ADAMSON UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

SUBMITTED BY:
Ratonel, Jancem O.
Kawase, Fiona Jezreel
Gepulgani, John Nino Emmanuel B.

SUBMITTED TO:
Ar. Jasmin Grace P. Lee, MArch, UAP, PIEP

DATE SUBMITTED:
April 25, 2025
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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This section presents the graphical presentation of the conceptual

framework of the study. It aims to show the direction various actions that would

be taken while progressing through the research.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

This conceptual framework shows how the idea for a coastal airport takes

shape—from understanding the site’s challenges, like storms and sea-level rise,

to responding with smart, sustainable design. It blends what we’ve learned from

other airports, local culture, and global goals to create a place that’s not just

functional, but also safe, beautiful, and uniquely rooted in its environment. The

end goal? An airport that works for people, respects nature, and stands the test

of time.
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Figure 2: Fishbone Diagram

This fishbone diagram illustrates the key factors that can lead to poor

airport design, especially in terms of flooding, drainage, and environmental

challenges. It highlights issues such as inadequate urban planning, lack of

rainwater catchment areas, poorly designed runways, and weak disaster

response systems. Additional concerns include internal traffic congestion, faulty

pumping systems, undersized stormwater drains, and poorly sealed boundaries.

Altogether, it shows that successful airport design requires a well-coordinated

approach that addresses infrastructure, environment, and emergency

preparedness to ensure safety, functionality, and resilience.

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CHAPTER 2

THE LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter presents an in-depth review of all reference materials and

precedent studies used and relevant to the study. It aims to ground the

proposed architectural research to the existing knowledge that are similar to the

nature of the project and provide a structured overview of significant works,

both theoretical and applied, that help define the conceptual bases of the study.

This chapter is divided into four major sections: Review of the Literature, Case

Studies, Research Paradigm, and Synthesis.

2.1. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This section presents all of the related literature used and considered in

the project. Information such as standards, design concepts and other

theories are included in this section.

2.1.1 RUNWAY DESIGN

2.1.1.1. RUNWAY DESIGN STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
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1. FAA Advisory Circular AC 150/5300-13B – Airport Design (2024)

This comprehensive document by the Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA) provides current standards for the geometric layout and

engineering design of runways, taxiways, aprons, and other airport

facilities. It includes specifications on runway length, width, safety

areas, and separation distances tailored to various aircraft categories.

The latest revision, Change 1 (issued August 16, 2024), integrates

updated technical requirements and cancels several previous

engineering briefs, ensuring alignment with modern aviation needs .

2. ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual – Part 1: Runways (Doc 9157, 4th

Edition, 2020)

Published by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), this

manual offers global standards for runway design, encompassing

aspects like runway configuration, length, orientation, and grading. It

emphasizes accommodating future aircraft developments and

provides guidance on integrating aeroplane performance parameters

into runway planning.

3. FAA Runway Design Standards Matrix Tool

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This interactive tool complements AC 150/5300-13B by offering a

matrix of design standards based on aircraft categories and

operational requirements. It aids in determining appropriate runway

dimensions, safety areas, and separation distances, facilitating

compliance with FAA guidelines.

4. FAA Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) – GEN 1.7:

Differences from ICAO Standards

This section of the FAA's AIP outlines specific deviations from ICAO

standards, providing insights into U.S.-specific runway design practices.

It details differences in runway widths, slopes, and separation distances,

which are crucial for understanding regional adaptations of

international guidelines.

LOCAL STANDARDS

Philippine Runway Design Standards (CAAP MOS-Aerodromes)

The CAAP MOS-Aerodromes provides comprehensive guidelines for

runway design, including:

 Runway Dimensions: Specifications for length and width based on

aircraft type and operational requirements.

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 Runway Orientation: Determination of runway alignment

considering prevailing wind conditions to ensure safety and

efficiency.

 Runway Safety Areas (RSAs): Designated areas surrounding the

runway to enhance safety during aircraft overruns or excursions.

 Pavement Strength: Guidelines on pavement classification numbers

(PCN) to accommodate various aircraft weights.

 Markings and Lighting: Standards for runway markings, lighting

systems, and signage to ensure visibility and guidance during

operations.

These standards are detailed in the Manual of Standards for

Aerodromes, which can be accessed through the CAAP official website.

2.1.1.2. RUNWAY DESIGN CONCEPTS

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1. The Endless Runway (Circular Runway Concept)

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Developed by the Netherlands Aerospace Centre (NLR), the Endless

Runway proposes a circular runway approximately 3.5 km in diameter,

encircling the airport terminal. Though this particular still has a lot of

polishes due to its nature as theoretical design, its hypothetical design

provides a basis of innovation to current design. Key features include:

 Wind Independence: Aircraft can always operate with a

headwind, enhancing safety and reducing delays.

 Increased Capacity: The circular layout can accommodate

multiple takeoffs and landings simultaneously, improving traffic

flow.

 Space Efficiency: The compact design requires less land

compared to traditional runway layouts.

Taking into account such considerations, the design of the runway of

this project would be able to look into the features this concept

considerered.
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2. Beijing Daxing International Airport: Integrated Runway and

Terminal Design
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Designed by Zaha Hadid Architects, Beijing Daxing International

Airport features a radial layout with runways extending from a central

terminal. This configuration minimizes passenger walking distances

and streamlines aircraft movements. Notable aspects include:

 Efficient Connectivity: The design facilitates quick transfers

between gates and runways.

 Scalability: The airport is planned to expand from four to eight

runways to accommodate future growth.

 Aesthetic Integration: The architecture blends modern design

with traditional Chinese elements.

 Radial Runway Layout: Facilitating efficient aircraft movements

and minimizing taxiing distances.

 Centralized Terminal Design: Reducing passenger walking

distances and streamlining transfers.

 Advanced Technology Integration: Implementing paperless

check-in processes and real-time baggage tracking.

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3. Heathrow Airport Expansion Proposals (London, UK)

In 2016, Heathrow Airport shortlisted four leading architectural firms

—Zaha Hadid Architects, Grimshaw, HOK, and Benoy—for its proposed

expansion, which includes a new terminal and an additional runway.

The project aims to:

 Redefine Airport Design: Creating a transformative passenger

experience through innovative architecture.

 Enhance Sustainability: Incorporating environmentally friendly

practices and technologies.

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 Improve Connectivity: Expanding domestic routes and increasing

cargo capacity to support economic growth.

This initiative highlights the role of visionary design in addressing

capacity challenges while prioritizing sustainability and community

impact.

2.1.2. AIRPORT LANDSCAPING

Regarding this section, the following information presented here

discusses about the ideas and concepts to be integrated on the

landscaping of the airport both on the airport itself following through the

runway. The following are taken from local and international references.

For the international references:

2.1.2.1. AIRPORT LANDSCAPE: URBAN ECOLOGIES IN THE AERIAL AGE

(HARVARD GRADUATE SCHOOL OF DESIGN)

Author/Editors: Sonja Dümpelmann & Charles Waldheim

Published by: Harvard Graduate School of Design (2014)

Core Idea: Airports as evolving landscapes with ecological and urban

design potential.
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This academic work explores how airports, traditionally perceived as

isolated infrastructure, can be designed to play a pivotal role in shaping

urban ecological networks. It discusses:

 Green infrastructure integration within and around runways and

taxiways

 Adaptive reuse of decommissioned airfields into parks and

community green spaces.

 Environmental planning strategies that mitigate heat island effects

and biodiversity loss.

