + qV) and since q = CV,

E = (1/2)CV2
 Capacitors in a Circuit

• Parallel
• When capacitors are in parallel, the total
charge is the sum of the charge on each
one, so...
Q = Q1+Q2 = C1V + C2V = V(C1 + C2)
= C PV
so CP = C1 + C2 + ...
 Example 7

If a 0.001 mF capacitor is
connected in parallel with an 800
pF capacitor, the total capacitance
is 1800pF
• Series
• When capacitors are in series, the charge
on each one is the same, so...
• V=Q/C1+ Q/C2 = Q(1/C1 + 1/C2) = Q/Cs
so 1/ Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + ...
• So, equivalent circuits with capacitors are
done the same as for resistors, except that
they combine differently
 Example 8

• If a 0.001 mF capacitor is connected

in series with an 800 pF capacitor,
the total capacitance is 444pF
 EMF and Current

• A battery provides a potential difference called an

electromotive force or EMF. This is not truly a
force, but rather a potential difference.

• It is called an "emf" for historical reasons.

• Raising the potential in a circuit (what the battery

does) is like raising a ball to a higher potential.

• The battery provides a potential that can cause

the charges to flow around a circuit.
• So in a circuit, where you connect wires to
a battery, you get charges moving. If I
stand in one place and watch the charge
that goes by per unit time, I get a current.

I = q/t

• SI Units of current is Coulombs/Second =

Amps
• Standard current is defined as the
direction positive charge would move
around the circuit.
 Ohm's Law
• Electrons move more easily through some
materials than others when a voltage is
applied across the material. The
opposition to current flow is called
resistance and is measured in ohms
(Ω).
3
• Larger units are kilohm, (kΩ = 10 Ω) and
megohm, (MΩ = 106 Ω.)
•Resistance is defined as follows.
• The resistance will be measured in ohms
when the voltage is in volts and the
current is in amps.

• This formula is often known as Ohm's

Law and is probably the most important
formula in electronics
 Resistance and Resistivity
•A resistor is a component that restricts the
electric current passing through a circuit.

•It is therefore useful to limiting the amount

of current passing through a component.
•A resistor is also useful for providing a
voltage across it when a current is
passed through it.
•Resistors are either shaped like a tube with
a wire coming from each end or as a tiny
square with two solder connections, if it is a
surface mounted resistor. Both types have
the symbol shown below.
 Resistors cont..

•A resistor consists of two metal end caps

with a resistive material placed in between
•There are three common substances used
for the resistive material. These are Carbon,
Metal Oxide and Thin Wire.
•Carbon resistors are cheap but they tend
to be unstable (their resistance changes
with temperature and time) and can
produce unwanted noise in circuits.
•Metal oxide resistors are more expensive but
are more accurate (smaller tolerance), more stable
and produce much less electrical noise.
•Wire wound resistors are the most expensive
but can be very stable and accurate. They can
often be designed to dissipate large amounts of
power. However, because they are made from a
coil of fine wire they are of little use in radio
circuits since they have appreciable inductance.
•Resistors are measured in units called ohms, in
memory of George Simon Ohm who did much
work on resistance during the nineteenth century.
The symbol for the ohm is the capital Greek letter
Omega drawn as Ω.
 Resistor Tolerance

• Although manufacturing techniques have

improved significantly during the last few
years, the value of a resistor is unlikely to
be exactly the same as the value marked
on it. The tolerance of a resistor shows
how close its actual value was to its
marked value when it was made
e.g. a 100 Ω resistor with a tolerance of
10% could have a value between
90 (100 - 10) Ω and 110 (100 + 10) Ω
•Typical tolerances are 1%, 2%, 5% and
10% and individual resistors are marked
accordingly.
 Resistivity

• All material has a resistivity. For some it is

very low (conductors), for others it is quite
high (insulators). For semi-conductors it is
somewhere in between.
• Resistivity is a property of the
material. Resistance is a property of
the resistivity, plus how the material is
constructed.
•For many materials we find
R = ρ L /A
where L = length, A = cross sectional area and
ρ = resistivity.
If you want to have less resistance, you can get a
material with a lower resistivity, or you can use the
same material and get a larger cross sectional area.
• A wire that has to carry a lot of current or is used
across a large potential difference is often very
thick so that it has a low resistance.
• For many metals resistivity is a function of
temperature and is given by
ρ = ρo[1+ ⍺(T-To)].
 Problem

