\ AB\ CO i = 2, EO Authors 2 Ana) Oe « Prof. Dr. samen ee GE Corner X Io boa Lahore Garison University. © Prof. Dr. syed Wagar ul Qounain Jaffry (PhD Computer Science) Chairman Dept. of, University of The Punjab, Alama Iqbal Campus (Old Campus) Shahrah-e-Quaid-e-Azamn, Lahore. External Review Committee ee ® Dr. Arshad Ali Dr. Mudasser Naseer {PRD Computer Science and Telecommunication) (PhD Computer Science) ‘Associate Professor, Department ‘Associate Professor{CS), Head (Cyber Security), Department of CS & IT, Lahore Garrison University, University of Lahore Defense Road, Lahore » Mrs. Tabinda Mugaddas © Prof. Dr. Aste Shalini. Assistant Professor, Head of Department (CS), Govt. Associate College for Women, Gulshan Rov, Lahore Dr. Nadeem Iqbal \ i Wy Ae (PhD Computer: University of Lahore Defense Road, Lahore ¢ Dr. Adee! Nisar ° Mr. Fahad Asif (PAD Computer Science) EST (CS), sateen. ‘Govt Lab Higher Secondary School, University of The Punjab, Allama Iqbal Campus QAED Kasur. (Old Campus), Shahrah-e-Quaid-e-Azam, Lahore. Director Manuscripts Dy. Director (Graphics) ‘Mr. Jahanzaib Khan Ms. Rehana Farhat ‘Ms. Aisha Sadiq 5 (Computer Scenes) ~ Director & Published by: Punjab Cur ea sr es ae Tu o EDUCATION aes 50< This textbook is based ep Revise a > } Pakistan 2023 ard his beet bbbroveld by the Board All rights are resenied eee Ee and Textbook Board, Lahore. No part of this textbook Gan be copied, translated, reproduced or used for preparation of test guidebooks, keynotes and helping books. Contents Unit Topic Page 1 | Introduction to Systems 4 2 | Number Systems z 24 3. | Digital Systems and Logic Design _| 49 4 CO) 69 5 Wy 87 6 99 7 | Computstiona 423 3 |Web Demiopinent with HTML, CSS and JavaScript 151 [9 | Data Science and Data Gathering 179 10 Emerging Technologies in Computer Science 211 11_| Ethical, Social, and Legal Concerns in Computer Usage | 295 12 Saomeny in Digital Age 243 13 261 3\ CO oun AC. eneclei ge Salles (in the Name: Most. Compassionate, the Most Merciful) i= \ CURRICULUM AND TEXTBOOK BOARD, LAHORE° Define and describe general system theory, its types, ‘objectives, components, and 9 Explain the concept of a system, including objectives, © Describe what © Understand the role and importance of system components and their interactions. Explain the significance ofinteractions among various systems, © Differentiate between natural and artificial systems. © Categorize and describe various types of natural and artificial systems, their objectives, components, and interactions. Provide examples of natural systems, including physical, S peyehological systemsalong with heir characteritss i ‘applications, ce Demonstrate understanding of how systems apply to dierent felds ard sere specific functions. Define and describe a computer as a system, including its objectives, architecture, and interactions. networks, and the: cin se 2 aly leet el srk CPU, motherboard, Eoplain the rolstonshipb Between the CPO, me ory, cal age, md bia ia ee iCo) Introduction = a This chapter provides an overview, t 8 theory “oF systems, introducing fundamental concepts and explo il us types of systems. It begins by defining what a ater 6 ssing its basic components, objectives, environment, an lethiods Of communication. The chapter then differentiates betwee! id artificial systems, explaining how they function and their purpo: felationship between systems and different branches of science is also explored, including natural science, design science, and computer science, The chapter then shifts back to discussing computers as systems, explaining their goals, parts, and how these Parts connect with each other and their Surroundings. It provides a detailed look at the Von Neumann computer architecture, exploring its components, how it works, its unique features, as well as its strengths and weaknesses, The chapter also covers different types of computing systems, such as computers, software, networks, and the Internet, clearly explaining their roles and purposes. At the end of this chapter, the reader will be in a better position to understudy systems, their classification, and relevance in natural and man-made systems to aid future leaming and utilization. A 1.1 Theory of Systems A A\ Co" wi The idea of a system is useful to © the eXtertial feality as well as the internal one. An Information 5 \ah Organized set of components that are coordinate: ‘ed function. All the components of the system are in so} rey to each other and the functioning of the other components enh Operation of the system. Let us c ler a simple example, such as a car, depicted in Figure 1. 1: itis made up of an engine, wheels, brakes, and other related items, Every part plays a unique task, but collectively they are responsible for making the car move. Likewise, every computer, organism, machine, or device has components that work together to achieve an outcome.Systems Theory: WI a\eXe ‘ Abranch ofa science that deals with ( fated structures in living organisms, that relate the human wi i oy the science is known as Systems Theory. It, gives away of interpreting thé existing world with different varied perspectives, ow the differs a npeens and ‘sub-systems operate, how they are integrated, how they.gr@iand how they change with time. Systems can be observed at all levels of existence, starting with the levels of nature, and going all the way up to levels of systems designed by humans. These can be physical objects-such as a car; Processes, such as the university's admission process; or abstract objects such as a mathematical formula. Thinking about how systems operate helps us better understand how they need to be developed and nurtured across different discipline like computing, biology, engineering, and social science. In this section, basic concepts will be introduced to emphasize fundamental concepts and principles. 