With these things at hand, it goes to show that it provides a strong

theoretical foundation for integrating green infrastructure and

ecological sensitivity in airport master planning.

2.1.2.2. SCHIPHOL AIRPORT'S BUITENSCHOT LAND ART PARK – NOISE-

REDUCING LANDSCAPE

Designer: Paul de Kort (in collaboration with H+N+S Landscape

Architects)

Location: Amsterdam, Netherlands

Key Feature: Engineered ridges and grass berms to combat low-

frequency aircraft noise.

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A large-scale land art intervention adjacent to Schiphol’s runway, the

Buitenschot project transforms 33 hectares into a noise-reducing

landscape using ridges spaced precisely at 36 feet apart—corresponding

to the wavelength of low-frequency engine noise.

Design Aspects:

 Visually minimalist yet mathematically precise landscape

 Berms and hedges break and redirect sound waves

 Grass species planted for year-round resilience and aesthetic

quality

It demonstrates how landscape design can function as a noise barrier,

reducing environmental impact and improving airport-community

relations.

2.1.2.3. SCHIPHOL AIRPORT'S BUITENSCHOT LAND ART PARK – NOISE-

REDUCING LANDSCAPE

Document: Port of Seattle Landscape Design Standards (2006, updated

periodically)

Application: All new development and renovation projects around the

runway and airfield perimeters

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This set of standards aims to create visually cohesive, low-maintenance,

and climate-resilient landscapes throughout the Sea-Tac Airport. Core

principles include:

 Using native and adaptive species to reduce irrigation needs

 Avoiding tall vegetation and fruit-bearing trees near runways for

bird-strike prevention

 Applying low-glare, low-contrast ground treatments to reduce pilot

distraction

 Stormwater management via bioswales and green berms

This Provides an applied framework for designing sustainable

landscapes in tropical or temperate airside conditions, adaptable to

Philippine settings.

2.1.2.4. HONG KONG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT – THREE RUNWAY SYSTEM

LANDSCAPE & VISUAL IMPACT PLAN

Agency: Airport Authority Hong Kong (AAHK)

Document: Updated Landscape and Visual Plan (2023)

Objective: Mitigate visual and ecological disruption caused by major

runway expansion
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As part of Hong Kong's Three Runway System (3RS), AAHK implemented

a robust landscape plan to balance the massive land reclamation works

with ecological enhancement. Key initiatives include:

 Tree preservation and transplanting near critical construction zones

 Establishment of visual green buffers around new runway

perimeters

 Introduction of shoreline planting for erosion control and bird

habitat management

 Integration of landscape berms and softscape treatments near

passenger viewing decks

Demonstrates how landscape visual planning can soften large-scale

infrastructure expansion and integrate it with sensitive ecological areas.

For the local references:

2.1.2.5. CLARK INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (CRK) – TERMINAL 2: LANDSCAPE-

INSPIRED ARCHITECTURE AND BUFFER ZONES

Architects/Designers: Budji+Royal Architecture + Design

Location: Clark Freeport Zone, Pampanga

Opened: 2021
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Key Features and Landscape Innovations:

 Roof Design Inspired by Surrounding Landscapes: The iconic

undulating roof draws visual metaphors from the nearby Zambales

and Sierra Madre mountain ranges. This gesture roots the building

in its geographical context while offering natural shading and

rainwater redirection.

 Perimeter Planting and Green Buffers: The airport complex

integrates landscape buffers and low-maintenance tropical

vegetation along service roads and airside boundaries to reduce

visual harshness and promote biodiversity.

 Passive Cooling Strategy: Landscaped forecourts, tree-lined drop-

off zones, and canopied pathways are designed to reduce the urban

heat island effect while supporting passenger comfort in outdoor

transition spaces.

 Cultural Landscape Aesthetics: Hardscape and softscape elements

reflect Kapampangan patterns, materials, and craft traditions,

weaving cultural narrative into the visual language of the terminal.

To summarize, this project demonstrates how landscape form can drive

terminal massing, and how runway-adjacent zones can be activated as

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part of a holistic site planning strategy, balancing ecology, culture, and

function.

2.1.2.6. MACTAN-CEBU INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (MCIA) – TERMINAL 2:

TROPICAL RESORT EXPERIENCE THROUGH SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS
AND GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE

Architects/Designers: Integrated Design Associates (IDA)

Location: Lapu-Lapu City, Cebu

Opened: 2018

Key Features and Landscape Innovations:

 Roof Profile as Landscape Metaphor: The glulam timber arched

roof mimics the form of local boats and wave patterns, bridging

Cebu's maritime culture and tropical setting.

 Lush Arrival and Departure Landscaping: Arrival zones are shaded

with native palms and plantings; ground-level landscape islands

soften the transition between built form and the surrounding site.

 Rainwater Harvesting and Green Drainage Channels: MCIA

integrates stormwater management through landscaped bioswales

and pervious paving areas that help filter and redirect runoff—

particularly essential given the site's coastal location.

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 Minimal Earth Movement Strategy: Landscaping was used as a

design tool to work with the existing topography rather than

against it—reducing costs and environmental disruption.

MCIA offers a successful example of vernacular sensitivity, sustainable

engineering, and biophilic design in an international airport setting. It

also shows how landscape can be used for soft edge definition around

airside and terminal zones without compromising security or visibility.

2.1.2.7. PUERTO PRINCESA INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (PROPOSED DESIGN

CONCEPT) – BIODIVERSITY-SENSITIVE AND ECO-TOURISM GATEWAY

Architects: Conceptual proposals from various firms

Location: Palawan

Status: Future expansion and conceptual projects

Key Features and Landscape Innovations:

 Tropical Forest Preservation Zones: Designs envision minimal

intervention to the surrounding lowland forest, with perimeter

planting and ecological corridors preserved or enhanced to allow

for local fauna movement.

 Living Runway Margins: Proposals include native grass species for

runway shoulders and edges that resist erosion, discourage bird

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nesting (a critical safety factor), and blend seamlessly with the

environment.

 Natural Ventilation Landscaping: Landscaped wind corridors and

shaded atriums use foliage to cool terminal interiors passively,

reducing dependence on air conditioning.

 Green Roof and Façade Concepts: Some concepts propose green

roofs that extend from ground landscape elements, creating the

impression of an “invisible airport” nested in the environment.

This case, though conceptual, shows how an airport can harmonize with

biodiversity and terrain, particularly in ecologically sensitive zones like

Palawan. It also reinforces the role of landscape in promoting

sustainable tourism and low-impact design.

2.1.3. COASTAL AIRPORT DESIGN

Regarding this section, the following information presented here

discusses about the ideas and concepts that would be taken into context

while planning and designing the airport which has a determined site

located within the coastal regions. The following are taken from local and

international references.
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For the international references:

2.1.3.1. SHENZHEN BAO’AN INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT, CHINA

Design Inspiration: The terminal's design emulates a manta ray,

symbolizing fluidity and adaptability.

Key Features:

 Biomorphic Architecture: The structure's form mirrors marine life,

creating a seamless connection with its coastal surroundings.

 Environmental Integration: Extensive use of natural light and

ventilation reduces energy consumption.

These demonstrates how coastal airports can harmonize with their

maritime environment through biomimicry and sustainable practices.

2.1.3.2. SAN FRANCISCO INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (SFO), USA

Challenge: Facing threats from sea-level rise due to its coastal location.

Mitigation Strategies:

 Seawall Construction: A $587 million project to build a seawall

protecting against projected sea-level rise.

