Definitions:

1. Load Variable:

o A load variable is an external factor or disturbance that affects the system but
cannot be directly controlled.

o Example: In a heating system, changes in outdoor temperature are a load variable

2. Control Variable:

o The control variable is the system output that we want to regulate at a desired value
(setpoint).
o Example: In the same heating system, the indoor temperature is the control variable
because it’s the value we aim to maintain.

3. Manipulated Variable:

o The manipulated variable is the input to the system that we can adjust to influence
the control variable.

o Example: The power supplied to the heater or the position of a heating valve is the
manipulated variable because we control it to maintain the desired indoor
temperature.

Example: Water Tank System

 Load Variable: The water being drawn out of the tank (demand).

 Control Variable: The water level in the tank (what we want to keep steady).

 Manipulated Variable: The inflow rate of water into the tank (adjusted using a valve or
pump).

What is Offset?

 Offset is the steady difference between the desired value (setpoint) and the actual value of a
system's output after it stabilizes.

 It happens when the system can't completely reach the setpoint, even though it's trying to.

Why Can’t Offset Be Eliminated Using Proportional Control?

 In a proportional control system, the controller adjusts the output based on how far the
system is from the setpoint.

 To keep the system stable, it needs a consistent error (the offset) to keep applying control
action.
  Example: In a heating system with proportional control, if the room temperature is lower
than the desired temperature, the heater might not fully compensate unless there’s a
constant small error to drive the control effort.

How Can Offset Be Eliminated?

Offset can be eliminated by adding an Integral Control to the system, making it a Proportional-
Integral (PI) Controller.

 How Integral Control Works:

o It looks at the error over time and keeps adjusting the output until the error
becomes zero.

o This ensures the system reaches and stays at the setpoint.

 Example: In the heating system, the integral part of the PI controller will keep increasing the
heater's power until the room temperature matches the desired value exactly, removing the
offset.

What Are the Basic Criteria for Tuning a Controller?

Tuning a controller means adjusting its settings so it works efficiently and achieves the desired
performance. To tune a controller properly, the following criteria must be satisfied:

1. Stability

 The system should remain stable after any change in the input or load.

 Why Important: A poorly tuned controller can make the system oscillate uncontrollably or
even fail.

 Example: In a temperature control system, the temperature should not fluctuate wildly after
adjusting the setpoint.

2. Fast Response
 The system should reach the setpoint as quickly as possible without delays or excessive
overshooting.

 Why Important: Slow systems are inefficient and may not meet the required performance.

 Example: A car's cruise control should quickly stabilize the speed after a change in slope.

3. Minimal Overshoot

 The system should not exceed the setpoint by too much before stabilizing.
  Why Important: Overshoot can damage equipment or reduce efficiency.

 Example: In a water tank, overshooting the setpoint may cause water to overflow.

4. No Steady-State Error (Offset)

 The system should be able to match the setpoint exactly after stabilization.

 Why Important: A system with steady-state error will always have a gap between the desired
and actual values.

 Example: A room thermostat should maintain the exact desired temperature, not settle for
being “close.”

5. Robustness

 The controller should handle variations in load or disturbances without losing performance.

 Why Important: Real-world conditions are rarely constant, so the system must adapt to
changes.

 Example: In a power plant, the controller must adjust to varying electricity demands
throughout the day.

6. Smooth Operation

 The system should not produce jerky or abrupt changes in output.

 Why Important: Sudden changes can stress mechanical components or cause discomfort in
processes.

 Example: In an elevator, the speed should change smoothly to avoid jerks.

Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Method (In Simple Terms)

The Ziegler-Nichols tuning method is a popular approach used to set the parameters of a
Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller. This method helps in finding the best controller
settings (proportional gain, integral time, and derivative time) to achieve good system performance,
mainly for systems that are difficult to model precisely.

Steps to Use Ziegler-Nichols Method

1. Set Up the System with Only Proportional (P) Control

 First, you need to remove the integral and derivative parts of the controller. Set the system to
work with just proportional control (P controller).

 What to Do: Set the Integral and Derivative gains to zero. Only adjust the Proportional gain
(KpK_pKp).
2. Increase the Proportional Gain until You Get a Steady Oscillation

 Gradually increase the proportional gain KpK_pKp until the system starts oscillating
consistently without changing. This is called the ultimate gain (KuK_uKu).

 What to Do: Keep increasing the gain until you find the value where the output oscillates
with a constant amplitude. Note the value of KpK_pKp at this point — this is KuK_uKu.

3. Measure the Period of Oscillation

 Once the system starts oscillating, measure the oscillation period (how long it takes to
complete one full cycle). This is called the ultimate period (PuP_uPu).

4. Calculate the Controller Parameters

o For P controller:
Kp=0.5×Ku

o For PI controller:
Kp=0.45×Ku

o For PID controller:

Td=Pu/8

Principle of Working of an I/P Converter (Current-to-Pressure Converter)

An I/P converter transforms an electrical current signal (usually 4-20 mA) into a proportional
pneumatic pressure signal.

1. Input Current: The I/P converter receives a DC current signal (4-20 mA), which represents
the desired output pressure.

2. Conversion Mechanism: The current passes through a magnetic coil, generating a magnetic
field that moves a diaphragm or piston. As the current increases, the diaphragm moves,
increasing the output pressure.

3. Air Supply: The device uses an external supply of compressed air to generate the output
pressure.

4. Output Pressure: The resulting air pressure is proportional to the input current (e.g., 4 mA =
0 psi, 20 mA = 100 psi) and can control pneumatic actuators like valves.
Relation Between Proportional Gain and Proportional Band

Both Proportional Gain and Proportional Band are used in Proportional control (P control) to adjust
how a system responds to errors. They are related but expressed in different ways.

Proportional Gain (Kp):

 Proportional gain determines how much the controller should respond to a given error (the
difference between the setpoint and the current value).

 A higher proportional gain means the system reacts more aggressively to errors, while a
lower gain means it reacts less strongly.

Proportional Band:

 The proportional band is the range of error values within which the controller adjusts the
output.

 The proportional band is usually expressed as a percentage of the total range (e.g., 0-100).

 A wider proportional band means the system adjusts less aggressively, while a narrower
band means it reacts more strongly.

How They Are Related:

 Proportional Gain and Proportional Band are inversely related.

 If you increase the proportional gain, the proportional band decreases (meaning the system
reacts more strongly to smaller errors).

 If you decrease the proportional gain, the proportional band increases (meaning the system
reacts less aggressively).