GABORONE UNIVERSAL COLLEGE OF LAW

DIPLOMA IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

PARENT – TEACHER- CHILD COMMUNICATION – STUDY MODULE

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preamble

Aims

UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION

Objectives

1.1 Definition of communication

1.2 Types of communication
1.3 Communication process
1.4 Communication in an organization
1.5 Communication barriers
1.6 Effective communication
1.7 Listening
1.8 Note taking
1.9 Summary

UNIT 2 BUSINESS LETTERS

Objectives

2.1 Definition

2.2 Formats

2.3 Types of business letters

2.4 Circular letters

2.5 Memorandums

2.6 Summary

UNIT 3 COMMUNICATION TO PARENTS

Objectives

3.1 Effective communication with parents

3.2 Notices

3.3 Communicating assessment to parents

2
3.4 Communicating development of the child to the parent

3.5 Summary

UNIT 4 STORY TELLING

Objectives

4.1 Importance of storytelling

4.2 Communication after story telling

4.3 Summary

Self Assessment Exercise

References

3
MODULE 109 PARENT-TEACHER-CHILDREN COMMUNICATION

Preamble

Communication is an important tool in Early Childhood Education. It is important that

people interact for the benefit of an organization. Without communication, it will be
difficult for an organization to achieve its goals. This module provides students with
the opportunity to examine the role of communication in Early Childhood Education
settings and reflects the implication of communication to the Early Childhood
Education educator. The module also focuses on the role of communication in Early
Childhood Education with emphasis on parent-teacher- child relation. Topics to be
covered include Communication (defined), Business letters, Communication to
parents, Listening and story telling.

Aims of the module

The aims of this module are:

 Know and understand the different ways of communication

 Know and understand different ways of communicating to parents

 Know and understand the various types of business letters

 help you develop better and more suitable ways of communicating

 Encourage you to use story -telling and develop young children’s listening
skills
Topics

1.1 Communication

2.1 Business Letters

3.1 Communication to parents

4.1 Listening and story telling

Unit 1 Communication

4
Topic

Overview

This is one of the most important topics in Early Childhood Education. People
communicate each and every day. It is important to communicate as people share
ideas and get to learn a lot from other people. Through communication, children will
be able to express themselves and this will make it easier for the teacher to assist them
as she /he will get to understand what they want. This unit will cover the definition of
communication, Types of communication, communication process, communication
barriers, effective communication, listening and note taking.

Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the different types of communication

 Describe communication as a process

 Outline and explain barriers to communication
 Describe listening skills

Topics

1.1Definition of communication

Communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings

and emotions through speech, signals, writing, or behavior. In communication, a
sender (encoder) encodes a message and then using a channel sends it to the
receiver (decoder) who decodes the message and after processing information,
sends back appropriate feedback using a channel. People communicate with each
other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its context in which it
is being sent. Choice of communication channel and the style of communicating
also affect communication. So, there are a variety of types of communication.

5
 This diagram shows how communication goes, it is a cycle and to ensure that there
has been effective communication, there must be feedback from the receiver.

1.2 Types of communication

The two types of communication which will be discussed will be based on

communication channels. These are:

 Verbal Communication
 Nonverbal Communication

 Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is

transmitted verbally, communication is done by word of mouth. Objective of every
communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. When we
talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we know
what we are saying. But this is not the case. In communication, people bring their own
attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in
delivering the right meaning.

In order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the other side of the
table and think from your receiver’s point of view. Would she/he understand the
message? How would the message sound on the other side of the table? Verbal
Communication is further divided into oral communication and written
Communication

Oral Communication

Spoken words are used in oral communication. It also includes face to face
conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over

6
internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed
and clarity of speaking. Oral communication brings quick feedback. In a face to face
conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can guess whether
he/she should trust what is being said or not. Its disadvantages are that in face to face
discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what she/he is delivering.

Written Communication

This is another form of communication that is used by many people in different work
places. In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate.
A written message may be printed or hand written. In written communication message
can be transmitted via email, letter, report and memo. In written communication, the
message is influenced by the vocabulary and grammar used, writing style, precision
and clarity of the language used. Written communication is most common form of
communication being used in business. So, it is considered core among business
skills. The different types used in this kind of communication are memos, reports;
bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the types of
written communication used for internal communication. For communicating with
external environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals,
telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases
are used.

Advantages of written communication

 Messages can be edited and revised many times before being sent.
Written communication provides record for every message sent and can be
saved for later study.
 A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate
feedback.

Disadvantages of written communication

 Written communication doesn’t bring instant feedback

 It takes more time in composing a written message as compared to word of
mouth.

Nonverbal Communication

The sending or receiving of wordless messages is nonverbal communication.

We can say that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture,

7
 body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal
communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of
speaker.

Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received.

Often, nonverbal signals reflect the situation more accurately than verbal
messages. Sometimes nonverbal response contradicts verbal communication and
this can affect the effectiveness of message.

Nonverbal communication has the following three elements:

 Appearance
Speaker’s clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings
 Body Language
facial expressions, gestures, postures
 Sounds
Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate

Oral and written communication types

Advantages of written communication

Regardless of which kind or form is used, written communication has some

advantages over the spoken forms, which you should always bear in mind when
deciding between these two media of communication.

The main ones are as follows

Permanent record

Written communication provides a permanent record of what has been communicated

for both parties. The recipient has the original document, and the sender will usually
have a carbon or photocopy for his or her records. This means that there can be no
misunderstanding over what has been said at a late date, as is often the case for oral
exchanges. This is not foolproof, however, as it is still possible for the sender and
recipient to interpret the same message indifferent ways.

8
Expression can be controlled more carefully

When speaking, it is often difficult to think of exactly the right words to use at the
same time. In writing it is always possible to cross out one version and replace it with
a better. As a result, it is possible to produce an item of communication which is more
carefully created, in terms of the way it expresses the information, how it considers
the vocabulary, background and attitude of the recipient, and its general standard and
finish. Of course, an experienced professional communicator is skilled in matching his
or her words, expression and delivery to meet the demand of the situation, however
complex or variable it may be. For most people, though, communicating in person
raises problems of finding exactly the right word, which will convey just the right
impression to the recipient.