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 Floodproofing Measures: Incorporation of both "dry" and "wet"

floodproofing techniques to enhance resilience.

Highlights the importance of proactive infrastructure planning in coastal

airport design to address climate change impacts.

For the local references:

2.1.3.3. NEW MANILA INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (BULACAN)

Location: Situated on reclaimed land along the Manila Bay coastline.

Design Considerations:

 Coastal Engineering: Incorporation of coastal protection measures,

including seawalls and elevated structures, to mitigate storm surge

and flooding risks.

 Environmental Impact Assessments: Comprehensive studies

conducted to ensure minimal ecological disruption.

Serves as a model for integrating coastal defense mechanisms into

airport design in flood-prone areas.

2.1.3.4. MACTAN-CEBU INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (MCIA) TERMINAL 2

Design Philosophy: Reflects Cebu's tropical and maritime culture.

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Key Features:

 Undulating Roof Structure: Inspired by ocean waves, constructed

using sustainable glulam timber.

 Natural Ventilation: Design promotes airflow, reducing reliance on

mechanical cooling systems.

 Landscape Integration: Use of native vegetation and open spaces to

create a resort-like ambiance.

Exemplifies how coastal airports can blend cultural identity with

sustainable design practices.

2.1.3.5. PUERTO PRINCESA INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (CONCEPTUAL DESIGN)

Vision: A futuristic airport harmonizing with Palawan's rich biodiversity.

Innovative Elements:

 Biomimicry: Design inspired by the anatomy of a butterfly,

symbolizing transformation and harmony with nature.

 Biodome Feature: An integrated forest within the terminal,

showcasing local flora and fauna.

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 Sustainable Materials: Use of eco-friendly construction materials to

minimize environmental impact.

Illustrates the potential of integrating biodiversity conservation into

airport design, especially in ecologically sensitive coastal regions.

2.1.4. GENERAL COASTAL HAZARDS AND RESPONSES

Regarding this section, the following information presented here

discusses about considerations in relation to the vicinity in which the

project would be erected. As a tropical archipelago with over 36,000 km

of coastline, the Philippines is highly vulnerable to coastal hazards. The

convergence of geographic exposure, rapid urbanization, and climate

change places coastal communities—especially those near airports, ports,

and tourism zones—at significant risk. Architecture plays a critical role in

mitigating these risks through resilient design strategies.

2.1.4.1. COASTAL HAZARDS

1. Storm Surges & Typhoon-Induced Inundation

Description: Storm surges occur when high winds and pressure

changes from tropical cyclones push seawater onto land, leading to

sudden, massive flooding. Typhoon Yolanda (Haiyan) brought storm

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surges up to 7 meters high in Tacloban (2013), devastating thousands

of homes and facilities.

Vulnerability: Airports, ports, low-lying housing, and coastal

commercial strips are especially at risk.

2. Sea-Level Rise

Description: The Philippines is experiencing sea level rise at a rate of

approximately 5.7 mm/year, compared to the global average of 3.3

mm/year (CSWCRTI, 2019). This long-term phenomenon causes

chronic coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion, and loss of habitable

land.

Vulnerability: Coastal airports like NAIA, Iloilo, and Puerto Princesa are

located at elevations under 3 meters above sea level.

3. Coastal Erosion

Description: Wave action, typhoon surge, and sea-level rise remove

beach material, undermining foundations and causing collapse. Human

activity (reclamation, sand mining) worsens this.

Vulnerability: Exposes runway perimeters, roads, and informal

housing near the shoreline to structural instability.

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4. Coastal Urban Flooding

Description: Caused by poor drainage, excessive rainfall, and blocked

estuarine systems. Common in cities like Manila, Iloilo, and

Zamboanga, where low-lying floodplains intersect with urban buildup.

Vulnerability: Disrupts airport access roads, damages infrastructure,

and impedes emergency response.

2.1.4.2. ARCHITECTURAL RESPONSES

1. Elevated Structures and Floodable Architecture

Strategy: Raise habitable spaces above known or projected flood

levels using stilts, pilotis, or plinths.

Application:

 Post-Yolanda housing in Tacloban integrated raised bamboo

structures and reinforced concrete stilts.

 Puerto Princesa Airport includes slightly elevated terminal

building foundations with ramped access.

Design Considerations:
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 Elevation must consider +3m above Highest High Tide (HHT) and

storm surge maps.

 Sub-floor spaces used for utilities, parking, or designed to flood

without damage.

Benefits:

 Keeps critical functions dry during extreme weather

 Avoids full reliance on levees or dikes

2. Mangrove Buffer Zones and Natural Barriers

Strategy: Restore or integrate natural coastal buffers like mangrove

belts, dune systems, and vegetated berms around urban zones and

infrastructure.

Application:

 Tacloban Resilience Project integrates a 50-meter mangrove

buffer as a "first line of defense."

 In Bohol and Iloilo, mangrove parks were developed as living

shorelines adjacent to public and institutional buildings.

Design Considerations:
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 Minimum 30-meter-wide green belt

 Boardwalks or viewing platforms can activate these zones

recreationally

Benefits:

 Reduces wave energy

 Traps sediment and stabilizes shorelines

 Adds ecological and recreational value

3. Amphibious or Floating Architecture (Experimental)

Strategy: Design for buoyancy and mobility in case of flooding;

buildings float or rise during water surges.

Application:

 Limited use in the Philippines, but experimental prototypes from

Delft University were tested in the Philippines post-Yolanda.

 Architecture students and NGOs explored floating classrooms and

clinics in Samar.

Design Considerations:
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 Use of pontoons, floating decks, and vertical guidance piles

 Modular and prefabricated systems for fast deployment

Benefits:

 Radical flexibility for flood-prone barangays

 Protects community infrastructure (e.g., daycare centers, clinics)

4. Water-Resilient Materials and Construction

Strategy: Use water-resistant materials (e.g., concrete, treated

bamboo, marine plywood) and passive waterproofing.

Application:

 UN Habitat flood-resilient houses in Basey, Samar

 MCIA and Clark T2 both integrate materials suited for saline and

humid coastal environments

Design Considerations:

 Avoid MDF or untreated wood

 Detail for proper ventilation, drainage, and capillary breaks

Benefits:
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 Longer building lifespan in wet, salt-exposed environments

 Reduced maintenance and disaster recovery cost

5. Permeable and Elevated Landscape Systems

Strategy: Introduce bioswales, rain gardens, permeable pavers, and

green corridors around runways, terminals, and roads.

Application:

 Proposed in NAIA rehabilitation plans for landside parking and

access zones

 Integrated into MCIA Terminal 2 via landscaped forecourts

Design Considerations:

 Grading and flow direction planning

 Use of native vegetation for erosion control

Benefits:

 Heat reduction

 Enhances visual identity

2.1.5. RELEVANT UN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGS)

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1. SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

“Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable

industrialization and foster innovation.”

How your project contributes:

 Designs a climate-resilient airport infrastructure in a hazard-

prone coastal area.

 Incorporates innovative landscape and runway technologies

(e.g., noise-buffering greenbelts, bioswales, elevated

terminals).

 Promotes integrated master planning that anticipates future

environmental and operational challenges.

2. SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

“Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and

sustainable.”

How your project contributes:

 Enhances disaster risk reduction through flood-resilient design

and coastal hazard mitigation.

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 Strengthens the role of the airport as a community and

economic anchor without displacing vulnerable populations.

 Promotes sustainable transportation and connectivity,

especially if integrated with urban mass transit systems.

3. SDG 13: Climate Action

“Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts.”