1.1.1 Basic Concepts of Systems A system is described by its objectives components, communication among components and environment in which it works. The components of a system communicate with each other to achieve the system's objective in an environment. Systems can be simple, like a thermostat, o1 ‘aoe like the human body oracomputernetwork. ca a) 1.1.1.1 Objective Karna Every system has a purpa pail ioasbscties to fulfil. Analyzing a system's operation requires inde its aim. This insight improves the efficiency and effica {as nt'system. A transport system aims to transfer people and prod: écurely and effectively between locations. A computer system's principal goal is to process data and provide useful information to users. of System O1 Systems can have different objectives depending on their nature and purpose. Common objectives include: 1, Information processing: Collecting, storing, processing, and distributing information, for example © Acomputer system processes user data to produce meaningful outputs. © The human brain processes information received by the human senses to perceive the environment. 2. Supporting other systems: Providing a platform or infrastructure for other systems to work, for example: © Acell phone provides a platform to run different applications. o The sun provides energy to all species on Earth t lives eO) 3. Achieving specific goals: Completin Icesses, for example: © Athermostat system maintai 5 56 ams te ture in an environment. ° A car engine system-~aims to fuel into mechanical energy efficiently. W\\: Cell Phone: S Achievi Brain: Information processing Phone: Supporting (eaneen aoe Fig. 1.2 Types of System Objectives Human Brain System : / 1. Your brain is an incredible example of a communication network. Neurons send signals to each other, allowing you to think, move, and experience emotions. This complex communication is what makes our brains so powerful. 2. The brain produces around 20 watts of electrical energy, sufficient to operate a low-wattage LED light bulb. Presented here i rain's at fat °} at about 268 miles e around 86 billion neurons. If each like the population of about ten Earth all 5. The human brain can perform about 10'¢ (10 quadrillion) operations per second, making it one of the most powerful and efficient biological \ systems in existence. 1.1.1.2 Components Components are the building blocks of any system. Each component plays a specific role and contributes to the Overall functionality of the system, Understanding the role of each component of the system is essential to understand how the entire system works. This helps in identifying problems, improving performance, and refining system design. Smooth and proper working, of these components together \ensiires| ithe system meets i obipctives. - ai J Sa 32 Components of Computer Systemss system comprising subsystems such as the ry ; Neurological system, and digestive system. The “Cardiovascular system circulates blood. The respiratory system supplies oxygen, and the cerebral system processes information. Individually, each has a distinct function yet collaborates to ensure our survival and well-being. 2, DNA is like a blueprint for life. It's a system that contains all the instructions for an organism to grow, develop, and reproduce, passed down from generation to generation. Each cell in our body reads this blueprint to know what to do, When all the DNA ina single human cell is extended, it measures about two meters in length. total long of the DNA in your body extends to the Sun and back more than six hundred times. 1.1.1.3 Environment Z eck a The environment of a system includes everythi Laren GiGhe System that interacts with it. It consists of al an tors [that “affect the system's operation. Understanding the, enyirg t \oF\a kystem is important as it influences the system's\ pesereianees “Behavior by providing inputs and receiving outputs. Intelligent systems adjust to changes in their environment to continue their Ratity. There are several properties of a system's environment ffect system design and its functionality. Two of these properties are described as follows: Static vs. Dynamic: * Static: The environment remains unchanged unless the system provides an output. There are no changes occurring in the environment while the system is working internally. + Dynamic: The environment can change independently of the system's output. The system must account for changes that occur over time in the environment. Deterministic vs. Non-deterministic: * Deterministic: A deterministic system is characterized by its fully known and certain impact of its output on the environment. + Non-deterministic: The impact of the system's output on the environment is characterized by inherent uncertainty, r: ness, or probability, ne\ CO 1.1.1.4 Communication p= * Communication and interaction aman functioning of a system-tt-e s eng tel ile all is key to the res omponents work together in an Tee achieve the system's objectives, For organized and Funan example, it Nha ing-system the CPU communicates with memory to qt fetch ta, and in a biological system brain sends signals to muscles joverment.interaction with the Environment Systems constantly interact with their environment thro fp ae anid outputs. For example, a weather monitoring cystern, fétéives, data from environment sensors and provides the current status of the weathet and future forecasts to users. Ina