Personal feeling is removed from the exchange

Unless you are writing a letter which is a strongly worded complaint, a letter of
sympathy or one of thanks, emotion can generally be excluded from written forms of
communication more easily than from spoken ones. One of the implications of this is
that, if you have a difficult situation to deal with, it may be more straightforward to
handle it in writing. This may suggest avoiding a confrontation, or “dodging the
issue”, by refusing to meet and discuss point in difficult circumstances, but this is not
necessarily the case. When feelings are strong, it is often easy to let emotion override
fact. Written documents which present the facts of a situation are more likely to be
accurate and dispassionate than oral explanations to an interested party, whose
strength of feeling may well cause the sender to respond emotionally instead of
remaining rational.

A meeting is not needed

Because of modern business pressures, the problems of organizing a personal meting

tend to be considerable. If you provide your message in writing, the recipient is free to
read it whenever he chooses which should ensure that he gives it full attention.

Disadvantages of written communication

These general advantages of written form over the spoken form are strong in certain
areas. To balance them, however, there are also some disadvantages.

Lacks the personal touch

9
Unless you are highly skilled, written communication lacks the immediacy and human
contact of a personal meeting. Some situations, indeed, cannot be handled at all by
correspondence because a personal meeting is essential. This is particularly true for
job interviews and other kinds of appraisal, such as meetings between possible co-
operators in a business project. Some situations demand a personal contact because
otherwise they would appear discourteous. A letter thanking an employee for fifty
years’ loyal service, for example, would be a poor substitute for a personal meeting of
some kind. S o, too, would be communication in writing to a colleague or employee
injured at work and currently in hospital. Often, both a written and personal
communication is necessary on such occasions. Not only do they display a degree of
human feeling and appreciation, but they make sound business sense in showing that
those in authority genuinely care about the workforce and this can only serve to
increase loyalty and commitment to the company. The same is true for
communications with important clients; the personal touch is both courteous and
effective in business terms.

Written words can be misinterpreted

As we have seen, it is possible for the recipient, at the decoding stage, to attribute an
incorrect meaning to the message, so that the sender’s original intentions are not
correctly or fully understood. Everyone involved in communications should work hard
to avoid such situations, of course, but they may still occur. You might argue that
misreading of this kind are the fault of the sender and not really of the medium at all.
This true to some extent, but the form may play a part – for example, you may well
feel that when you are dealing with someone you don’t know very well it is some his
or her attitudes or approach, you are more likely to be able to make any necessary
modifications to the message on the spot. This doesn’t just save time; it also increases
your knowledge of the person concerned, which may well, in turn, make passing
future messages easier.

Lack of feedback

One of the key elements underlying problems with written communication is the lack
of any feedback. We noted above how a message can often be modified during a
spoken communication in order to ensure understanding. This would be in response to
feedback the sender getting signals from the receiver (either in spoken form or
through non-verbal gestures) that the message is not being understood. The
communication cycle is completed quickly. With written communication, the
communication cycle can be completed, but it takes time. For example, the response
to a letter can take several days. And during the period in which feedback is awaited
(if it comes at all), the message has been committees to a permanent form and cannot

10
be corrected if it does not convey the meaning correctly. Note that the increasing use
of E-mail is changing written communication in that feedback can now be obtained
very quickly. This allows much collaborative working between individual or groups,
using the advantages of the written form particularly in respect of drafting material
before finalizing the communication.

Written communication is permanent

Even in the most honest businesses, there may be occasions when communications
need to be carried out “off the record”, that is, with no record being kept of what was
communicated. Example of this are the early stages of meetings to discuss contracts or
mergers, where written details would give the impression that ideas advanced as mere
possibilities were hard and fast certainties. Early stage of this kind clearly need to be
discussions, so that everyone concerned can explore possibilities without making firm
commitments, and it is only when clearer idea of a project or relationship emerges that
it would be appropriate to put these proposal on paper. Meetings, which are
supposedly unrecorded can, however, be given amore permanent form. Much business
people today like to make a recording of meetings using a miniature cassette recorder
– so even the most unofficial, “off-the-record” meeting may end up I a permanent for.

The Characteristics of Oral Communication

a. Advantages of Oral Communication

Used properly and in the right place, oral communication has many powerful
advantages:

Feedback ensures comprehension

Although communicating by letter allows you to state ideas very clearly, it doesn’t
provide you with any immediate response from the recipient. True, the reader can
write you another letter in reply; but this takes time and the reader may not have
completely understood the message contained in your letter. The reader may not lack
the ability to understand what you have said in letter, but however much you may try
to make your meaning clear, it is always possible that you may leave out a vital
element of the entirely different to your reader. This is where oral communication can
be so mush better. If something is said which you do not fully or immediately
understand, you can ask questions to make the meaning clearer. Also, you will be
“scanning” the listener – watching for reactions which show he’s puzzled, or even

11
hostile. If you see this kind of reaction you’ll obviously try to clarify what you’re
saying. In this way, the problem of barriers in communication at the stages of
encoding and decoding the message may be swiftly solved. In this process of
scanning, the non-verbal elements of communication are very important. These are the
aspects of communication which take place without the use of words – the gestures,
movements and other elements popularly called “body language”. We will consider
these shortly, but it is important that you get into the habit of considering them as a
vital part of personal meetings. What it means is that in face-to-face meetings ideas
can be expressed accurately.

Immediacy

Oral communication also has the advantage that all the people involved can express
their views. This means that they can avoid the delay inevitable in written
communication, and views can be exchanged immediately. In a business context,
where decisions may have o be reached quickly, this is an obvious advantage. It also
means that those who take the decisions will be able to take into account all the points
which seem relevant and discuss them, developing some ideas at the expense of other
which are less important, and genuinely evaluating the various points of view. This is
particularly important in meetings of committees and large bodies. Once everyone has
aired their views and all the various arguments have been put forward and considered,
the actual decision-making can take place. Again you can see how useful this can be,
particularly if time is important. You should also bear in mind that a final decision
may rest on information still to be obtained, but at least you can decide to obtain it!

Courtesy

Meeting someone in person is a way of showing respect, especially if you have had to
travel some distance for the meeting. A personal meeting shows that you are
genuinely interested in the person, or in the business matter involved, and this may
make all the difference in obtaining an important contract or dealing with some other
business concern. In addition, personal meeting sallow those involved to develop a
relationship of trust and understanding, which is most important when working
together. They give those in positions of authority within a company a chance to show
that they concerned about the ideas and feelings of their staff if they are willing o meet
and discuss issues with them in person, either individually or in groups.