How your project contributes:

 Responds to climate-induced sea level rise and extreme

weather by embedding adaptive design strategies (e.g., raised

platforms, amphibious elements).

 Incorporates low-carbon materials and passive cooling

strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

 Promotes green infrastructure (mangrove restoration, green

runways) to act as carbon sinks and storm barriers.

4. SDG 14: Life Below Water

“Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas, and marine resources.”

How your project contributes:

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 Protects coastal and marine ecosystems by avoiding

destructive land reclamation and integrating soft engineering

approaches (living shorelines, native vegetation).

 Limits runoff pollution from airside and terminal areas through

eco-sensitive drainage systems.

 Encourages environmental stewardship through public

education areas or eco-parks around the terminal.

5. SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

“Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and

productive employment.”

How your project contributes:

 Generates local employment during construction and airport

operation phases.

 Enhances trade and tourism capacity through expanded airport

functionality.

 Promotes inclusive growth by ensuring accessible, safe, and

disaster-ready infrastructure for all.

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6. SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being

“Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages.”

How your project contributes:

 Reduces health risks from flooding, poor sanitation, and heat

exposure through resilient and climate-adaptive design.

 Improves traveler experience with ventilated spaces, quiet

zones, green buffers, and clean air systems.

 Encourages active mobility and mental well-being through

landscape design, walkability, and access to green space.

Optional (if included in social impact planning):

7. SDG 1: No Poverty

 Through disaster-resilient design, prevents loss of livelihood and

displacement in vulnerable coastal areas.

8. SDG 17: Partnerships for the Goals

 If planned collaboratively with government agencies (CAAP, DOT),

local LGUs, international consultants, and the local community,

your project becomes a model of multistakeholder engagement.

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2.1.6. MASTER PLAN AND AIRPORT PLANNING

Development of international airports has always integrated their

construction with preliminary planning and drafting, often leading to the

design of a master plan for the airport (FAA, 2007; ICAO, 2018). It was

noted that such plans presented a vision and outlined a multi-tiered

strategy for development to meet forecasted aviation demand, undergo

land use planning for the region, and mitigate environmental and

infrastructural socio-economic challenges (Airport Planning Journal,

2019). Other studies pointed out the need for iterative usability in master

planning. This is driven by the need to keep updating airport facilities in

accordance with new technology, market shifts, and policy/legislative

changes (Smith, 2020). That said, effective master planning was singled

out from the rest as the one factor that guarantees the effective

sustainable and economically sound growth of airport infrastructure

(Jones, 2018).

2.1.7. CAPACITY AND DEMAND FORECASTING

A common issue that has received international attention is the

demand forecasting accuracy concerning air traffic and the appraisal of

capacity, both current and futuristic in the context of the airport

diagnostic study (Thompson, 2017). A wide range of research has been

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conducted on the techniques of forecasting the demand which include

the use of econometric models based on historical data and economic

indicators as well as segmentation and behavior analysis (Garcia & Lee,

2021). The studies revealed that lack of sufficient demand is likely to

result in increased congestion and operational inefficiency while

excessive demand would lead to wasteful infrastructure investment

(Airport Economics Quarterly, 2020). Studies dedicated to capacity

focused on revealing the potential productivity of major airport facilities,

such as runways, taxiways, aprons, terminal buildings, and other unit

components, applying various simulation and modeling methods (Airport

Operations Review, 2018).

2.1.8. TERMINAL DESIGN AND PASSENGER EXPERIENCE

The function and design of international airport terminals has

been a subject of concern in the literature, which has shifted from

focusing chiefly on functional efficiency to consideration of passenger

experience (International Airport Council, 2019). Various terminal

configurations (e.g. linear, pier, satellite, hybrid) have been studied in

relation to their impact on passenger movement and interconnections,

especially by transfer passengers, as well as operational complexity

(Terminal Design Handbook, 2021). Increased attention was also given to

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intuitive wayfinding strategies, waiting area comfort, advanced passenger

baggage handling systems, and effective passenger retail, dining, and

service offerings satisfaction (Passenger Experience Journal, 2022). More

recent literature expresses growing attention on the airport terminal as a

“destination in itself” featuring local culture and identity (Architectural

Review, 2021).

2.1.9. AIRFIELD DESIGN AND OPERATIONS

The literature on airfield design focused toward runway, taxiway,

and apron layout diagrams, including their specifications and standards

informed by international and domestic authorities such as ICAO and the

FAA (FAA, 2021; ICAO, 2018). Research delved into the considerations for

runway length and orientation (aircraft factors, wind direction,

environment), ground movement efficiency determined as far as taxiway

design, and the arrangement of aircraft parking and servicing facilities

was referred to as apron design (Aerodrome Design Manual, 2018).

Management of air traffic, airfield lighting and signage, as well as

compliance with safety rules received a great deal of attention and were

all incorporated with the intent to enable efficient and safe aircraft

movements in numerous scenarios (Aviation Safety Journal, 2020).

2.1.10. SITE SELECTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

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This highlighted that choosing a site to construct a new

international airport was often a multifaceted problem needing

consideration of several technical, environmental, social, and economical

factors (Airport Planning Journal, 2019). The studies covered elements

like the distance to population and transport hubs, the presence of

adequate space, the configuration and type of soil, the air control limits,

weather conditions, and other possible consequences for the

environment (Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines, 2020). The

studies on environmental considerations covered more specialized

aspects, including but not limited to, noise and the possibility of

mitigating it, air pollution by aircraft and vehicles during operations,

water and drainage systems, solid waste, and other sensitive biological

resources conservation (Environmental Science Journal, 2021).

Integrating operational needs alongside operational constraints for

environmental custodianship was a common element (Sustainability in

Aviation Report, 2022).

2.1.11. GROUND ACCESS AND INTERMODAL CONNECTIVITY

The interrelation of the airport with regional ground transport

systems is one of the vital components regarding mobility and efficiency

of the entire system (Transportation Research Board, 2019). Literature

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reviewed different modes of ground access, which included transport

road systems (highways, access roads), public transport systems (buses,

rail, metro), and intermodal connections (Airport Connectivity Study,

2020). Studies underlined the necessity of appropriate planning for

transfer between air and ground transport systems and highlighted the

collaboration between airport authorities and regional transport bodies

to relieve congestion and enhance the passenger experience (Urban

Planning Journal, 2021).

2.1.12. ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPACTS

This part outlined the notable repercussions, both economically

and socially, tied to the development of airports (Rodriguez, 2019). From

an economic perspective, airports were found to create direct

employment opportunities (airport and airline staff), indirect

employment (suppliers), induced employment (spending by employees),

and catalytic impacts (business, tourism, and investment attraction)

(Economic Impact Assessment Guidelines, 2018). Socially, the impact of

airports on local communities included the construction of new economic

opportunities, improved connectivity and access to services, and more. At

the same time, airports also presented challenges such as the exposure to

noise, air pollution, and the risk of displacement (Social Impact

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Assessment Handbook, 2019). Literature highlighted the lack of adequate

assessment processes including the active involvement of all relevant

parties in the development process (Community Relations in Airport

Development, 2020).