orp te ‘Ompultets the interact and communicate with peripheral pnts a iters-atid scanners, and in a biological system animals interact wit ‘other animals, forming a food chain. ‘Activity : Classroom Discussion, Brainstorming, and System Mapping, Objective: To introduce the concept of systems and understand how different ‘components interact within a system. ao Poster boards, markers, sticky notes, chart paper, drawing Re Wee 1 Activity Tasks Detail: Start with a discussion where the teacher introduces the concept of systems using examples like cars and schools, Students will contribute their examples and ideas. Next perform, a brainstorming session, | where students will work in groups to identify and list the systems th interact with daily, iy lc costa yet mip cy poster.basils)\ _ labeling the components and their interact Idi ferea oP Wik present thelr Ac eka {dy itern mep porter iostesting their enhance their presentation and explanation Activity: Design a Simple System ‘Objective: To apply the principles of system design and understand the process of creating a functional system. Required Material: Computers or tablets with diagramming software (e.g., Lucidchart), paper, pencils, markers. Activity Type: Pair Activity Tasks Detail: Begin with an introduction where the teacher presents an example of a simple system. Students will then work in pairs to define the objective of their chosen system, list its components, describe their interactions, and outline the system's environment. The pairs will use diagramming software to create a system prototype or diagram. Finally, they will present tae designs to the classin a review and feedback sessi [oo Output: Each pair will produce;a system brotalype. gr 1 diagram and receive feedback to refine their design ideas. \ a1.2 Types of Systems Systems can be broadly categorizes iHt@woty) namely natural and artificial systems. Understan @ ifteret ces and similarities between these types helps nape eeu across various fields. Natural systems are naturally built and ature without human intervention. While artificial systems are created by humans to fulfill specific needs or purposes. Galaxy @ Natural System Screw gauge an Artificial System 121 N 1 Fig. He Baneies st Prise aC a\) Natural systems are those that-exist, j abet jndipendently of, human involvement. Th Rena laws and processes. Natural systems are of various tq! oNeie sae om very tiny objects like atoms and cells in our sate huge’! ie forests, oceans and the cosmos. Following are exampl psnatural systems that exists in nature. 1.2,1.1 | Systems Physical systems are composed of physical components and governed by the laws of physics. They include things ranging from sub atomic particles, atoms, to planets, stars, galaxies, and cosmos. Physical systems, like any kind of matter, emerge from the interactions of electrons, protons, neutrons and sub-atomic particles which are governed by electric and atomic forces. For example hydrogen gas (H) is formed when an electron, proton, and neutron combine, following the rules of physics and natural forces. 1.2.1.2 Chemical Systems Chemical systems involve substances and their interactions, transformations, and reactions. They are governed by the laws of chemistry. Chemical systems emerge from physical systems when atoms and molecules interact and bond according to chemical principles, forming new substances. Forcexample, a cnemical system like water (H20) is formed when. ydrogervatoms' ane with jen atoms, following chemical dt ré4ctions .1.3 Biological , Biological en consist 6 ‘gaitisms and their interactions. They are governed by biol he iprotesses such as growth, reproduction, and mesboley es aie ‘al'systems emerge from chemical systems when molecules on >interact in complex ways to form living cells, which ther ize i i organs, and organisms. 1.2.1.4 Psychological Systems _ 3 A ‘ Psychological systems involve fhe iia ay \\behavidr! They include thoughts, emotions, and ‘mental eeeige fered by the principles of Psychology. Psychological systems emerge from biological systems when the brain's physical and chemical, ea give rise to thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, which are influencdd bya individual's experiences and environment. Activity: Interactive Simulation The purpose of this activity is with the aim of understanding how variability affects the system of interest. Materials Needed: Computers or tablets with internet access and online simulation tools (like an ecosystem simulator). Activity Tasks Detail: Individual or Group Assignments The teacher will begin by explaining what system dynamics entail’as well as provide an overview on how the simulation will be implemented. Students will then work with the simulation tool, manipulating different variables and analyzing how the system reacts. Using an S-curve to review their results, the students will be reflecting on how changes impact the entire system during the discussion. The teacher will emphasize that. all these parts are integrated and balanced, and tl ; aspect during their conversation. Outcome: They produce detaile’ into balance Wind 1.2.2. Artifie fp Artificial s) “are created and developed by people so that they may fulfill certain functions or address certain issues. These systems can be as small as a wheel or as large as the United Nations. Each system is designed very deliberately to perform the task, improve the efficiency of the processes, and provide solutions to various issues in different sectors. Artificial systems are a vital part of the contemporary society because they reinforce productivity, solve complex problems, and improve people's well- being. These are systems such as knowledge management systems, engineering achievement systems and indeed social systems which are the framework of success of human civilization. There are different types of artificial systems, some of which are described below: 1.2.2.1 Knowledge Systems * z A knowledge system is unique because it is developed cpattiiprocess, facilitate, store, retrieve and manage in ' van ms facilitate in managing and utilizing the resources o' nawle tively for the purpose of decision-making, learning ary a Ee caeMathematics: Mathematics problems connected to patterns. een 2. Logic: Logics a theetical identifyingyaiill assessing rationale. That is why it is a basis of all logical nee cesses and practice of critical analysis. 