12
Disadvantages of Oral Communication

Not everything about spoken communication is good, however

Here are some of its disadvantages:

No written record

Oral communication does not provide a written record of what has been said or
decided. There cannot, therefore, be any reference back to the exact nature of the
message and misinterpretations are less easily resolved at a later date.

Time-consuming

Personal meetings are time-consuming, and can involve traveling over long distance.
This can be tiring and can defeat your aims in two ways – by wasting time and by
reducing your positive approach to the personal exchange at the end of the journey.

Emotional involvement

Oral communication involves a personal element in respect of both the sender and the
receiver. This means that the relationship between the two-may co lour the interaction
and distort the meaning. For example, a junior member of staff may not feel able to
question or disagree with a senior manager, or there may be circumstances in which,
however hard you try to establish a good working relationship, it will be impossible to
do so because of a clash of personalities.

Using Written and Oral Communication

13
Written correspondence within or between organizations may take many forms. The
crucial difference between oral and written communications will be the importance
attributed to each. Oral communication will be the basic for almost all negotiations,
liaison, team briefing and project management, but written communication will be
viewed as an endorsement of oral statements, as having a permanence and contractual
status. Written communication can be used as evidence of previous discussions and
arrangements. It provides the history of a project or collaboration. It justifies an
activity and provides back-up and proof. We attach an enormously high value to
written text. Once written down, words are themselves pinned down, selected,
representative, deliberate, permanent and important in their own right in away that
effective oral communication can never be. If we consider graffiti, for example, it has
a real permanence that a joke or throwaway comment could never have. Words are
tangible, independent of their authors. We pay more attention to even poorly
expressed words in textual form than we would ever give if they were spoken to us.
The act of writing renders words “true”. It is no wonder that copyright law and libel
are major issues of our time. Written text makes information immediately available to
an almost unlimited audience simply by dint of reproduction. Photocopying or
printing processes can bring news media into our home every day which can be
referred to again and again. Whereas oral communication needs to be succinct and
clear of purpose, written communication has the scope to elaborately, to justify and to
manipulate information deliberately into particular phrases so that many versions are
available. When we write to confirm arrangements, we have an opportunity to
rephrase and reinterpret meetings or oral communications in a way which we feel is
most suitable. There is a distance between the act of speaking and the act of writing.
Similarly, in responding to oral communication we have been influenced by body
language, tone and appearance of the speaker, and may not remember all the words
spoken but gain an overall

Impression of the success of the communication and have noted the key points. A
written communication is bereft of those interpersonal skills and allows us to judge
and interpret the actual words in order to make a considered response.

When to use written communication

We use written communication most frequently to:

Summarizes key issues.

Invite a response.

Respond to other written/oral communications.

14
Establish a formal basis for the communication.

Record the process of the communication.

Provide a source of historical data.

Express corporate strategy and ideology.

Lends credibility to our utterances.

Indicate our intent that the communication be viewed as relevant/important.

Access a wider audience.

Ensure the accuracy of the message to all parties concerned.

Share goals, visions, and understanding.

Present information/data independently of interpersonal skills.

When to use oral communication

Clearly, the times and place where you can use oral communication are large in
number and range. Some of the more suitable occasions are as follows:

When it is essential to meet the person involved evaluating his or her suitability for a
particular task. This is especially relevant to selection interviews, to ensure that you
appoint the right person for the job vacancy, but it is also important in other areas,
such us deciding which member of a group should be delegated to carry out a
particular task.

When it is important to pool the knowledge of several people to arrive at key

decisions. This is true of various aspects of a company’s activities, from the board of
directors downwards.

Where you are discussing a delicate or personal matter an individual employee or

client. You may wish to raise matters carefully, while being aware of the person’s
reaction, in a manner which would be impossible in correspondence.

15
Where you need to persuade listeners of particular course of action, particularly if it
involves change. People need reassurance in these circumstances and find discussion
comforting even if they can’t alter the outcome.

For a process of negotiation, where a compromise has to be reached between

alternative or rival courses of action. This is particularly important in cases where
possible issues of conflict are involved, such as grievance or disciplinary producers, or
discussion of conditions of work, rates of pay and other similar matters.

For informing members of a company or department about new developments in

company policy where a full staff meeting will provide the opportunity to pass on
information and allow employees to ask questions and discuss the matter.

Oral and written communication types

Advantages of written communication

Regardless of which kind or form is used, written communication has some

advantages over the spoken forms, which you should always bear in mind when
deciding between these two media of communication.

The main ones are as follows

Permanent record

Written communication provides a permanent record of what has been communicated

for both parties. The recipient has the original document, and the sender will usually
have a carbon or photocopy for his or her records. This means that there can be no
misunderstanding over what has been said at a late date, as is often the case for oral
exchanges. This is not foolproof, however, as it is still possible for the sender and
recipient to interpret the same message indifferent ways.

16
Expression can be controlled more carefully

When speaking, it is often difficult to think of exactly the right words to use at the
same time. In writing it is always possible to cross out one version and replace it with
a better. As a result, it is possible to produce an item of communication which is more
carefully created, in terms of the way it expresses the information, how it considers
the vocabulary, background and attitude of the recipient, and its general standard and
finish. Of course, an experienced professional communicator is skilled in matching his
or her words, expression and delivery to meet the demand of the situation; however
complex or variable it may be. For most people, though, communicating in person
raises problems of finding exactly the right word, which will convey just the right
impression to the recipient.

Personal feeling is removed from the exchange

Unless you are writing a letter which is a strongly worded complaint, a letter of
sympathy or one of thanks, emotion can generally be excluded from written forms of
communication more easily than from spoken ones. One of the implications of this is
that, if you have a difficult situation to deal with, it may be more straightforward to
handle it in writing. This may suggest avoiding a confrontation, or “dodging the
issue”, by refusing to meet and discuss point in difficult circumstances, but this is not
necessarily the case. When feelings are strong, it is often easy to let emotion override
fact. Written documents which present the facts of a situation are more likely to be
accurate and dispassionate than oral explanations to an interested party, whose
strength of feeling may well cause the sender to respond emotionally instead of
remaining rational.