2.1.13. SUSTAINABILITY IN AIRPORT DEVELOPMENT

The increasing body of international literature pays attention to

the need for sustainability in airport development concerning the

environmental, social, and economic aspects (United Nations

Environment Programme, 2020). Some studies focused on reducing

carbon emissions by improving energy efficiency, using renewable

energy, implementing sustainable aviation fuels, minimizing waste,

conserving water, and enhancing biodiversity (Sustainability in Aviation

Journal, 2023). Social sustainability facets dealt with equity breaches

like social injustice, local community engagement, and facilitating

disability inclusion and accessibility (Social Sustainability in

Infrastructure, 2021). Economic sustainability focused on the long-term

operational feasibility of the airport concerning its contribution to the

wider economy (Airport Economics Review, 2022). Literature has

suggested that achieving true sustainability requires an integrated

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approach to all planning and operational dimensions (Comprehensive

Sustainability Framework, 2024).

2.1.14. HANDICRAFTS AND SOUVENIRS OF PALAWAN

Palawan is a treasure trove of indigenous artistry and eco-

conscious craftsmanship, showcasing a blend of native tradition,

creativity, and natural resources. Its handicraft industry not only

promotes cultural identity but also supports many local communities.

Here are the key products Palawan is recognized for:

1. WOOD CARVINGS

Palawan's native wood carvers produce beautifully detailed figures,

masks, and utensils from mahogany, acacia, and kamagong wood.

These carvings often reflect local folklore, animals, and tribal symbols,

particularly those of the Tagbanua and Palaw’an indigenous groups.

 Artistic Value: Symbolic motifs like birds, crocodiles, and mythical

spirits.

 Sustainability: Often made from locally sourced or recycled wood.

 Popular Products: Decorative panels, animal figurines,

kitchenware.
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2. BAMBOO CRAFTS

Bamboo is widely used in Palawan for both decorative and functional

crafts. Artisans create furniture, trays, baskets, musical instruments,

and lampshades from various bamboo species.

 Cultural Significance: Used in tribal instruments like the “bamboo

zither” or kudyapi.

 Technique: Intricate weaving and pyrography (bamboo etching).

 Eco-Friendly: Fast-growing, renewable material.

3. RATTAN AND NITO WEAVING

Rattan and nito vine are native to the region and are transformed into

bags, trays, hats, and home decor. The Tagbanua and Batak tribes are

known for their nito craftsmanship, often integrating traditional

weaving patterns passed down through generations.

 Uses: Functional and ornamental household items.

 Material Integration: Often combined with bamboo or wood.

 Distinct Design: Tightly coiled and symmetrical weaves.

4. SHELLCRAFT
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Shells from Palawan’s abundant coastline are carefully collected and

used to make jewelry, buttons, mirrors, wind chimes, lamps, and

decorative boxes.

 Types Used: Capiz, cowrie, mother-of-pearl.

 Design Aesthetic: Reflects marine themes and coastal life.

 Ethical Consideration: Sustainable harvesting practices

encouraged to prevent over-exploitation.

5. PEARLS AND PEARL JEWELRY

Palawan is home to some of the world’s finest cultured pearls,

especially from Taytay and Honda Bay. These are crafted into earrings,

necklaces, bracelets, and brooches.

 Premium Status: South Sea pearls from Palawan are prized

globally.

 Availability: Found in high-end boutiques and local markets.

 Support Local: Many items are handmade by community

cooperatives.

6. WOVEN TEXTILES AND TRADITIONAL CLOTHING

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The indigenous people of Palawan create handwoven fabrics using

traditional backstrap looms. These textiles are used for clothing, sashes,

and ceremonial attire, often rich in tribal symbolism.

 Patterns: Geometric and nature-inspired motifs.

 Uses Today: Integrated into modern fashion as bags, scarves, or

shirts.

 Cultural Roots: Techniques preserved by the Palaw’an, Cuyunon,

and Tagbanua.

7. COCONUT AND PANDAN CRAFTS

Crafts made from coconut husks, shells, and pandan leaves include

bags, hats, baskets, fans, and even kitchenware. These are common in

both rural and urban souvenir shops.

 Commonplace Materials: Often sourced from household or

backyard trees.

 Popular Items: Foldable pandan fans, coconut-shell ladles.

 Eco-Conscious: 100% biodegradable, plastic-free.

8. TRIBAL ACCESSORIES AND BEADWORK

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Traditional accessories made from beads, seeds, bones, and natural

fibers reflect the spiritual and social practices of Palawan’s indigenous

groups.

 Use: Often worn during festivals and rituals.

 Handcrafted: Each piece carries individual cultural meaning.

 Cultural Heritage: A growing market among ethnographic

collectors and conscious consumers.

These products embody Palawan’s strong sense of identity, community, and

environmental stewardship. Supporting these crafts not only promotes cultural

preservation but also empowers local livelihoods and sustainable tourism.

2.1.15. DESIGNING AND BUILDING WITH BAMBOO

This technical report serves as a comprehensive guide to bamboo

construction, emphasizing its potential as a sustainable and cost-effective

building material, particularly in developing regions.

CORE CONCEPTS

1. Mechanical Properties of Bamboo: The report details bamboo's high

strength-to-weight ratio, comparing its tensile and compressive

strengths favorably to traditional materials like steel and concrete.

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2. Structural Design Principles: It explores the use of bamboo in various

structural elements, including beams, columns, and trusses,

highlighting design considerations unique to bamboo's

characteristics.

3. Jointing Techniques: Given bamboo's hollow and tapered nature, the

report discusses specialized jointing methods, such as fish-mouth

joints and lashing, to ensure structural integrity.

4. Preservation and Treatment: The importance of treating bamboo to

prevent decay and insect infestation is emphasized, with methods

like boron treatment and proper drying techniques outlined.

5. Construction Applications: Case studies and examples illustrate

bamboo's versatility in constructing various structures, from simple

dwellings to complex buildings, showcasing its adaptability.

6. Sustainability and Economic Impact: The report underscores

bamboo's rapid growth and renewability, advocating for its role in

sustainable development and its potential to stimulate local

economies through job creation.

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2.2. CASE STUDIES

In support of the theoretical concepts discussed in the preceding

sections, this portion of the chapter presents an analytical review of selected

international and local airport case studies. These examples are selected and

presented as a reference and support to the design of the airport as these case-

studies showcased real-world applications of architectural, engineering, and

planning strategies that respond to the unique demands of airport infrastructure

in varied geographical, cultural, and socio-economic of today’s contexts. The

following case studies are as follows starting with the international case studies:

2.2.1. TOKYO HANEDA INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (HND), JAPAN

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Historical & Basic Description: Originally opened in 1931, Tokyo Haneda

is one of Japan’s oldest airports and one of the busiest in the world.

Though formerly more domestic-focused, it has been extensively

redeveloped for international traffic in the last two decades. Located in

an urban, coastal area prone to earthquakes, it operates as a major hub

for Tokyo and the entire Japanese aviation network.

Tokyo Haneda Airport (HND) offers a compelling example of how a major

international airport can successfully operate within the heart of a city in

a seismically active country. It stands as a model of how disaster

preparedness and mitigation are thoughtfully integrated into both its

design and day-to-day operations (Japan Civil Aviation Bureau, 2022).

Haneda’s development reflects Japan’s high standards for safety and

resilience, shaped by years of experience with natural disasters and a

societal demand for infrastructure that can withstand and quickly recover

from such events (National Resilience Plan, 2020).

The airport serves a wide spectrum of users, from domestic and

international travelers to complex airline and cargo services. Its design

and systems—such as intuitive signage, robust emergency protocols, and

a culture of operational readiness—have been carefully crafted to

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influence how people move and respond within the space, especially in

times of crisis (Airport User Experience, 2019).