3. Databases: A database system can best be described as software for managing data, particularly to enable easy retrieval, management, and updating of data, Some of the examples are relational database management system like MySQL while others are NoSQL database management system like MongoDB. 4. Information Management Systems: These are specific applications developed with the purpose of capturing, archiving, organizing, and disseminating data. 1.2.22 Products developed by engineers are complex frameworks or devices that apply engineering concepts to perform certain tasks or soly er eienalienges. These are some examples of how engineers of vari6iist pés develop systems according to their own special k a e\k pa peeve, given to them through their original vi ano a 1, Civil Engineeri a Syst mis!Concentration on developments such as constructing R}se> Fos is, bridges and even maintaining these structures. awbich to focus mie hele we forms, structures, and consisting of concepts and strategies on Model For i @ Structure used to provide.a passage over water, valleys or toads is termed a bridge. Mechanical Engineering Systems; Engage in planning and creating devices that make utilization of forces from outside to accomplish work. For instance, a robotic arm applied in assembly line for packaging of products in factories. 3. Chemical Engineering Systems: Focuses on converting raw materials into useful products through chemical processes, considering internal molecular interactions. For example, a water treatment plant that purifies water using chemical processes like coagulation and filtration. : 4. Electrical Engineering Systems: Involves the study and application of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism to. develop electrical systems. For example a home automation system that controls lighting, heating, and security using a smartphone app. This system uses 5 electric signglsiand power to operate various home appliances and: Saterne teats < 5. Software Engineering Systems |s the\ process) of designing, developing, and maintaining software-ta ‘perform Certain tasks eradicating errors. For instance, an online too) ssisting a library in tracking books, users as welll as stocks in the n y1h Vy 6 DAN toe. ‘artificial system created for efficient system consists of tracks, trains, stations, and is ‘at transport people between locations. electric traffic lights were built in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1914. Modern traffic systems use smart sensors and Alto enhance: safety and flow. Al systems, such as Siri and Alexa, can recognize and respond to human speech, These examples demonstrate how computer systems may interact with humans naturally through complicated algorithms and data processing. Virtual Reality (VR): Immersive digital worlds enable exploration and interaction as if you were physically present. This technology has several applications, including gaming, teaching, and astronaut training, 1.2.2.3 Social Social systems refer to structured frameworks established by in effectively handle social interactions, organizational govern 10 communal endeavors. The basic goal of théSe.systemis.ist’nidintain order, provide services, and facilitate social cantertions u 1. Academic institutions; Secrnnenon ae educational services to students. Schools, colleges) and universities are examples of educational institutions ‘nypronte instruction via the use of administrative, teaching, and suppor 2. Governments: Organizational institutions that wield authority and control Over a community or country. Examples include democratic systems, where Tepresentatives are elected and authoritarian regimes, where power is centralized. < 3. Organizations: are entities formed to achieve specific goals and are often structured hierarchically with well-defined roles and responsibilities. Examples include corporations like Apple and non-profit organizations such as the Edhi Foundation. wjaterial: Computers or tablets with internet access, city simulation game (e.g. SimCity). e Activity Type: Pair (Group of two students) Activity Tasks Detail: Begin with an introduction to the simulation game, explaining its objectives and mechanics. Students will then play the game in pairs, making strategic decisions to manage their city. After gameplay, a debriefing session will allow students to discuss their experiences, challenges, and strategies. The teacher will link these experiences to system management concepts discussed in-class. Output: Hands-on gameplay experience and reflection on system management challenges and strategies. 