•If an aluminum wire and a copper wire

each have a length of 10m, and
aluminum has a cross sectional area of
2 2
1mm and copper 0.5mm , what is the
ratio of the resistance of the copper to
the aluminum?
-8
ρ for copper is 1.72 x 10 Ω -m and for
-8
aluminum ρ = 2.82 x 10 Ω -m.
 Resistor Band Color Coding
•A resistor has either four or five colored
bands painted on it, as in figure below.
•The first two or three bands give the value
in significant figures, the next gives the
multiplier and the last the tolerance.
Resistor Band Color Coding
A 5 band resistor with bands of green,
blue, black, yellow, red has a value of 5 -
6 - 0 - 0000 - ±2%
i.e. 5.6M Ω ± 2%.
A 4 band resistor with bands of yellow,
violet, brown and gold has a value of 4 -
7 - 0 - ±5%
i.e. 470 Ω ±5%.
 Preferred Values
• Since exact values of fixed resistors are
unnecessary in most circuits, only certain
preferred values are made. The values chosen for
the E24 series (with ± 5% tolerance ) are as
follows.
1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0,
2.2, 2.4,
2.7, 3.0, 3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6,
6.2,
6.8, 7.5, 8.2, 9.1, and multiples that are
powers of ten
 Resistors in Circuit

Series Wiring
Look at two resistors in series. The current going
through each resistor is the same so
V = IR1 + IR2 = I(R1 + R2) = IRs
If they have the same current flowing through them,
then they are in series.
Parallel Wiring
In a parallel circuit the voltage across each resistor
is the same, so
I = I1 + I2 = V/R1 + V/R2 =V(1/R1 + 1/R2)
= V(1/RP)
In general, 1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ...
 Series Wiring
• Example 9

(a) What is the current flowing through a

3Ω, 6Ω, and 9Ω resistor in series when
connected to a 12 V battery?
(b) What is the voltage drop across each
resistor?
 Solutions
a) V = I(R1 + R2 + R3) = I(18Ω)

I = V/(18 Ω ) = 12V/18 Ω = 0.67 Amps

The equivalent resistance is 18 Ω which is
greater than the resistance of any single
resistor. We draw equivalent circuits with
fewer resistors
b) Since V = IR and the current is
the same for each one, the voltage
drop across each resistor is given as:
• V1 = IR1 = (0.67A)(3 Ω) = 2 V V2 = IR
(0.67A)(6 Ω) = 4 V V3 = IR3 = (0.67A)(9 Ω) = 6
• Note : V1 + V2 + V3 = 12 V which is
the voltage across the battery.
 Parallel Wiring
• Example 10
(a) What is the total current in a circuit if a
3Ω, 6Ω, and 9Ω resistor are all connected
in parallel to a 12 V battery?
(b) What is the current in each resistor?
 Solutions
(a) 1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
= 1/3Ω + 1/6Ω + 1/9Ω
1/RP = 11/18 Ω
RP = 18/11 W = 1.6 Ω
Note how the resistance of resistors in
parallel is less than the resistance of any
single resistor.
I = V/(1.6 Ω) = 12V/1.6Ω = 7.3 A
(b) For each resistor V = IR, and V is 12 V,
so:
I1= V/R1 = 12V/3Ω = 4 A
I2= V/R2 = 12V/6Ω = 2 A
I3= V/R3 = 12V/9Ω = 1.3 A

Note how I1+ I2+I3= 7.3 Amps, which is the t

current
 Parallel and Series Together

Example 11
What is the equivalent resistance of this
circuit?
 • First look at R3 and R4. These two resistors
are in parallel because any current flow has a
choice of which resistor to go through.
Thus, Rp = (1/R3+1/R4)-1

-1
= (1/5 + 1/10) = 3.33Ω
• Now we can easily see that R1,R2, and Rp
are in series because any current must flow
through each resistor (or resistor branch).
• RT = 2 + 4 + 3.33 = 9 Ω
 Resistors and Capacitors in a
Circuit (RC circuit)
If you attach a battery to a capacitor and
resistor the charge starts to build up on the
capacitor. But how fast?
–t /(RC)
Q= Qo[1-e ]
Since V = Q/C, this can also be written as;
–t /(RC)
V= Vo[1-e ]
to determine the amount of voltage on the
capacitor at any time.
• The value e is the natural logarithm. It is a
number equals 2.718... It can be found on
most scientific calculators.

i.e y =e-z.
• RC=Շ is called the time constant. It is the
time it takes for the capacitor to charge to
63.2% of its total charge.
The total charge on the capacitor is still given by qo=CV.
When discharging, we find