What sets Haneda apart is not just its capacity to handle large volumes of

passengers, but its ability to stay operational—or bounce back quickly—

after earthquakes or other disasters. This is largely thanks to innovative

and sustainable design solutions. The airport employs state-of-the-art

seismic engineering and built-in redundancies in critical systems, ensuring

that even in the face of disruption, services can be restored swiftly

(Structural Resilience Design, 2018). These measures respond to a

societal expectation of uninterrupted connectivity and safety.

Moreover, Haneda doesn’t just prioritize resilience—it also embraces

environmental responsibility. Sustainable practices in energy use and

waste management have been woven into its daily operations, reflecting

a broader societal push for environmentally conscious infrastructure.

In essence, the Tokyo Haneda Airport case study demonstrates how a

modern international airport can achieve both operational excellence and

exceptional disaster resilience in a high-risk environment. It highlights

how evolving public expectations for safety, reliability, and sustainability

can drive forward-thinking design and engineering, ultimately supporting

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a functional and adaptable environment for a diverse group of users—

even under the most challenging circumstances.

In terms of architectural evaluation and planning, the airport

demonstrates the following key features in terms of the following

descriptions:

 Environment/Microclimate: Designed for seismic resistance with

advanced dampers and redundancy; highly urban, limited greenery.

 User Behavior: High-density flows managed through precise signage

and cultural discipline in emergency protocols.

 Utility/Space: Multi-terminal efficiency; disaster-resilient power and

communication systems.

 Form/Function: Compact terminal footprints integrated into tight

city grid.

 Circulation: Multi-level, seamless flow between rail, road, and

terminals.

 Site & Landscape: Limited green areas; landscaping integrated into

terminal interiors.

 Structure: Steel framing, base-isolated structural cores.

 Services: Smart HVAC zoning, automated fire suppression, redundant

power systems.
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 Barrier-Free: Highly accessible, following Japan’s rigorous universal

design code.

 Socio-Economics: Business travelers, tourists, elderly, and disabled

users.

 Parking: Multistory automated systems due to space limits.

2.2.2. CHRISTCHURCH INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (CHC), NEW ZEALAND

Historical & Basic Description: Christchurch Airport opened in 1940 and

is the main international gateway for the South Island. After the 2010–

2011 earthquakes, it became a case study in post-disaster infrastructure

adaptation, showcasing new standards in structural and social resilience.

Christchurch International Airport (CHC) stands out as a key example of

how airports can be designed and managed in regions highly vulnerable

to earthquakes and other natural hazards (Christchurch Airport, 2021).

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The devastating Canterbury earthquakes of 2010 and 2011 left a lasting

impact on the airport—not only in terms of physical damage but also in

how it evolved to meet new demands for more adaptive, multifunctional,

and resilient infrastructure (Earthquake Commission, 2012).

The airport serves a wide range of users, including domestic and

international travelers, freight operations, and emergency responders.

After the earthquakes, significant changes were made to both the

airport’s design and operations. These adjustments had a major influence

on how users interacted with the space—prioritizing safety, improving

communication during emergencies, and ensuring access to critical

services (Airport Operations Post-Disaster, 2013).

Striking a balance between functionality and seismic risk became a top

priority. The airport undertook not just repairs, but also upgrades that

included cutting-edge seismic strengthening and the development of new

facilities built to meet stricter, modern safety standards (Structural

Engineering Report, 2015). These innovations featured base isolation

systems, the use of robust materials, and architecture designed to either

resist or quickly recover from major seismic events (Resilient

Infrastructure Design, 2016). All of these changes were driven by a

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growing societal expectation that key infrastructure must remain safe

and fully functional—even in the face of disaster.

In the end, the Christchurch International Airport case highlights how

critical it is to embed long-term structural resilience into airport planning

and design, especially in earthquake-prone areas. It shows that by

responding to rising public expectations around safety and continuity,

airports can pioneer innovative, sustainable solutions that remain

efficient and responsive to the needs of diverse users—even during

emergencies.

In terms of architectural evaluation and planning, the airport

demonstrates the following key features in terms of the following

descriptions:

 Environment/Microclimate: Cold, seismic region; base-isolated and

shock-absorbing materials used.

 User Behavior: Emergency protocols emphasized in design; layouts

prioritize communication and calm.

 Utility/Space: Rebuilt utility zones emphasize resilience; includes

backup systems.

 Form/Function: Functional modernist expansion post-disaster.

 Circulation: Re-engineered horizontal and vertical egress paths.

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 Site & Landscape: Re-planned open zones with stormwater

management and landscaping buffers.

 Structure: RC core + base isolation; modular and upgradeable

framing.

 Services: Fire safety upgrades, seismic-proof HVAC and MEP systems.

 Barrier-Free: Updated post-earthquake with universal access in

mind.

 Socio-Economics: Mix of tourists, residents, and emergency service

users.

 Parking: Surface and structured; expanded after rebuild.

2.2.3. DA NANG INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (DAD), VIETNAM

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Historical & Basic Description: Built during the French colonial period and

expanded during the Vietnam War, Da Nang Airport was transformed

into a modern civil aviation hub in the 2000s. It serves as a strategic

gateway to Central Vietnam's tourism corridor.

Da Nang International Airport (DAD) was an example studies of an

international gateway in an international tourist hub in Southeast Asia

which had undergone substantial modernization and expansion (Airports

Corporation of Vietnam, 2020). This construction was primarily a result of

the society's growing need for air transport facilities to develop tourism

and the economy in Central Vietnam (Da Nang Tourism Department,

2021).

The airport catered to a wide range of customers, including a

considerable volume of international air travelers, domestic visitors, and

business clientele. The strategic design and operational improvements

intended to better passenger throughput and processing to achieve more

positive travel experiences, which impact user behavior by providing

more efficient systems for navigation and transit (Passenger Flow

Analysis, 2017).

The construction of a new international terminal, built to accommodate

significantly more passengers than the prior facilities, improved

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operational efficiency of the built environment. While perhaps not as

overtly focused on extensive biophilic elements as BLR T2, the

modernization incorporated features aimed at operational efficiency and

passenger comfort (Architectural Review, 2018). Contained within these

efforts were practices towards the site’s environmental management,

which included the historical on-site contamination remediation, as well

as the employment of innovative technologies to bolster operational

efficiency, thus optimizing resource utilization (USAID Report, 2020;

OpenGov Asia, 2024). The initiatives in contrast address the more

contemporary socio-structural reality where infrastructure and services

are increasingly expected to be eco-sensitive.

Da Nang is one of the airports in a developing economy attempting to

address the demand from society for greater capacity and connectivity by

improving the efficiency of the built environment. It also demonstrated

sustainable innovation in environmental remediation and operational

technology by serving a greater diversity of users and changing their

behavior for the better due to improved service delivery. Although its

sustainable attributes may be of a different nature than those of BLR T2,

this case study highlights the growing prominence such features are
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receiving in regard to airport development projects in other parts of the

world.

In terms of architectural evaluation and planning, the airport

demonstrates the following key features in terms of the following

descriptions:

 Environment/Microclimate: Tropical climate; environmental

remediation of contaminated soils.

 User Behavior: Tourist-oriented; signage, layout, and services

tailored for ease.

 Utility/Space: New international terminal increased capacity;

functional zoning introduced.

 Form/Function: Contemporary utilitarian architecture.

 Circulation: Streamlined linear circulation, clear processing paths.

 Site & Landscape: Landscaping upgrades tied to sustainability;

limited due to urban constraints.

 Structure: Steel-reinforced concrete frame, built for durability.

 Services: HVAC and water systems upgraded for efficiency and eco-

compliance.