A meeting is not needed

Because of modern business pressures, the problems of organizing a personal meting

tend to be considerable. If you provide your message in writing, the recipient is free to
read it whenever he chooses which should ensure that he gives it full attention.

Disadvantages of written communication

17
These general advantages of written form over the spoken form are strong in certain
areas. To balance them, however, there are also some disadvantages.

Lacks the personal touch

Unless you are highly skilled, written communication lacks the immediacy and human
contact of a personal meeting. Some situations, indeed, cannot be handled at all by
correspondence because a personal meeting is essential. This is particularly true for
job interviews and other kinds of appraisal, such as meetings between possible co-
operators in a business project. Some situations demand a personal contact because
otherwise they would appear discourteous. A letter thanking an employee for fifty
years’ loyal service, for example, would be a poor substitute for a personal meeting of
some kind. S o, too, would be communication in writing to a colleague or employee
injured at work and currently in hospital. Often, both a written and personal
communication are necessary on such occasions. Not only do they display a degree of
human feeling and appreciation, but they make sound business sense in showing that
those in authority genuinely care about the workforce and this can only serve to
increase loyalty and commitment to the company. The same is true for
communications with important clients; the personal touch is both courteous and
effective in business terms.

Written words can be misinterpreted

As we have seen, it is possible for the recipient, at the decoding stage, to attribute an
incorrect meaning to the message, so that the sender’s original intentions are not
correctly or fully understood. Everyone involved in communications should work hard
to avoid such situations, of course, but they may still occur. You might argue that
misreading of this kind are the fault of the sender and not really of

The medium at all. This true to some extent, but the form may play a part – for
example, you may well feel that when you are dealing with someone you don’t know
very well it is sometimes “safer” to do so in person. This is because, since you don’t
know mush about his or her attitudes or approach, you are more likely to be able to

18
make any necessary modifications to the message on the spot. This doesn’t just save
time, it also increases your knowledge of the person concerned, which may well, in
turn, make passing future messages easier.

Lack of feedback

One of the key elements underlying problems with written communication is the lack
of any feedback. We noted above how a message can often be modified during a
spoken communication in order to ensure understanding. This would be in response to
feedback the sender getting signals from the receiver (either in spoken form or
through non-verbal gestures)that the message is not being understood. The
communication cycle is completed quickly. With written communication, the
communication cycle can be completed, but it takes time. For example, the response
to a letter can take several days. And during the period in which feedback is awaited
(if it comes at all), the message has been committees to a permanent form and cannot
be corrected if it does not convey the meaning correctly. Note that the increasing use
of E-mail is changing written communication in that feedback cans now be obtained
very quickly. This allows much collaborative working between individual or groups,
using the advantages of the written form particularly in respect of drafting material
before finalizing the communication.

Written communication is permanent

Even in the most honest businesses, there may be occasions when communications
need to be carried out “off the record”, that is, with no record being kept of what was
communicated. Example of this are the early stages of meetings to discuss contracts or
mergers, where written details would give the impression that ideas advanced as mere
possibilities were hard and fast certainties. Early stage of this kind clearly need to be
discussions, so that everyone concerned can explore possibilities without making firm
commitments, and it is only when a clearer idea of a project or relationship emerges
that it would be appropriate to put these proposal on paper. Meetings, which are
supposedly unrecorded can, however, be given amore permanent form. Much business
people today like to make a recording of meetings using a miniature cassette recorder
– so even the most unofficial, “off-the-record” meeting may end up I a permanent for.

The Characteristics of Oral Communication

19
a. Advantages of Oral Communication

Used properly and in the right place, oral communication has many powerful
advantages:

Feedback ensures comprehension

Although communicating by letter allows you to state ideas very clearly, it doesn’t
provide you with any immediate response from the recipient. True, the reader can
write you another letter in reply; but this takes time and the reader may not have
completely understood the message contained in your letter. The reader may not lack
the ability to understand what you have said in a letter, but however much you may try
to make your meaning clear; it is always possible that you may leave out a vital
element of the entirely different to your reader. This is where oral communication can
be so mush better. If something is said which you do not fully or immediately
understand, you can ask questions to make the meaning clearer. Also, you will be”
scanning” the listener – watching for reactions which show he’s puzzled, or even
hostile. If you see this kind of reaction you’ll obviously try to clarify what you’re
saying. In this way, the problem of barriers in communication at the stages of
encoding and decoding the message may be swiftly solved. In this process of
scanning, the non-verbal elements of communication are very important. These are the
aspects of communication which take place without the use of words – the gestures,
movements and other elements popularly called “body language”. We will consider
these shortly, but it is important that you get into the habit of considering them as a
vital part of personal meetings. What it means is that in face-to-face meetings ideas
can be expressed accurately.

Immediacy

Oral communication also has the advantage that all the people involved can express
their views. This means that they can avoid the delay inevitable in written
communication, and views can be exchanged immediately. In a business context,
where decisions may have o be reached quickly, this is an obvious advantage. It also
means that those who take the decisions will be able to take into account all the points
which seem relevant and discuss them, developing some ideas at the expense of other

20
which are less important, and genuinely evaluating the various points of view. This is
particularly important in meetings of committees and large bodies. Once everyone has
aired their views and all the various arguments have been put forward and considered,
the actual decision-making can take place. Again you can see how useful this can be,
particularly if time is important. You should also bear in mind that a final decision
may rest on information still to be obtained, but at least you can decide to obtain it!

Courtesy

Meeting someone in person is a way of showing respect, especially if you have had to
travel some distance for the meeting. A personal meeting shows that you are
genuinely interested in the person, or in the business matter involved, and this may
make all the difference in obtaining an important contract or dealing with some other
business concern. In addition, personal meeting sallow those involved to develop a
relationship of trust and understanding, which is most important when working
together. They give those in positions of authority within a company a chance to show
that they concerned about the ideas and feelings of their staff if they are willing to
meet and discuss issues with them in person, either individually or in groups.

Disadvantages of Oral Communication

Not everything about spoken communication is good, however

Here are some of its disadvantages:

No written record

Oral communication does not provide a written record of what has been said or
decided. There cannot, therefore, be any reference back to the exact nature of the
message and misinterpretations are less easily resolved at a later date.