1.3 System and Science (eo) (Ad Knowledge is our understandi ease ee around and within us. Science is resmetie ah me Science can be eee into two a ral science and design science. Both natural and desi teddy systems, but they approach them differently. In natural :, Scientists study existing natural systems to understand their workings. While in design science, scientists create new systems (artifacts) to solve problems or achieve specific goals. Each type of science addresses different systems and questions, and therefore follows different scientific methods. ature ce Natural science is meant to uncover the objectivity and functionality of natural systems in the natural world. Its nature is descriptive, meaning that the scientists seeks to understand and describe natural phenomena. To achieve this, natural scientists follow the ea cycle of natural science , ae ee Figure 1.6. b) Science= SS € WY * Design Science is focused ondesignin andletdating artifacts (tools, systems, methods) ta achieVe-specific\ goals) The nature of design science is prescriptive, meaning that itaims to prescribe and create artificial systems. To ey hisid®sigryscience researchers follow the regulative cycle. Examples!) \' + Natural Science: Studying the ecosystem of a forest to understand how different species interact (descriptive). * Design Science: Developing a new software system to manage forest data and improve conservation efforts (prescriptive). Solution Ps Evaluation roe Investigation/Identification Regulative Cycle Solution Implementati oN\ sae’ 1.3.3 Compe e Computerscience is the study of how computers work, including at what they can do and their limitations. To understand computer science, we use methods of both design science and natural science. 1.3.3.1 Natural Science of Com Science Natural science of computer science focuses on finding the basic rules that control how computer systems work. This involve the study of various algorithms and their characteristics. i + Study of Algorithms: Researchers analyze existing algorithms to understand their efficiency and limitations. For example, studying different sorting algorithms and their characteristics which arrange given data in an order, like QuickSort or MergeSort. To understand their speed and how they perform with different kinds of data. 1,3.3.2 Design Science of Computer Science * ‘ Design science of computers focuses on creatint nc rpprOviRy @bmputer tools and systems to make them work better, _(\ ( [ehe= + Development of New Software Tools: applications to ao eds a programming lan computerssto \ éaréhers create new tools or For example: Designing a new je. that makes it easier for developers to write secure NOT FOR SALEPEEAPImprovement of Computer Syste MK irk) fr enhancing existing systems to perform ri Ror ey | ing a more efficient database management systermthat can hahdle larger amounts of data faster and with fewer ertairs. WO 1.4 Computer asa System A computeriigja/eoinptex system designed to process data and perform tasks according|to aset of instructions, 14.1 The main objective of a computer is to perform computations, process data, and execute different tasks efficiently. For example, a personal computer's objective is to run software applications such as word processors, web browsers, and games through various computational processes. 14.2 C A computer composed of many essential components that operate in conjunction. These components include: Interface Components: Interface components refer to the fundamental parts of a computer system, including input devices such as the keyboard and mouse, whi interact with the computer. ale\ CO' Computer output devices, such as monitors aint printers;are Used to present or generate results from the comipulers cabrations U Processing Components;-~—\ Wee + The processing compdhents bfa computer consist of the CPU, which acts as the Cen Pegeaeuhig Unit responsible for computations and executing comnial u™ + Random Access Memory (RAM) is a transient storage that stores data and instructions for the CPU, whereas Storage (Hard Drive or SSD) is a permanent storage for data and software needed for future processing. * The operating system is responsible for receiving information from interface components and determining the appropriate actions to take. + Application software refers to programs that are executed by the operating system when required to perform one or more ‘specified tasks. Communication Components: Communication components in a computer refer to the physical elements that provide communication between different components of the computer. ». In a computer, the motherboard serves as the primary circuit board that interconnects all components by using cables and circuits. re * Asystem bus is a collection of electrically roe co jes that transmit data between the CPU and all other intercanne ponents. There are three distinct types of buses‘dat ‘@ddress-bus, and control bus. These buses provide rene control signals ft rom yotron N vas e-address of data or instructions, and ‘Other components concurrently.4.4 The components of a’ computer intéract \ oth example when you open_a sing, your mouse or keyboard, several components of your co pu interact seamlessly to make this action happen. Here'sa ste explanation of the process: er to perform tasks. For 1. User Input. You double-click on a file icon using your mouse or Press a key combination to pen a file. For example you double-click ona document named “report.docx” on your desktop. 