Q= Qo e –t /(RC)

Or in terms of Voltage

V= Voe –t /(RC)

RC= Շ is the time it takes for the capacitor to lose 63.2%

of its charge.
 Example 12
• How long does it take for 50% of the
maximum charge to be deposited on this
circuit when the switch is closed? The
resistor is 2 million ohms and each
capacitor is 10 nF.
 Solution
Cp = 10x10-9 + 10x10-9 = 20x10-9 F
6 -9
Շ = RC = (2 x 10 Ω) (20 x 10 F) = 0.040 s
-t/(RC)
q/qo = 0.50 = [1-e ]

e -t/(RC) = 1-0.5 = 0.5

-t/(RC)
ln(e ) = -t/RC = ln(0.5) = -0.693
t = 0.693RC = 0.693(0.040 s) = 0.28 s
 Electrical Power

• Recall that Energy/time = power and th

Energy = qV.
• Then; (Energy)/(time) = qV/t = IV = P

P = IV, and since V=IR,

2 2
P = IV = I R = V /R
 •As we have said before, the SI unit of power
is watts. Energy is Power multiplied by time
and is often expressed in kw-hrs, although
this is not an SI unit.
• So if a hair dryer uses 1000 watts for 10
minutes, it uses:
(1kw)(10minutes)(1hour/60 minutes)

= 0.17 kw-hours.
 EXAMPLE 13
How much does it cost to keep your computer on all
the time for one month when a computer plus screen
draws about 4 amps at 120 volts and if electricity costs
$0.1 per kilowatt hour to run?
Solution

P = IV = 480 watts.
So we have,

$ = (0.48kW)(30days)(24 hours/day)($0.10/kW-hr)
$ = $34.60
 Kirchhoff's Rules

•Sometimes a circuit can be too complicated

to reduce to a single resistor, especially if
there is more than one battery in the
circuit.

Then we use a set of rules, called Kirchhoff's

Rules, for determining the current through a
circuit.
•Junction Rule. The sum of the
magnitudes of the currents directed into a
junction equals the sum of the magnitudes
of the currents directed out of the junction.
(Conservation of charge)

1= 2+ 3
•Loop Rule. Around any closed loop, the
sum of the potential drops equals the sum of
the potential rises. (Conservation of energy)

V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Or V1 + V2 - IR1 - IR2 - IR3 = 0
 Rules to be followed
1. Draw the circuit and draw currents with an
arrow in every separate branch of the
circuit. A branch is a section where the current
does not change.
2. Apply the junction rule to enough junctions so
that every current is used at least once.
3. Apply the loop rule to enough closed loops so
that each current appears at least once. Remember
the sign convention for the potential changes:
Going across an "emf" is a plus sign if going from
negative to positive and a minus sign if going from
positive to negative. (Plus if going in "normal"
direction of current.)
Going across a resistor is a plus sign if going against the
current and a minus sign if going with the current. (Minus
if going in "normal" direction of current.)
 Example 14

Determine the values of the current flowing

through each of the resistors.
 Solution
• The circuit has two nodes (at A and B). We
have the choice of choosing only two of the
three loops shown (blue). This is because only
two of the loops are independent.

Node A: 1+ 2= 3
Node B: 3= 1+ 2
Loop 1 : 10− 1 1− 3 3=0
Loop 2 : 20− 2 2− 3 3=0
By substitution, the answer can be shown to be
I1=-0.143amps, I2=0.429amps and I3 = 0.286amps.
 Example 15

Find the current and

power in the 3Ω
resistor in this circuit
using Kirchhoff's
Rules. Make sure to
specify direction of
current. What are
the currents in the
other two resistors?
 Solution
Apply the Junction Rule:
I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 …..(i)
Apply the Loop Rule:
Loop (1)
3 - 3I1+ 6I2 - 12 = 0
»I2 = (1/2)I1 + 3/2 ……(ii)
Loop (2)
3 -3I1 + 6I3 = 0
» I3 =(1/2)I1 - ½ …..(ii)
• Plugging equations (ii) and (iii) into (i)

I1 + (1/2)I1 + (3/2) + (1/2)I1 - 1/2 = 0

2I1 = -1 A » I1 = -1/2 A

I1= 1/2 A, from left to right

P = I1 2R = (-1/2 A)2 (3 Ω) = 3/4 W

From (ii)
I2 = (1/2)I1 + 3/2 = -1/4 + 3/2
= 5/4 A, right to left
From (iii)
I3 =I1 - 1/2 = -1/4 - 1/2 = -3/4 A
= 3/4 A, left to right
 Problem
• Use Kirchhoff’s rules to determine the values
of I2, I3 and x in the circuit below
 Terminal Voltage
• A real battery has some internal
resistance. So if you were to draw a
real battery it would consist of a
perfect battery and a resistor.