21
Time-consuming

Personal meetings are time-consuming, and can involve traveling over long distance.
This can be tiring and can defeat your aims in two ways – by wasting time and by
reducing your positive approach to the personal exchange at the end of the journey.

Emotional involvement

Oral communication involves a personal element in respect of both the sender and the
receiver. This means that the relationship between the two-may co lour the interaction
and distort the meaning. For example, a junior member of staff may not feel able to
question or disagree with a senior manager, or there may be circumstances in which,
however hard you try to establish good working relationship, it will be impossible to
do so because of a clash of personalities.

Using Written and Oral Communication

Written correspondence within or between organizations may take many forms. The
crucial difference between oral and written communications will be the importance
attributed to each. Oral communication will be the basic for almost all negotiations,
liaison, team briefing and project management, but written communication will be
viewed as an endorsement of oral statements, as having a permanence and contractual
status. Written communication can be used as evidence of previous discussions and
arrangements. It provides the history of a project or collaboration. It justifies an
activity and provides back-up and proof. We attach an enormously high value to
written text. Once written down, words are themselves pinned down, selected,
representative, deliberate, permanent and important in their own right in away that
effective oral communication can never be. If we consider graffiti, for example, it has
a real permanence that a joke or throwaway comment could never have. Words are
tangible, independent of their authors. We pay more attention to even poorly
expressed words in textual form than we would ever give if they were spoken to us.
The act of writing renders words “true”. It is no wonder that copyright law and libel
are major issues of our time. Written text makes information immediately available to

22
an almost unlimited audience simply by dint of reproduction. Photocopying or
printing processes can bring news media into our homes every day which can be
referred to again and again. Whereas oral communication needs to be succinct and
clear of purpose, written communication has the scope to elaborately, to justify and to
manipulate information deliberately into particular phrases so that many versions are
available. When we write to confirm arrangements, we have an opportunity to
rephrase and reinterpret meetings or oral communications in a way which we feel is
most suitable. There is a distance between the act of speaking and the act of writing.
Similarly, in responding to oral communication we have been influenced by body
language, tone and appearance of the speaker, and may not remember all the words
spoken but gain an overall

Impression of the success of the communication and have noted the key points. A
written communication is bereft of those interpersonal skills and allows us to judge
and interpret the actual words in order to make a considered response.

When to use written communication

We use written communication most frequently to:

Summarized key issues.

Invite a response.

Respond to other written/oral communications.

Establish a formal basis for the communication.

Record the process of the communication.

Provide a source of historical data.

Express corporate strategy and ideology.

Lends credibility to our utterances.

23
Indicate our intent that the communication be viewed as relevant/important.

Access a wider audience.

Ensure the accuracy of the message to all parties concerned.

Share goals, visions, and understanding.

Present information/data independently of interpersonal skills.

When to use oral communication

Clearly, the times and place where you can use oral communication are large in
number and range. Some of the more suitable occasions are as follows:

When it is essential to meet the person involved evaluating his or her suitability for a
particular task. This is especially relevant to selection interviews, to ensure that you
appoint the right person for the job vacancy, but it is also important in other areas,
such us deciding which member of a group should be delegated to carry out a
particular task.

When it is important to pool the knowledge of several people to arrive at key

decisions. This is true of various aspects of a company’s activities, from the board of
directors downwards.

Where you are discussing a delicate or personal matter an individual employee or

client. You may wish to raise matters carefully, while being aware of the person’s
reaction, in a manner which would be impossible in correspondence.

24
Where you need to persuade listeners of particular course of action, particularly if it
involves change. People need reassurance in these circumstances and find discussion
comforting even if they can’t alter the outcome.

For a process of negotiation, where a compromise has to be reached between

alternative or rival courses of action. This is particularly important in cases where
possible issues of conflict are involved, such as grievance or disciplinary producers, or
discussion of conditions of work, rates of pay and other similar matters.

For informing members of a company or department about new developments in

company policy where a full staff meeting will provide the opportunity to pass on
information and allow employees to ask questions and discuss the matter.

Importance of communication

The aim

The aim is the main reason why the act of communication has been undertaken. There
are generally three chief aims:

To inform

This is the desire to supply factual information, or an assessment or judgment of the

value of an item or product.

To Influence

This is the desire to persuade the recipient to adopt a particular idea or possible course
action.

To initiate Action

This is the desire to persuade the recipient respond by performing a particular task.
Within an organization, all three aims are often present as part of any individual act of

25
communication. It is important to be clear about the overall aim of the communication
because this

can affect the way the information is encoded the media and channels used to convey
the message.

There are two main categories of communication and they both have their own
characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:

 Formal Communication
 Informal Communication
 Formal Communication

In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed

while communicating messages. Formal communication occurs in formal and
official style, usually professional settings, corporate meetings and conferences.
In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal
communication.

 Informal Communication

Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is established for societal
affiliations of members in an organization and face to face discussions. It
happens among friends and family. In informal communication use of slang
words, foul language is not restricted. Usually, informal communication is done
orally and using gestures.

Informal communication does not follow authority lines. In an organization, it

helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking
informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

1.3 Communication process

Communication is the transmission of a message from a sender to a receiver in an

understandable manner. Communicating effectively, accounts for the difference
between success and failure or profit and loss. Every business person needs to
understand the fundamentals of effective communication. The manner in which
individuals perceive and talk to each other at work about different issues is a major
determinant of the business success. It has proven been proven that poor

26
communication reduces quality, weakens productivity, and eventually leads to anger
and a lack of trust among individuals within the organization.

The communication process is the guide to effective communication. It is through the

communication process that the sharing of a common meaning between the sender and
the receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the communication process will have
the opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession.
Effective communication leads to understanding.

The communication process is made up of four key components which are encoding,
medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback. There are also two other factors in
the process, and those two factors are present in the form of the sender and the
receiver. The communication process begins with the sender and ends with the
receiver.

The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the communication.

This source is initially responsible for the success of the message. The sender's
experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skill, perceptions, and culture influence the
message. The written words, spoken words, and nonverbal language selected are
paramount in ensuring the receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender.

The sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to convey meaning,
the sender must begin encoding, which means translating information into a message
in the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts. This process translates the
ideas or concepts into the coded message that will be communicated. The symbols can
take on numerous forms such as, languages, words, or gestures. These symbols are
used to encode ideas into messages that others can understand.