2. Input Device. The mouse or keyboard sends a signal to the computer indicating that you want to open the file. For example, the mouse sends Sensory input to the computer's Operating system through the USB connection. Activity: The Journey of Data Objectives: Students will discover how computer components work together to process and display data. a Required Material: Markers, index cards, and a ee | As required. One se | Pair-based activity: Tasks Begin, wi out fo data processing in __ computers. Students will work in\pali ‘chart illustrating the data cnt air will present their flowcharts and Participate in i$clission'to highlight key points, Sein pnd preeron and debating skills, as well as thorough fiowchal icting the data path, NOT FOR SALE Peerz t The computer systernie! with the computer far example: . =f’ Supply: Provides electrical power to allow the computer to work. * Network: Connects the computer to other systems and the Internet. + Peripherals: include printers, scanners, and external discs that expand the computer's capabilities. 1.4.5 Interaction with the Environmen Acomputer interacts with its environment to perform its functions. For: ‘examples: + User Input: A user types on the keyboard, and the computer processes the input to display text on the screen, * Network Communication: The computer sends and receives data over the internet to browse websites or download files. + Power Supply: The computer relies on a stable power supply to function correctly. aww Activity: Exploring Cap ill learh A aoe a Computer parts (CPU, RAM, etc), diagrams of yorksheets for labeling and note-taking, i : Group (Small groups of 3-4 students) Activity Tasks Detail: The teacher will start with an overview of key computer components. Students will then work in small groups identifying and labeling computer parts using worksheets. Groups will present their findings in a session, followed by a Q&A where the teacher clarifies any misunderstandings. | Qutput: Labeled worksheets, enhanced presentation skills, and a deeper understanding of computer components. 1.5 The Architecture of von Neumann: Computers The Von Neumann architecture is a computer paradigm that delineates a system in which the hardware of the computer has four primary components: the memory, the Central Processing Unit (CPU), input metanemeaN output mechanisms. This model is called the John von Ne ae ee Neumann model named in honor of the mathemati rand physic ‘who i ‘, VAT OWA wo its development during the 1 A WOM as ema < 1.5.1 Components &\\(¢(\\ oe Now we will I ir \brieF overview of the key parts that constitute the arcitectgp gt in Neumann computer. contributed toory: Contains for CPU processing: program starts jt oad ‘into RAM to enable faster execution compared to wher iusto ie hard disk. al’ Processing Unit (CPU): Performs addition and subtraction, and executes commands provided by the memory. The system has two main components: the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU). The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs mathematical computations and logical operations. A Control Unit (CU) is'a peripheral that governs the activities of the CPU by instructing the ALU and memory to execute tasks according to the program instructions. It ensures the proper and timely execution of duties by all the other components. When doing the calculation 2 + 2 on a calculator application, the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) handles the numerical values while the control Unit (CU) supervises the whole procedure. . Input Devices: Enable users to input data and instructions pig the REECHOnR HS computer system. Canta @.\ llustrative examples includeske ' sand eirophone Entering text on the keyboard tr: at 'U for subsequent processing. ~ . Output Devices: Present'or lunicate the outcomes of the tasks executed b: atnputer. consid: ince, a monitor and printer. Upon completion of data processing, the CPU transmits the outcome to the monitor for visual display. A a bus is a communication mechanism that facilitates the movement of data between components inside a computational system, It comprises: : Data Bus: Transports data. Address Bus: Maintains data destination information. Control Bus: Transports control electrical signals. anne wy Fig. 1.9 Von Neumann computer Architecture15.2. Working The Von Neumann ar¢hitect ire Y three essential stages for a CPU to carry out instruction: na sly.etrieval, interpretation, execution, and storage. To demonstre this procedure, we will use the example two-digit addition with a basiccalcwjlatar application. + Fetching: Description: The central processing unit retrieves an instruction from the computer's memory. This instruction specifies the operation to be executed by the CPU. Hardware Components: Memory, CPU (Program Counter (PC), Instruction Register (IR)). Specification: The Program Counter (PC) stores the memory address of the subsequent instruction. Once the address is stored in memory, the instruction located at that location is retrieved and placed into the Instruction Register (IR). * Decoding: In order to determine the necessary action, the Conti Ger decodes the etuction é Lind AS x Comprising Components: Contro} init (EW), | Detail The control unt (CU) decode ( KS (operation code) of the ines the required procedures and data, rol Us Nive instruction and de * Execution: MO Descriptic y ThAGPU processes the instruction. When the instruction invol eatputaton, it is executed by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). Any task that requires transferring data between several locations is managed by the CU. Involved Components: ALU, CU, Detail: The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) carries out mathematical and | calculations, while the Control Unit (CU) handles data transmission activities. * Storing: Description: The outcome of the computation is either returned to memory or sent to an output device. Involved Components: Memory and Output Device. Specification: The outcome is either stored in a designated memory location or sent to an output device, such as a display. 