• You can treat this just like two

separate components when you use
Kirchhoff's Laws or equivalent
resistance.
• However, when you hook up to the
battery you do not quite get the entire
potential from the battery. Instead you get
something slightly smaller which is what is
referred to as the Terminal Voltage.
 Example 16
• An ideal battery has a voltage of 9.0 volts
and an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω. When
it is drawing 0.3 amps, what is the
terminal voltage?
VTerminal =Vo - Ir = 9.0 V - (0.3 A)(0.5 Ω)
= 8.9 V
 Alternating Currents

• An alternating current is a current that

changes direction, going first one way and
then the other in a circuit.
• If you were to plot the value of the
current, as a function of time, you would
see that it is changing in a sinusoidal way.
This curve is given by the equation
I=Io sin(2πft)

I0 is the maximum height of the current, and f is

the frequency, which is the number of complete
cycles per second.

The voltage follows the same curve and is given

by V=Vosin(2πft), where Vo is the maximum
voltage.
Suppose we want to tell what the voltage is for
alternating current. What should we use? We
can't really use the average voltage, because
that is zero. We could use the maximum
voltage.
But what is actually done is that when
describing an alternating circuit the Root Mean
Square (RMS) values are used.
RMS is always related to the maximum for
sinusoidal curves by the formula
IRMS = Io/√2 or for voltage VRMS = Vo/√2
So if we talk about average current or
average voltage (or just use the terminology
of voltage or current) for an alternating
current, we mean RMS values. If we talk
about "peak" voltage or current, we mean
their maximum values.

In the U.S. f=60 Hz (cycles/second), and

VRMS = 120 V.
 •All the formulas we have learned for dc
currents work for ac currents, either their
average values or their RMS values. So

VRMS =IRMSR or Vo =IoR

PAVG = V RMS IRMS =IRMS2 R
 Example 17
A vacuum cleaner in U.S. has a rating of 11 amps. What
is the maximum power consumed?

Solution
Io= √2 x IRMS = √ 2 (11 A) = 15.6 A

Vo= √ 2 x VRMS = √ 2 (120 V) = 170 V

• Po=VoIo= (170 V)(15.6 A) = 2600 W

MAGNETISM
 Magnets and Magnetic Fields

• This is sometimes a complicated subject,

because although we use it every day in
every motor, we don't really come in
contact with magnetism.

• Magnetism is a property that always

requires three dimensions to describe.
• Because magnetism involves three
dimensions, we often have to draw vectors
into the plane of the paper or out of the
plane of the paper.
• But all we see is either the tip of the arrow
ʘ , if the field is coming out of the page,
or the tail of the arrow, Ⓧ, if the field is
going into the page.
 Permanent Magnets and
Magnetic Fields
1. Magnetic material was first found in
Magnesia in Asia and was named after the
place where it was found. Most magnets
have iron in them and are called
ferromagnetic (from the Latin ferrum for
iron).

2. Each magnet has two poles, North and

South. The names were given because a
permanent magnet will always have its
north pole point to the geographic north.
3. Magnetic poles always come in pairs.
No monopoles, (like single electric charges).
If you cut a magnet, you still get a north
and south. There is no "Coulomb's Law" for
magnetic fields.
4. Opposite poles attract and like poles
repel. So the north pole of a compass
points to the magnetic north of the
earth. The north pole of a compass should
be called the "north seeking" pole.
• Surrounding a magnet is a magnetic
field. We can draw field lines always
going from north to south. The
direction of the magnetic field is
tangent to the field lines. Fields have
the capability of producing forces on
certain particles.
5. Magnetic field lines have no beginning
and no end. This is because there are no
monopoles, (single north or south poles).
Remember that electric field lines always
start and end on charged objects.
This happens because there are electrically
charged objects with a single charge.
Because there are no magnetic objects with a
single pole, there is no place for the magnetic
field to start or end, so magnetic field lines
are always continuous.
6. The strength of the field is
proportional to the number of lines per
unit area (the density of lines).