When encoding a message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to
transmit. This decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the
receiver’s knowledge and assumptions, along with what additional information he/she
wants the receiver to have. It is important for the sender to use symbols that are
familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for the sender to improve encoding their
message, is to mentally visualize the communication from the receiver's point of view.

When transmitting the message, the sender uses a medium. The medium is the means
used to convey the message. Most channels are either oral or written, but currently
visual channels are becoming more common as technology expands. Common
channels include the telephone and a variety of written forms such as memos, letters,
and reports. The effectiveness of the various channels fluctuates depending on the
characteristics of the communication. For example, when immediate feedback is

27
necessary, oral communication channels are more effective because any uncertainties
can be cleared up on the spot. In a situation where the message must be delivered to
more than a small group of people, written channels are often more effective.
Although in many cases, both oral and written channels should be used because one
supplements the other.

If a sender relays a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not
reach the right receivers. That is why senders need to keep in mind that selecting the
appropriate channel will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the receiver's
understanding. The sender's decision to utilize either an oral or a written channel for
communicating a message is influenced by several factors. The sender should ask him
or herself different questions, so that they can select the appropriate channel. Is the
message urgent? Is immediate feedback needed? Is documentation or a permanent
record required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or private? Is the message
going to someone inside or outside the organization? What oral and written
communication skills does the receiver possess? Once the sender has answered all of
these questions, they will be able to choose an effective channel.

Having selected the appropriate channel, the message enters the decoding stage of the
communication process. Decoding is conducted by the receiver. Once the message is
received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for interpreting, in order to
assign some type of meaning to it. It is this processing stage that constitutes decoding.
The receiver begins to interpret the symbols sent by the sender, translating the
message to their own set of experiences in order to make the symbols meaningful.
Successful communication takes place when the receiver correctly interprets the
sender's message.

The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed. The
extent to which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of
factors, which include the following: how much the individual or individuals know
about the topic, their receptivity to the message, and the relationship and trust that
exists between sender and receiver. All interpretations by the receiver are influenced
by their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture. It is similar
to the sender's relationship with encoding.

Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After receiving a
message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender.
The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a
smile, or some other action. Even lack of response, is in a sense, a form of response.
Without feedback, the sender cannot confirm that the receiver has interpreted the
message correctly.

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Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the
sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately provides an
opportunity for the sender to take corrective action to clarify a misunderstood
message. Feedback plays an important role by indicating significant communication
barriers, differences in background, different interpretations of words, and differing
emotional reactions.

The communication process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective

communication. When followed properly, the process can usually assure that the
sender's message will be understood by the receiver. Although the communication
process seems simple, it in essence is not. Certain barriers present themselves
throughout the process. Those barriers are factors that have a negative impact on the
communication process. Some common barriers include the use of an inappropriate
medium (channel), incorrect grammar, inflammatory words, words that conflict with
body language, and technical jargon. Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can
occur during any stage of the process. Noise essentially is anything that distorts a
message by interfering with the communication process. Noise can take many forms,
including a radio playing in the background, another person trying to enter your
conversation, and any other distractions that prevent the receiver from paying
attention.

Successful and effective communication within an organization stems from the

implementation of the communication process. All members within an organization
will improve their communication skills if they follow the communication process,
and stay away from the different barriers. It has been proven that individuals that
understand the communication process will become more effective communicators,
and effective communicators have a greater opportunity for being successful.

1.4 Communication in an organization

Communication is the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information

by speech, writing, or signs. It is information imparted, interchanged, or transmitted. It
can also be regarded as any act by which one person gives to or receives from person
information about that person’s needs, desires, perceptions or knowledge.
Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve conventional or
unconventional signals, may take linguistic or non-linguistic forms, and may also
occur through spoken or other modes.

29
Activity

What do you understand by organizational communication? How is it different from

usual communication?

Organizational communication is the process by which activities of an organization

are collected and coordinated to reach the goals of both individuals and the
organization. It is the information flow that happens in an organization but the flow of
information has got a structure, direction and process.

Communication that takes place within an organization can be through face to face,
telephone, fax or mail; modern organizations may use technology to communicate
internally.

When communicating, technology may be used for e-mails or a linked internal

communication. External communication can also be used between the organization
and those outside the organization. The different types of communication in an
organization can be formal communication, chain of command, written word and
representative system while informal communication can be through gossips, grape
vine talks and chit chats.

The Structure and mode of organizational communication can be horizontal or lateral

communication. Horizontal communication aims at the following: task coordination,
problem solving information sharing and conflict resolution.

In upward communication, ideas, feelings, and perceptions of lower level employee

are communicated to those at higher levels in the organization. The functions are
providing management with needed information for decision making, helping
employees relieve the pressures and frustrations of the work situation and enhancing
employees’ sense of participation in the organization. It also serves as a measure of
the effectiveness of downward communication.

The downward communication is initiated by the organization’s super management

and then filters downward. People are limited as to the amount of information they
can effectively absorb and react to, therefore, management must, restrict what it
communicates to subordinates. Without restrictions on communication, any
organizational member could be buried under an avalanche of incoming messages
from all the other members.

Diagonal Communication occurs when communication takes place between workers

in a different section of the organization where one worker is on a higher level. For
example diagonal communication will occur when a department manager converses

30
with an employee in another department. It allows cross communication between
departments.

Let us now look at the importance and advantages of communication in an

organization

 Help individuals to understand and pursue organizational objectives.

 Cover every management function.
 Organizational culture depends on communications.
 Improves both organizational and individual performance
 Makes communication better

The modern era or boundary less organization are organization in which there are no
barriers to information flow ideas and information moves to where they are most
needed. In this modern era people have the facility to work in their home and report it
their superiors; there are employees’ who report to their superiors in another country.

It is important to design communication mechanism for an organization. This means

structuring the organization in many different ways, depending on their objectives.
The structure of an organization will determine the ways in which it operates,
performs and communicates. Communication in an organization also depends on the
leadership style. Classical organizations supported information flow only through the
chain of command, but this leads to the missing of information during the flow. There
are organizations in which every official communication should be in a written form,
especially in a bureaucratic set up. Organizations should keep a track of the
communication between employees.