1.5.3 a Following are the key characteristics of the Von Neumann comp irchitecture 1. _ Single Memory Store: Both program instructions: ‘Stored in the same memory space. For example in-a\computen game, both the game's code and the data (li layer positions) are stored in the same RAM. é 2. Sequential E guton; Unsthctions are processed one after another in a sequsngs Ror es le, when your computer runs a program, it follows the steps one by one in the order they are written, x if3. Stored Program Concept: changed ie the comp oe ie Program, the new instructions epla 1.5.4 Adwantager ine Oauatag The advanta ages antages of Yon Neumann computer architecture hhere,~ are dscsed Adva 2 in 3 * Simplified Design: By combining instructions and data into a single memory area, architecture is simplified, * Flexibility: Programs can be easily changed by changing memory contents, Disadvantages: * The Von Neumann bottleneck occurs when a single memory area limits the CPU's ability to retrieve instructions and data quickly, * Security Risks: Having data and instructions Stored in the same area poses a is security risk. The Von Neumann architecture is a key important aspect of the design and structure of Many computers, serving as a central model on how they operate. It is like a recipe fed into the mutek ich follows it exactly ensuring that both data, are fn tions ‘are ‘properly processed. However, this model has essential ‘in’ the/evalution of computing technology, despitsiits limita ion, 1.6 Computing Restelne A computer lis ctured set of hardware and software components tN bighed for data Processing and the performance of various Operations. These systems can range from simple technological tools, such as calculators used for performing mathematical calculations to complex network of linked computers. The basic task of a computer system is to execute program and manage data to achieve objectives such as problem solving, process control and communication aid. Hardware, software, and electric Power are the three basic requisites that are needed toruna computing system and can be described in the following simple terms. * Hardware of a computer system refers to the tangible components of the system. These include the Central Processing Unit (CPU), Random Access Memory (RAM), storage devices, and input and Output devices. * Software refers to a collection of instructions that dictate the * requirements and actions that hardware must do. There exist two,primary categories. System software and application softw; fn) are encompasses the Operating System Coane fai iS responsible for managing the corpputel fesourcés, such as Windows, macO$, and Linux Est butions: Application software refers to software applications that aré specifically veloped to carry out certain functions for the user, NG word Processors, web browsers, and games. iN NOT FOR GALE PEREiit NTS jat/ enables the hardware ean * Electricity: Electricity is the \pdwer source components to fu ji \electticity, the hardware components ion, without | cannot function, and th computing system will not operate. 1.6.1 Types atapitg Sates Computingsystems come in various types, some of these include the followings: 1. Computer, 2. Software Systems,3. Computer Networks, and the 4. Internet. Computers as a system has been discussed in previous sections, while the remaining two computing systems are described in this section. 1.6.2 Computer Network as A computer network connects multiple computers and devices, enabling the efficient exchange of resources and information, 1,6.2.1 Objectives * _ Resource Sharing: Allow multiple users to share resources like files, printers, and internet access within an office or other settings. : * Communication: Enable efficient communication between devices and users, * _ Data Management: Facilitate easy data management and collaboration. 1.6.2.2 Components ~Ie\ CO} . einoreig Hardware: anrcas \ [Ase Routers: Routers are devices thaf tapisihiodata packets between their networks, ON"\e al ee Switches: Switches Connect devices in a network and facilitate communicati ole Netwoi s: A physical medium for data transfer. + | Network Software: Protocols; Rules and conventions for data exchange such as TCP/IP. Network Operating Systems: Software that manages network resources, suchas Windows Server. é 1.6.2.3 Environment A computer network operates in various environments, such as office buildings, data centers, or across the globe via the Internet. The environment influences network design, security, and performance. 1.6.2.4 iy of Computer Networks + Local ree Network (LAN): Connects computers ina specific area, such as a single building or school, For example, an office network that connects ‘one. Employee PCs and printers, evel me «| Wide Area Newer (WAN): connects computers across larger §edyraphic io ie, CO! Tegions, such as cities, nations, and even co) nents, ef ‘Og insider the Internet which links computers risides a * In summary, a cor ter ne \ {san important system that enables . ae 3 fOnut in among connected devices, using \eomponents that work together seamlessly toInternet : oe The Intemet is a vast_and c6 em \desighed to connect multiple networks worldwid cI Bur public, academic, business, and jovernment networks. \Its\ ptit jective is to facilitate communication and lata exchant puters and users globally. 1.6.3.1 1 is * TCP/IP (Transm n Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The core Protocols that govern data transmission over the Internet. * User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Faster but less reliable. * _ File Transfer Protocol (FTP); Used for Transforming files between computers. + Postoffice Protocol (POP): Used for retrievi ing emails from server/netwrok. 