Read about Geomagnetism

Magnetic Field
A bar magnet has a magnetic
field around it. This field is 3D in
nature and often represented by
lines LEAVING north and
ENTERING south

To define a magnetic field you

need to understand the
MAGNITUDE and DIRECTION

We sometimes call the magnetic

field a B-Field as the letter “B” is
the SYMBOL for a magnetic field
with the TESLA (T) as the unit.
 Electric Currents Produce
Magnetism
We have talked briefly about permanent
magnets, and now we will talk about
another way to make a magnetic field: by
moving charges.
Actually, all magnetic fields we know about are
made from moving charges.
Even permanent magnets are made because
of sub-atomic charged particles that are
moving in atoms.
 Magnetic Field of a Wire
(Hans Christian Oersted – 1820)
The field goes in circles around the wire.
The direction is given by the right hand rule.
Thumb is in the direction of current.
The fingers curl in the direction of the
magnetic field.

A drawing of the field lines shows they go in

circles around the wire and are denser near the
wire. Where the field lines are denser, the
magnetic field is stronger.
 What is its magnitude?
The magnitude is given by the formula
B=μoI / 2πr
B is the magnetic field.
μo is the permeability of free space.
I is the current in the wire.
r is the distance from the wire.

The SI unit for magnetic field is called the "Tesla".

Notice that the field is strongest near the wire.
Doubling the distance will cut the field in half.
Doubling the current, doubles the field.
μo = 4π x 10-7 T.m/A.
 Example 1
• One straight wire carries a current of 10 Amps
north and another straight wire carries a current
of 5.0 Amps west. What is the direction and
magnitude of the magnetic field 0.25 m above
the point where the wires intersect?
 Solution
Above first wire is:
B1 = (μo I)/(2πr)
= (4 π x 10-7 T×m/A)(10 A)/(2)(π)(0.25 m)
B1 = 8.00 x 10-6 T in the eastern direction.

Above second wire is:

B2 = (μo I)/(2 π r)
= (4 π 10-7 T×m/A)(5.0 A)/(2)(π)(.25 m)

B2= 4.00x10-6 T in the northern direction .

We must add these up as vectors. They
are already broken up into components at
right angles. Thus, the total B-field is

at an angle θ = tan-1(B2/B1) = 27°

 Magnetic Field of a Wire Loop
What about a loop of wire? Each section of the
wire gives a magnetic field with the direction
determined by the right hand rule. The magnetic
field inside the wire is in a different direction from
the magnetic field outside the wire. At the center
of the loop
The current, I , used is the
total current, so for a wire
of N turns, the current, I ,
used is Ni where i is the
current supplied to the coil.
B= μoI / 2R R is the radius of the wire.
 Ampere's Law

There is a fundamental principle which

allows us to calculate the magnetic field
from any wire carrying a current.
André Marie Ampere determined that if we
take any closed path around a current
carrying wire and looked only at the vector
component of the magnetic field parallel to
that closed path, you would find

ΣBǁ∆l = μoI
where ∆l is a little segment of length, Bǁ is the magnetic
field parallel to that little segment of length, Σ means to
take the sum over Bǁ times ∆l, and I is the current
flowing through the wire. (Actually this is a calculus
relationship with an integral.)

If we look at a single wire above we see that B is always

parallel to a circle around the wire, so ∆l is just the
circumference of the circle, and

B(2πr) = μoI
B= (μoI )/(2πr) which is what we got before.
 Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
If we now take many turns of wire, and pack them
tightly, we get a solenoid. Inside the solenoid, the
magnetic field is approximately constant and
outside the solenoid the magnetic field is
approximately zero.

The direction of the field is given by the RHR and

the magnitude can be determined using Ampere's
law.
ΣBǁ∆l = μoI
 Bl = N μoI

B = μoI N/l = μon I where n = number of

turns N per unit length l and I is the current
in the solenoid.
 Example 2
A solenoid has 100 turns and a length of 10 cm. It
carries a current of 0.5 A. What is the magnetic
field inside the solenoid?

Solution

B = μonI = μoI N/L

= (4π x 10-7 T×m/A)(0.500A)(100)/(0.100m)

B = 6.28 x 10-4 T
Magnetic Fields Exert a Force on
a Moving Charge

• We have talked about how magnetic fields

are created from moving charges. Now
once we have created the magnetic field,
we want to know what effect it has on
other particles. We will now discuss what
effect a magnetic field has on a charged
particle
Characteristics of the Force