 Barrier-Free: Updated during modernization; lifts, ramps, ADA

elements.
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 Socio-Economics: Regional residents, tourists, and trade-related

travel.

 Parking: Surface parking with coach zones.

2.2.4. KEMPEGOWDA INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT – TERMINAL 2 (BLR T2),

INDIA

Historical & Basic

Description:

Opened in 2008,

Kempegowda

Airport was

Bengaluru’s answer to urban congestion and aviation growth. Terminal 2,

launched in 2023, positions itself as one of the world’s most sustainable

terminals with the “Terminal in a Garden” concept.

The development of Terminal 2 (T2) at Kempegowda International Airport

(BLR) in Bengaluru marks a significant leap in airport infrastructure for a

rapidly growing metropolitan region where aviation plays a crucial

economic role. With a strong focus on sustainability and user experience,

the terminal was designed to support the evolving needs of a society

seeking better access to air travel and improved airport services

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(Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 2023; Bengaluru International Airport

Limited, 2022).

From the outset, BLR T2 was envisioned as a space that recognizes the

diversity of its users—ranging from international and domestic travelers

to people flying for business, leisure, or personal reasons. The design also

factored in a wide range of needs, including accessibility for passengers

with physical disabilities. A core goal was to reduce the stress often

associated with airport travel by creating a serene, nature-inspired

environment. This vision came to life through the “Terminal in a Garden”

concept, which aimed to shift user behavior by encouraging calmness,

comfort, and well-being (Grant Associates, 2023).

Beyond creating a pleasant experience, T2 was built to handle large

volumes of passengers smoothly and efficiently. This wasn't just about

movement through space—it was also about how resources were used.

The terminal achieved LEED Platinum certification, a testament to its

sustainable design and innovative environmental strategies (US Green

Building Council, 2023). Features like rainwater harvesting, water

recycling systems, and the use of locally sourced materials highlight how

the terminal was designed not only with ecology in mind, but also with a

commitment to supporting the local economy.

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In sum, the BLR T2 project is a powerful example of how airport

infrastructure in a developing and fast-growing economy can go beyond

just function. It blends sustainability, user-centered design, and cultural

sensitivity to create a space that not only meets global standards, but

also uplifts how people interact with and experience the built

environment. It's not just an airport—it's a model for inclusive, future-

ready infrastructure.

In terms of architectural evaluation and planning, the airport

demonstrates the following key features in terms of the following

descriptions:

 Environment/Microclimate: Biophilic strategies mitigate urban heat

and stress.

 User Behavior: Restorative spatial psychology; inclusive of cultural

and accessibility needs.

 Utility/Space: LEED Platinum-certified energy and water systems.

 Form/Function: Organic, symbolic, and high-performance.

 Circulation: Seamless transitions across processing zones; multi-

tiered passenger flow.

 Site & Landscape: Integrated gardens, bioswales, rainwater systems.

 Structure: Engineered glulam timber and steel framing.

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 Services: Smart HVAC, reclaimed water, solar power.

 Barrier-Free: Universal access embedded in layout and function.

 Socio-Economics: Tech professionals, tourists, business travelers.

 Parking: EV-friendly structured lots with shaded paths.

For the local case studies:

2.2.5. ILOILO INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (ILO), PHILIPPINES

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Historical & Basic Description: Replacing Mandurriao Airport, Iloilo

International opened in 2007 as a greenfield development outside the

city center. It’s a key hub for Western Visayas.

The case of Iloilo International Airport (ILO) highlights a transformative

shift in aviation infrastructure for the Western Visayas region. Replacing

the outdated Mandurriao Airport, which was located in the congested

urban core of Iloilo City, the new facility was built in the town of

Cabatuan, on a greenfield site specifically chosen to accommodate future

growth and modern standards (Philippine Civil Aviation Authority, 2017;

Airport Technology, 2008). This move represented a deliberate effort to

modernize air travel infrastructure while supporting regional

development.

As the primary gateway for Iloilo City and Panay Island, ILO serves both

domestic and select international flights, making it a critical hub in the

region’s transport network (Iloilo Provincial Development Office, 2021).

The new terminal and extended runway were designed from the outset

to meet international requirements, enabling the airport to handle larger

aircraft and increasing passenger traffic—something the old Mandurriao

Airport could no longer support due to space limitations (JICA Report,

2005; PPP Center, 2014).

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Relocating the airport to a peri-urban area had a ripple effect on the

region. The shift not only improved operational efficiency but also

spurred major changes in land use, economic activity, and development

patterns around the new site. The airport’s presence catalyzed growth in

surrounding municipalities, influencing real estate values and prompting

updates in regional planning (Local Planning Authority, 2016). The

resulting increase in metro-level passenger volumes underscored the

alignment between infrastructure development and regional economic

momentum (Daily Guardian, 2024).

Beyond logistics, the airport brought broader social and economic

benefits. By improving connectivity, it enhanced access to tourism, trade,

and investment opportunities, bolstering Iloilo’s image as a rising

economic powerhouse in the Visayas. The terminal itself, with its modern

facilities and international design standards, symbolized the region’s

ambitions and potential (Airport Technology, 2008).

In summary, the Iloilo International Airport case study demonstrates how

relocating and upgrading a provincial airport to international standards

can address capacity challenges while stimulating regional growth. It also

highlights the critical importance of long-term planning—not just in

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building the infrastructure itself, but in managing the resulting

development and transformation of the surrounding areas.

In terms of architectural evaluation and planning, the airport

demonstrates the following key features in terms of the following

descriptions:

 Environment/Microclimate: Strategic peri-urban siting for airflow

and land use.

 User Behavior: Focused on regional and OFW traffic; designed for

efficiency.

 Utility/Space: One main terminal supports expansion; basic but

functional.

 Form/Function: Simple linear form optimized for function.

 Circulation: One-directional, ground-level movement.

 Site & Landscape: Ample space for expansion; landscaped

surroundings.

 Structure: RC frame; built for midsize aircraft.

 Services: Functional HVAC and basic systems.

 Barrier-Free: Compliant ramps, signage, and toilets.

 Socio-Economics: OFWs, students, regional tourism.

 Parking: Surface lots for private vehicles and taxis.

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2.2.6. CLARK INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (CRK), PHILIPPINES

CLARK INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (CRK), PHILIPPINES Historical & Basic

Description: Developed from the former Clark Air Base (USAF), CRK

evolved into a major alternative to Manila’s NAIA, part of the Central

Luzon economic corridor.

Examining Clark International Airport (CRK) enabled understanding of

issues concerning adaptive reuse of infrastructure for the region’s

primary international airport located to the north of Metro Manila’s

National Capital Region (Clark Development Corporation, 2018). As part

of the larger Clark Freeport Zone, CRK’s development from a US military

airbase into an international airport was strategically aimed to relieve

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some of the congestion at Metro Manila’s NAIA airport and spur

economic activity in Central Luzon (Philippine National Development

Authority, 2019).

This region possessed existing aviation infrastructure which is considered

an advantage for development as opposed to being a greenfield site

(Base Conversion and Development Authority, 2017). The as is and to be

conditions followed an iterative strategy starting with retrofitting former

military structures to modern passenger terminal buildings. The new

terminal integrated advanced modular systems which profoundly

improved the airport’s operational capacity and modernized its facilities

to cope with the limitations posed by older infrastructure (LIPAD

Corporation, 2020).

This case of Clark International Airport has fundamentally influenced the

planning and economic geography of the region by encouraging the

dispersal of air traffic and the idea of a multi-airport system for the

densely populated region.