One single method of communication process might not work well for an
organization, so it will be better to have a communication process which is vertical
along with horizontal communication. The system should be flexible where in
decisions are to be made fast, or when the organization is facing problems, there is
need for diagonal and bypass communication. Communication helping growth of an
organization should be conservative and structured. The communication process
should be vertical for a conservative and structured organization. Horizontal
communication cans be allowed for better coordination between different
departments. Relationship of an organization with its customer’s is very important, so
the employees should be properly trained for the process. When the communication is
better, this will improve the performance of the organization, which will also help in
interpersonal relationships, less conflict; better understanding, solving problems and
help discussions which can lead to new ideas which will help the organization grow
better.

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 1.5 Communication barriers

When we communicate, we aim to achieve effective communication, not knowing that

we are actually doing another thing. At times when we communicate, the message
does not reach the receiver; it gets distorted before it reaches the person who is
supposed to receive it. Why does this happen? It is now time for us to discuss the
different barriers to communication.There is many reasons why interpersonal
communications fail. In many communications, the message may not be received
exactly the way the sender intended and hence it is important that the communicator
seeks feedback to check that their message is clearly understood. The skills of active
listening, clarification and reflection may help but the skilled communicator also
needs to be aware of the barriers to effective communication.
There are many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the
communication process. Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and
you therefore risk wasting both time and/or money by causing confusion and
misunderstanding. Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and
conveying a clear and concise message.
Outlined below are some of the common barriers to effective communication.

 The use of jargon, these are over-complicated or unfamiliar terms.

 Emotional barriers and taboos.
 Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.
 Differences in perception and viewpoint.
 Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.
 Physical barriers to non-verbal communication.
 Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.
 Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping as this
leads to people hearing what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and
jump to incorrect conclusions.
 Cultural differences referring to norms of social interaction vary greatly in different
cultures, as do the way in which emotions are expressed.

It is therefore, important for a skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try
to reduce their impact by continually checking understanding and by offering appropriate
feedback.

Barrier Explanation

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 Language The communication message might not use vocabulary that is
understood by the receiver for example too much use of jargon

Noise Various things stop a message from getting through or being heard
for example poor connection, background noise, distractions, too
many people speaking

Overload Too much information can cause problems e.g. slow down decision
making

Emotion The relationship between the sender and receiver of communication

might adversely affect the message which could be ignored or
misinterpreted

Gaps Too many intermediaries for example. too many layers in hierarchy
through which message has to be passed) might prevent or distort
the message

Inconsistency If people receive conflicting or inconsistent messages, then they may

ignore or block them

In the above table, we have explained the different barriers to communication which I
hope you have all experienced. I now think that the communication barriers that
follow the above explanation are quite similar and almost have the same meaning. I
believe that after reading and understanding them, you will try to match them and see
how they are related. Each will be discussed with a few examples given to make it
easier for you to understand.

Language barriers
At times, language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication.
However, even when communicating in the same language, the terminology used in a
message may act as a barrier if it is not fully understood by the receiver(s). The
receiver must be familiar with the terminology.
Psychological barriers
When you communicate, you have to observe the psychological state of the receiver
because at times, it influences how the message is received. For example, if someone
is stressed, they may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive to the
message as if they were not stressed. Stress management is an important personal
skill that affects our interpersonal relationships. Remember that in the previous units
we explained stress and how it can be avoided.

33
Another example of a psychological barrier to communication is anger, when we are
angry it is easy to say things that we may later regret and also to misinterpret what
others are saying. More generally people with low self-esteem may be less assertive
and therefore may not feel comfortable communicating they may feel shy about
saying how they really feel or read negatively into messages they hear.

Physiological barriers
Physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s physical state, for example, a
receiver with reduced hearing may not grasp to entirety of a spoken conversation
especially if there is significant background noise.
Physical Barriers
The physical barrier to communication is the geographic distance between the sender
and receiver. Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more
communication channels are available and less technology is required. Although
modern technology often serves to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the
advantages and disadvantages of each communication channel should be understood
so that an appropriate channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers.
Systematic Barriers
Another barrier to communication is referred to as Systematic barrier which may exist
in structures and organisations where there are inefficient or inappropriate information
systems and communication channels, or where there is a lack of understanding of the
roles and responsibilities for communication. In such organisations, individuals may
be unclear of their role in the communication process and therefore not know what is
expected of them.
Attitudinal Barriers
There are certain behaviours and perceptions that sometimes that prevent people from
communicating effectively and these are known as attitudinal barriers. These may
result from personality conflicts, poor management, and résistance to change or a lack
of motivation. Effective receivers of messages should attempt to overcome their own
attitudinal barriers to facilitate effective communication.

Barriers Caused by Sender and Recipient

When you are thinking about these, don’t forget that they are only very rarely created
deliberately by either party. More often they arise from incomplete understanding of
the information, the situation, or the vocabulary and attitudes of the party.
i. Distortion
34
 Distortion is a process which occurs either at the stage of encoding or decoding the
message. It comes about when the information is put into form, which does not
express its true nature in a way that the recipient can fully understand. We all believe
that language is shared by everyone, and that we all use the same words to express
ideas; but this is often far from true. I am sure that, like me, you may have succeeded,
quite unintentionally, in offending another person by saying something, which was
“taken the wrong way “or interpreted as an insult instead of a compliment. Distortion
in communication can lead to incorrect understanding of the message or only partial
comprehension of its meaning by the recipient.
•

Where the distortion arises at the encoding stage, the sender is responsible. This is by
far the most likely source of the problem, since every effort must be made to frame the
message, in away in which the receiver can understand.
•

Distortion at the decoding stage may arise where the recipient is not paying the
necessary attention interprets the message in a way, which the sender could not have
anticipated. In such cases, the failure to communicate is the responsibility of the
receiver. It could be due to lack of concentration in either party, or perhaps even that
the ideas are so complex than clear and a complete expression of them is very hard to
achieve. The latter is often the case when a specialist in a technical field tries to
address a non-specialist audience: there is no common language for discussing very
complicated ideas, and so the communication fails. However, there are ways in which
barriers at encoding and decoding can be avoided, as a later section will clear.
ii. Inadequate communication skills
Communication skills are the abilities to send and receive messages clearly and
effectively, with no possibility of misunderstanding. They include the ability to
express ideas clearly in writing, in language suitable to the intended recipient and the
intended purpose of the communication. They also include the ability to read – not
only to read words on a page, but also to interpret