A magnetic field can create a force on an

object. However, for the object to feel a
force, and the magnetic field to affect the
object, three things must be true;
1. The object must have an electric charge.
2. The charged object must be moving.
3. The velocity of the moving charged object
must have a component that is
perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field.
 A slightly different "Right Hand Rule" is used to
determine the direction of the force on a
charged particle from a magnetic field.
1. Index finger points in direction of the
particle's velocity (current).
2. The middle finger points in the direction of
the magnetic field, and,
3. The thumb points in the direction of the
force on a positive charge - the direction a
positively charged particle would accelerate.
NB: There was a relationship between the
electric field and the force that a charged
particle felt. That relationship was F = qE

Similarly, there is a relationship between a

magnetic field and the force a charged
particle feels. It is F = qvBsinθ
Remember that force is a vector, and there is a
direction to this force. The direction is given by
the RHR as explained above. If we look at this
equation we can see four different ways to
increase the force a particle feels from a
magnetic field

i.e Increase B. Increase q. Increase v. Maximize

sinθ. The sign of q must be used.
Magnetic Force and Circular
Motion
Suppose we have an
electron traveling at a
velocity , v, entering a
magnetic field, B,
directed into the page.
What happens after the
initial force acts on the
charge?
 The magnetic force is equal to
the centripetal force and thus
can be used to solve for the
circular path. Or, if the radius
is known, could be used to
solve for the MASS of the ion.
This could be used to
determine the material of the
object.
There are many “other”
types of forces that can be
set equal to the magnetic
force.
 Example 3
A singly charged positive ion has a mass of 2.5 x 10-26 kg. After being
accelerated through a potential difference of 250 V, the ion enters a
magnetic field of 0.5 T, in a direction perpendicular to the field.
Calculate the radius of the path of the ion in the field.

Solution
FB = Fc qvB =
q = 1.6x10−19 C
m = 2.5 x 10-26 kg
ΔV = 250V We need
B = 0.5T to solve for
the
r=?
velocity!
 Mass Spectrometers
• Mass spectrometry is an analytical
technique that identifies the chemical
composition of a compound or sample based
on the charge-to-mass ratio of charged
particles.
• A sample undergoes chemical fragmentation,
thereby forming charged particles (ions). The
ratio of charge to mass of the particles is
calculated by passing them through
ELECTRIC and MAGNETIC fields in a mass
spectrometer.
Mass spectrometry process
Area 1-The Velocity Selector
•When you inject the
sample you want it to go
STRAIGHT through the
plates. Since you have an
electric field you also
need a magnetic field to
apply a force in such a
way as to CANCEL out the
electric force caused by
the electric field.
Area 2 – Detector Region
•After leaving region 1 in a straight line, it
enters region 2, which ONLY has a
magnetic field. This field causes the ion to
move in a circle separating the ions by
mass.

•This is also where the charge to mass

ratio can then be calculated. From that
point, analyzing the data can lead to
identifying unknown samples.
 Magnetic Fields Exert a Force
on a Current Carrying Wire
Q. What is a current in a wire?
A. Moving charges.

Q. What does a magnetic field do to

moving charges?
A. Exerts a force.

•That means a magnetic field exerts a

force to a wire.
F = qvBsinθ. Multiply right side by (t/t)
F = (q/t) vt Bsinθ;

q/t is current I, and vt is

length L.

• F = ILBsinθ where θ is the angle between the wire and

the direction of the B field.

• A stereo speaker works by using this principle. If

current increases the force increases. The direction is
given by RHR.
 Example 4
A wire with a mass of 1 g/cm is placed on a
horizontal surface with a coefficient of friction of
0.2 N/m. The wire carries a current of 1.5 A
eastwards and moves horizontally to the north at
a constant speed. What are the magnitude and
direction of the smallest magnetic field that
enables the wire to move in this fashion?

By Newton's second law ΣF = ma

 Solution
In the y-direction we have the Normal force Fn and the
force of gravity, mg.
Σfy =may
Fn – mg = 0
In the x-direction we have the magnetic force
(FB = ILBsinθ) and the force of Friction (μFn)
which is proportional to the normal force.
Thus,
ΣFx = max
ILBsinθ – μFn = 0
Putting these two equations together, and doing a
little algebra with the realization that
θ = 90o, we get

IB = μmg/L

B= μg(m/L)/I

B = (0.2 N/m)(9.8 m/s2)

(1g/cm)(100cm/meter)(1kg/1000g)/1.5A
B = 0.131 kg m/ m-A-s2 = 0.131 N/A-m = 0.131 Tesla
Magnetic Fields Exert a Torque
on a Current in a Coil
Now put a current carrying loop of wire in
an already present magnetic field.