It suggested the possibility of redistributing the benefits and economic

opportunities beyond the traditional area of focus (Regional Economic

Council, 2020). The impact of Clark International Airport was noted from

the considerable growth in the volume of passengers and cargo, the new
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domestic and international air transport services, and the resultant

investment and employment opportunities in the Clark Freeport Zone

and the neighboring provinces (Economic Impact Assessment, 2019). But,

the scope of such development also brought social challenges like the

management of land tenure systems and possible displacement of people

from their neighborhoods in the course of expansion, as careful social

planning and appropriate community participation were obliged (Santos,

2018).

One of the most remarkable features of CRK’s new additional passenger

terminal was the stunning architectural design and layout of the new

terminal. It received praise for the strategic operational efficiency and

enhancement of the overall experience through passenger-focused

design elements like abundant windows encouraging natural light and

self-guided navigation signage (Architectural Journal, 2021). Of equal

importance was the posture to integrate with other transport network

systems, especially major roads under construction and developing public

transport services.

The CRK case study highlighted that transforming military facilities into

economically significant and connected civilian aviation centers, which

could create strong economic growth for the region, required effective
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strategic government policy, substantial infrastructure financing, and

operational management often achieved via public-private partnerships.

However, it noted the need for responsible planning in the regions’ social

and environmental considerations’ frameworks at all levels.

In terms of architectural evaluation and planning, the airport

demonstrates the following key features in terms of the following

descriptions:

 Environment/Microclimate: Adaptive reuse on a vast tropical

airfield.

 User Behavior: New terminal supports self-navigation and

streamlined experience.

 Utility/Space: Smart modular upgrades transformed outdated

infrastructure.

 Form/Function: Efficient layout supporting high capacity.

 Circulation: Clear, passenger-friendly routing.

 Site & Landscape: Integrated into Freeport development; future

connectivity plans.

 Structure: Steel-concrete hybrid system with flexible layouts.

 Services: New fire, HVAC, and smart MEP systems.

 Barrier-Free: Fully accessible, modern public terminal standards.

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 Socio-Economics: OFWs, regional business, and local commuters.

 Parking: Surface and planned elevated parking; bus terminal access.

2.2.7. MACTAN-CEBU INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT (MCIA), PHILIPPINES

Historical & Basic Description: MCIA is Cebu’s main international

gateway and the second busiest airport in the Philippines. The 2018

Terminal 2 project is a PPP initiative blending architecture, branding, and

tourism enhancement.

The Mactan-Cebu International Airport (MCIA) serves as a leading

example of successful airport modernization through a public-private

partnership (PPP), situated in one of the Philippines’ key tourism and

economic hubs. Located on Mactan Island, just off the coast of bustling

Cebu City, MCIA is the main air gateway for the Visayas region and plays a
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vital role in the country’s transport network (GMR-Megawide Cebu

Airport Corporation, 2020; Cebu Provincial Development Plan, 2022).

Given its location on a densely developed island, the airport faced unique

spatial challenges—unlike greenfield airports, there was limited room for

expansion. Still, MCIA managed to evolve by building an entirely new

Terminal 2 dedicated to international flights, while upgrading the older

Terminal 1 for domestic use. This dual-terminal strategy boosted

capacity, improved air traffic coordination, and streamlined passenger

processing (Airport Modernization Program Evaluation, 2019).

The expansion significantly enhanced regional accessibility and positioned

Cebu more firmly on the global tourism map. It became not just a

gateway but a destination in its own right—catalyzing economic growth

in the southern Philippines and reinforcing its status as a premier tourism

hotspot. This success story also highlighted the potential of PPPs in

delivering world-class infrastructure in the country (PPP Center of the

Philippines, 2021). The surge in international routes and airline

partnerships led to a marked increase in tourist arrivals, benefiting the

local hospitality, retail, and service industries (Department of Tourism,

2020). However, the rapid development also introduced challenges—

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particularly worsening traffic congestion on access roads leading to the

island (Local Government Report, 2019).

One of MCIA’s standout features was the design of Terminal 2, which

received praise not only for its functionality but also for its aesthetics.

Architectural Digest (2019) noted the terminal’s elegant use of

engineered timber and natural materials, evoking a warm, resort-like

ambiance. The design cleverly combined modern engineering with

distinctly Filipino hospitality—creating a space that was both globally

competitive and culturally resonant.

In conclusion, the MCIA case study showcases how strategic design and

collaborative governance can transform a spatially constrained airport

into a high-performing gateway. It emphasizes how architecture and

branding play critical roles in shaping passenger experiences and

international perceptions, all while driving regional growth and

connectivity.

In terms of architectural evaluation and planning, the airport

demonstrates the following key features in terms of the following

descriptions:
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 Environment/Microclimate: Island setting; optimized for storm and

sea exposure.

 User Behavior: Relaxed, "resort-like" user experience through design

language.

 Utility/Space: Split domestic/international terminals improve

processing.

 Form/Function: Signature timber arched roof represents culture and

function.

 Circulation: Fluid horizontal movement; clear path divisions.

 Site & Landscape: Limited land; used creatively with landscaped

arrival/drop-off.

 Structure: Engineered glulam timber with steel fasteners.

 Services: Rainwater reuse, smart MEP, high-efficiency systems.

 Barrier-Free: Access throughout terminal; modern compliance.

 Socio-Economics: Tourists, OFWs, regional business and trade.

 Parking: Tourist and private transport integration, limited road

capacity.
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2.3. SYNTHESIS
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The review of related literature and case studies establishes a

comprehensive foundation for the proposed airport design, particularly

within the context of coastal, climate-sensitive environments. Global

standards on runway design (FAA, ICAO, CAAP) provide the technical

framework necessary for safety, efficiency, and future scalability, while

innovative concepts such as circular runways and integrated terminal

layouts highlight forward-thinking approaches in airport infrastructure.

Landscape strategies, both international and local, emphasize ecological

integration, climate responsiveness, and user well-being. Case studies

such as Schiphols noise-reducing land art park and Clark and Mactan-

Cebus biophilic and culturally rooted landscapes inform a design direction

that balances environmental performance with contextual identity.

Recognizing the Philippines vulnerability to coastal hazards, the synthesis

integrates architectural responseselevated structures, natural buffers,

and resilient materials that prioritize risk mitigation. These approaches

are aligned with relevant UN Sustainable Development Goals, reinforcing

the airports role in promoting sustainability, safety, and inclusive

development. Finally, case studies from airports such as Haneda,

Christchurch, Da Nang, and Iloilo illustrate real-world applications of

disaster resilience, user-centered design, and regional economic

integration. Together, these references validate the projects conceptual

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direction and provide actionable insights for designing a future-ready,

environmentally responsive, and culturally grounded airport in the

Philippines.

REFERENCES:
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¹ Airports Corporation of Vietnam. (2020). Da Nang International Airport

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² Architectural Digest. (2019). MCIA Terminal 2: A showcase of Filipino hospitality

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³ Architectural Journal. (2021). Clark International Airport Terminal Review.

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¹⁰ Earthquake Commission. (2012). Seismic Response and Recovery at

Christchurch Airport. Wellington, NZ.

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¹¹ Economic Impact Assessment. (2019). Clark Airport Economic Zone Forecast

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¹² GMR-Megawide Cebu Airport Corporation. (2020). MCIA PPP Summary and

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²⁸ ResearchGate. (2025). Economic Shifts Caused by Regional Air Hubs: The Iloilo

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