1.6.3.2 Interaction. among Components The components of the Internet interact with each other to perform different tasks. For example when a user requests @ web page through a web browser, several components of the Internet work together to display its contents on the user's screen, 3 1.6.3.3 Environment The Internet operates in a diverse and dynamic environment, connecti ig various types of networks across different locations, includi > \GiRee data centers, and mobile networks. This envirenmenti lesign, security, and performance of the Internet. Bo St } ‘ U‘Omponents and environment in which it works. Components are the building blocks of any system. Each component plays a specific role and contributes to the overall functionality of the system. The environment of a system includes everything external to the system that interacts with it. It consists of all external factors that afféct system's operation. Systems can be broadly categorized into two types, namely natural and artificial systems. Natural systems are those that exist in natureand Operate i meee netey of human involvement. e Artificial systems are designed and tonsty ic e Social systems are organized’ rdchires created by humans to manage social relationsh (Governance, ‘and community activities, Comp erageate ste study of how computers work. It looks at what conyputérs can do and what limitations they have. A computer is a complex system designed to process data and perform tasks according to aset of instructions. The Von Neumann architecture involves several key steps for a CPU to execute instructions, including fetching, decoding, executing, and storing. System software is the basic software that helps a computer run and manage its hardware and software resources. Application software is the’ software designed to help users perform specific tasks or activities.Multiple Choi n 1 Whe gig brienary function of a system? a) ~““Toworkindependently b) —_Toachievea common goal ¢) To create new systems d) — Toprovide entertainment 2..| Whatis one of the fundamental concepts of any system? a) Itssize b) Itsobjective c) Itsage d) Itsprice 3. Whatis an example of a simple system? a) Ahumanbody b) Acomputer network °) Athermostat regulating temperature d) The Internet 4. What type of environment remains unchanged unless the system provides an output? a) Dynamic b) Static ¢) Deterministic * d) Non-deterministic a Whatare the basic components of a system? caf a) Users, hardware, software Ow b) Sore careers rote itn ©) _ Inputs, outputs, pro © d) Sensors, 6. What concept Vehe tb ‘of systems aim to understand? m interactions and development over time ©) Software applications d) Network security 7. | Whatrole does the Operating System (OS) playina computer? a) Itperforms calculations and executes instructions b) Ittemporarily stores data and instructions for the CPU ©) It receives input from interface components and decides what to dowith it d) It provides long-term storage of data and software 8. | Which of the following describes the Von Neumann architecture's main characteristic? a) Separate memory for data and instructions b) Parallel execution of instructions A ©) Single memory store for both program insist i Ngan data d) —_ Multiple CPUs for different ta ray] Cele i tani skoh}vecture? rrigmory spaces rams stored in memory aie° Mem hort Questions: nae Which of the followi ing transports dat components? a) Control Uni are its basic components? Ss 3 1. Defineasygtert: Es Dirfevehs e between natural and artificial systems. 3. Describe the main components of a computer system. 4. Listand describe the ‘types of sorpueng systems, ee t 6. a, 8. 9. Whatare the main components of the Von Neumann architecture? ._ What is the Von Neumann computer architecture? Listits key components. . What are the four main steps in the Von Neumann architecture's instruction cycle? . Whats the Von Neumann bottleneck? . Whatisakey advantage of the Von Neumann architecture? 10. What are the three main requirements fora computing system to function? Long Questions 1. Define and describe the concept of a system. Explain th fundamental components, objectives, environment, and me 5H unication within asystem. Co 239 Aancaw] . Differentiate between neta 3 and shician! systems. Discuss their swith relevant examples. characteristics, fungtio . Examine the rath systems and different branches of science, including ral nce, design science, and computer science. How do 'S utilize system theory to understand and improve their ve fields? Provide specific examples to support your analysis, thes respex . Explore the different types of computing systems such as computers, software systems, computer networks, and the internet. . Describe the main characteristics of a Computer as a system, including its objectives, components, and interactions among these components. ._ Explain the Von Neumann architecture of a computer. Include a discussion on the main components, their functions, and the step-by-step process of how the architecture operates, : Provide a’ detailed explanation of how a computer interacts with its environment. Include examples of user input, network communication, and power supply, . Describe the process of retrieving and displaying a file using @¢omputer, based on the interactions among different eee Provide a step-by- ila step explanation of how inputis processed, datas transferred, and results are displayed on the screen, WZ Ee 2 ran i i A \ ANN i NI 2 Gp