There is a force on the loop due to the

current in the wires and the force on all the
wires creates a net torque.
The torque is given by force multiplied by the length of the
lever arm:
ɽ = Fl = ILB(sinθ)(w/2) sinφ ( x2 ) = IABsin φ

where A is the area of the loop. It is valid for any flat coil.
For more than one loop
ɽ = NIAB sin φ

where NIA is called the magnetic moment of the coil and

given the symbol μ,

so in general: ɽ = μB sin φ
This is a direct current motor. If you run current
through the wire, the torque causes it to rotate and you
can do work with the rotating coil.
 Example 5
• A square loop of wire with sides of 50.0
cm is oriented at an angle of 30° to a
magnetic field of 0.50 T. The current in
the loop is 2.0 A in the direction shown.
What is the magnitude of the torque at
this instance?
 Solution
ɽ = NIAB sinφ

ɽ = (2.0 A)(0.50)2(0.50 T)(sin(30°))

where N = 1
ɽ = 0.13 N-m
It will rotate clockwise (the force is towards
the top of the page for the top arm and
towards the bottom of the page for the
bottom arm).
 Force Between Two Wires
What we know about currents in wires is

1. They produce a magnetic field.

2. They feel a force from magnetic fields.

Consequently, two wires with currents running in them

will produce magnetic fields that influence each other.

From wire number 1: B = μoI1/2πr

At wire 2: F = I2LBsinθ where B comes from wire 1.

So F = I2I1Lμo/2πr.
 Direction of the force
• The direction of force depends on whether
the currents are in the same direction or
opposite directions, and can be
determined from the right hand rule.
• If the currents are in the same direction,
then the two wires will be attracted to
each other. If they are in opposite
directions, then they will be repelled from
each other as shown in the next slide.
We can write this as the force per unit length.
F/L = I2I1μo/2πd. Where d is their separation
 Magnetic Flux (Φ)

The main emphasis of this section can be

summed up in one sentence.

A Changing Magnetic Flux induces an

emf (electromotive force, or voltage
difference).
 This statement immediately brings up
three questions that we need to
answer.
1. What is a magnetic flux?
2. How do you change it?
3. What are the consequences of the
induced emf and what is it's polarity?
Suppose we have a magnetic field going
through a surface.
Then the product of the perpendicular
component of the magnetic field going
through the surface and the area of the surface
is called the magnetic flux.
Φ = BAcosϕ
SI Units: T-m2 which is a Weber (Wb) - Wilhelm
Weber
ϕ is the angle between the normal to the
surface and the magnetic field
• Suppose the object in question is a loop of
wire. Then the area (A) has a magnitude
equal to the area inside of the wire loop
which contains the magnetic flux and a
direction perpendicular to face of the
wire loop.
 Example 6
A loop of wire with a radius of 0.5 m is placed in
a magnetic field of 0.6 Tesla. What is the flux
through the wire loop when the face of the loop
is:
(a) perpendicular to the magnetic field,
(b) parallel to the magnetic field, and
(c) at an angle of 30° to the magnetic field as
shown in the figure? (The figure is the view
looking down on the wire loop)
Example 6 cont…

(a) (b) (c)

 SOLUTION
2 2
Area of the loop is πr = 0.79 m

(a) φ = 0° (b) φ = 90° (c) φ = 60°

Φ = BA cos(0) cos(90° ) = 0 Φ = BA cos(60° )

Φ= Φ=
2
so Φ = 0 2
(0.60T)(0.79m )(1) (0.60T)(0.79m )(0.5)

Φ = 0.47 Wb Φ = 0.24 Wb
 How can we change Φ?
1. We could change the Area. When we do that
we get something called "Motional emf“
2. We could change Φ. We usually do that by
rotating a wire loop (s) in a magnetic field. When
we do that we get a generator
3. We could change B. When we do that we get
the
phenomena of inductance

So a changing magnetic flux induces an emf and an

emf can produce a current
 What are the consequences of
the induced emf?
When we change the magnetic flux we always get
an induced emf.
In addition, if there is a closed path for charged
particles to flow, we also get a current since emfs
lead to current.
We've got electric current simply from a changing
magnetic flux.
The electric current flows in such a direction as to
oppose the change in magnetic flux (Lenz’s
Law).
 Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law
Now we want to make this more quantitative.
What is the magnitude of the emf created
when the flux changes?
Suppose we have a coil of wire. The emf induced by
a changing magnetic flux is given by Faraday's Law.

E = -NΔΦ/Δt
It is easiest to use the magnitude of the emf from
Faraday's law and determine the direction of the
induced emf from Lenz's Law.
 What is the direction of the
induced current?
According to Lenz's law, the induced current
produces a magnetic field that opposes the
change in flux causing the emf. That is the
purpose of the minus sign in Faraday's
law.
It indicates that the induced emf is such that
the magnetic force F acts to oppose the
change in magnetic flux. What matters is
the flux inside the wire loop. That is the
defined area.
 Lenz's Law

There are three steps to solving problems

with Lenz's Law.
1. Determine the direction of B.
2. Determine if Φ is increasing or
decreasing.
3. Choose the current direction to
oppose the change in Φ. If flux is
decreasing choose current to
increase B. If flux is increasing,
choose current to decrease B.
 Example 7
A coil of 200 turns is wrapped on an 18.0 cm by 18.0 cm
frame. The total resistance of the coil is 2.0 Ω. A magnetic
field that is perpendicular to the plane of the coil is
changed from 0.5 T to 0 Tesla in 0.8 s.

What is the magnitude of the induced emf?

Solution
E = -N∆Φ/∆t = -N∆(BAcosΦ)/∆t = - NA∆BcosΦ/∆t

E = -200(0-0.5T)(18 cm)2(1m/100cm)2(cos(0°))/0.8 s
E = 4.05 V
 Example 7 cont…
What is the current in the wire?

E = IR
I = E/R = 4.05 V/2.0 Ω = 2.03 A

Here we are changing the

magnetic field, but I could change
the area or the angle and change
the flux.
•
 Electromagnets and the Electric
Motor
The right-hand rule:
When your fingers
curl in the direction of current, your thumb
points toward the magnet’s north pole.
 Electric Motors

Electric motors are very common.

All types of electric motors have three key
components:
1. A rotating element (rotor/disk) with
magnets.
2. A stationary magnet that surrounds the rotor.

3. A commutator that switches the electromagnets

from north to south at the right place to keep
the rotor spinning.
As the rotor spins, the three plates come into
contact with the positive and negative brushes.

Electric current flows through the brushes into

the coils.
If you take apart an electric motor that runs
on batteries, the same three mechanisms
are there; the difference is in the
arrangement of the electromagnets and
permanent magnets.
The rotating part of
the motor, including
the electromagnets, is
called the armature.

This diagram shows a

small battery-powered
electric motor and
what it looks like inside
with one end of the
motor case removed.
The permanent magnets are on the
outside, and they stay fixed in place.

The wires from each of the three coils

are attached to three metal plates
(commutator) at the end of the
armature.
An electric motor in Pictures
How does an ELECTRIC motor work?
Induction and the Electric Generator

Key Question:
How does a
generator produce electricity?
 Induction and the Electric
Generator
If you move a magnet near a coil of wire, a
current will be produced.
This process is called electromagnetic
induction, because a moving magnet
induces electric current to flow.
Moving electric charge creates magnetism
and conversely, changing magnetic fields
also can cause electric charge to move.
 Induction
Current is only produced if the magnet is
moving because a changing magnetic field is
what creates current.

If the magnetic field does not change, such

as when the magnet is stationary, the
current is zero.
If the magnetic field is increasing, the
induced current is in one direction.
If the field is decreasing, the induced
current is in the opposite direction.
 Magnetic flux
A moving magnet induces current in a coil
only if the magnetic field of the magnet
passes through the coil.
 Faraday's Law
Faraday’s law says the current in a coil is
proportional to the rate at which the
magnetic field passing through the coil (the
flux) changes.
 Generators

A generator is a device that uses induction

to convert mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
The Electric Generator
The current direction is given by the right
hand rule using v and B. The charges in the
wire feel this force (in the direction of I)
which gives rise to the current.
The magnitude of the emf is given by the
equation for motional emf:
E = BLv⊥ =Blvsinθ

θ is the angle between the velocity and B.

For both wires, and many turns
E = 2NBLvsinθ
If the coil is rotating with constant angular velocity,
then θ = ωt.

Also angular equations, v = ωr = ωw/2

E = 2NBLω(w/2)sinωt
E = NAB ωsinωt

Recall that the peak emf is given by the numbers in front of the
sin function, or
Eo=NAB ω
The current is going back and forth in the wire.
If we use slip rings to make the connection we have an ac
generator. With split ring commutators, we have a dc generator.
 Transformers

Transformers are extremely

useful because they
efficiently change voltage
and current, while providing
the same total power.
The transformer uses
electromagnetic induction,
similar to a generator.
A relationship between voltages and turns
for a transformer results because the two
coils have a different number of turns.
THE END