Signs and symbols of all kinds – such as body language, which are presented in a
communication exchange. A major barrier to communication is created when one or
the other party fails to process the necessary communication skills. Messages are

35
incorrectly encoded, or encoded in the wrong medium: alternatively, they may be
misread and fail to have intended effect.
iii. Lack of listening ability
The ability to listen is an essential ability for all of us. Unless we have it we are unable
to understand what is going on around us, with potentially disastrous results. In the
study of communication, however, it is even more important to be able to “listen”.
The term is used to include the ability to work out the way in which somebody is
responding to an item of communication, with the same meaning as the term to “scan”
for feedback.
•

Unless the
Sender
Can listen, he or she will be unable to discover the real response of the recipient.
•

Unless the
Recipient
Can listen, he or she will fail to grasp the true significance of the message. This then,
is another cause of communication breakdown.
iv. Attitudes
All of us have certain attitudes towards daily life, which have been produced by our
education, environment and general experience. If they are extreme, they are called
prejudices. Whatever their form, they can distort our awareness of messages in
communications and thus hamper the communication process. Attitudes to moral
questions, and those induced by different cultural wishes to communicate effectively,
therefore, one must try to be aware of both his or her own attitudes and those of the
intended recipient, otherwise a further barrier may appear.
v. Incorrect Information
As well as the more complex barriers discussed above, there is one, which is more
straightforward, but just as disruptive: the fact that the information may simply be
wrong. You could argue that, if incorrect information is successfully transmitted, a
successful communication exchange has been achieved. However, this is only a short-
term view, since the mistake will probably be discovered, and will have to be put

36
right. This will undermine the recipient’s trust in the sender, and may create a barrier
in attitude, which can hold up effective communication in later exchanges.
vi. Other Barriers
There are three more general elements, which can act as barriers to communication.
•

Perceptual bias occurs where the recipient has “selective hearing” and selects what
they want to hear. This can result in the wrong message being received. For example,
smokers may see the warning message on cigarette packets but the message may not
be transmitted because a barrier is created which enables smokers to select only
favourable messages about smoking.
•

Information overload can occur if the recipient of the message receives too much
information, or information, which is too technical. For example, if customers are
given too much technical information about a product the result is that they will
probably not remember or understand the key message being communicate

Barriers Caused by Outside Influences (Noise)

Noise is the name given to the feature of the setting in which the communication
takes place which interfere with the accurate transfer of information. In literal terms, it
can be physical noise, such as heavy traffic, constantly ringing telephones or people
talking to you while you are reading a letter. It can also refer to other kinds of
interference such as poor telephone connection or unreadable photocopying. The
physical environment within which a communication takes place can be very
significant, depending on the circumstances. For example, shops take a lot of trouble
over the right decoration and lighting to ensure they make the right impression on
potential customers and if they get it wrong, it may affect sales. Similarly, the
surroundings in the doctor’s surgery may affect the effectiveness of communication
between doctor and patient. Think about the layout and decoration of the reception
area to your workplace or other firms’ offices – how does it make you feel even before
any form of communication with the receptionist has begun?
C. Overcoming the barriers
Many of the most important barriers to communicating may be overcome by
following a few simple rules.

37
Defining the Purpose
Ask yourself what the purpose of this communication is – what are you trying to
achieve. This must be the over-riding consideration. You must make sure that the
message achieves its purpose. Think carefully about what you want the recipient to do
in response to your communication.
•

Are you trying to change an attitude, or ask for an order for goods?
•

Are you simply trying to find out what he or she thinks, or asking for advice?
Defining exactly the response you are seeking can help a great deal, especially if you
put yourself in the place of the recipient and ask whether you would respond in the
way you want if you were faced with the letter or memo you plan to send. This is
always a good exercise to perform before sending off a written communication, or
before adopting a particular approach in oral communication. People in business –
from shoppers to senior managers – rarely have time on non-essential matters. As a
result, it pays to make sure that you know exactly how much you need to convey your
communication. Knowing what
not
to say is almost as important as knowing what to say – so cut-outs all material which
is not central to your intentions. This is really another way of saying that you must
define your purpose carefully and exactly.
Knowing When and How to Communicate

It is no use writing a long and complicated letter to a large organisation unless you
know that this person is the one responsible for making the decision involved. If you
write to wrong person, or contact him or her in another way, you will only waste time
for both of you. Worse still you may give an impression of inefficiency, which will
bode ill for future communication, or annoy the firm involved. Always make sure,
then, that you are communicating with the right person. This also applies to “crossed
lines” - the kind of situation where both parties think that the other is someone else.
Such a mistake can cause all kind of misunderstanding; so do make sure that you
contact the right person. Judging the right moment to make a communication is often
important in business. Some people deliberately write letter so that they will arrive on
a Friday, when people are supposed to be feeling happy with the prospect of the

38
coming weekend. In a business context, making telephone calls first thing in the
morning when the recipient is still dealing with the mail would probably be a mistake.
On a different level, tackling your employer in the corridor when you want to ask him
or her a complicated favour is probably not good idea. Choosing the moment for
communication, both in terms of its psychological rightness to the person involved
and in relation to patterns of trade, such as the seasons for ordering particular kinds of
goods, is thus a very important way of avoiding barriers of attitude in the recipient or
noise in the external circumstance. For some situations, a written communication is
essential: for others, it would be too formal and restricting. Always think carefully
about the best kind of communication medium for a particular situation and recipient.
•

It may be simplest to make a phone call, but would a personal visit be more effective?
•

A letter has the advantage of being permanent and on record, but is there any
guarantee that the recipient will act upon it? These are the kinds of questions you need
to ask yourself when thinking about beginning the communication process.
Understanding the Receiver
I have left this until last because it is the single most important rule for effective
communication. We have seen how distortion may occur at encoding when
insufficient care is taken by the sender over meeting the needs of the recipient. In all
forms, the more you know about your target audience the easier it is to avoid barriers
to communication. By considering how a communication might be received you are
more likely to shape a message that will not be misinterpreted or misunderstood.
Other words, the more you plan to shape the message and consider the effect it might
create, the more likely that the communication will be successful and achieve what
you want it to. Of prime importance is the purpose of your message – how do you
want the recipient to react? You need to consider the best way of achieving that
response by using language appropriate to the purpose as well as to the recipient’s
own vocabulary, background and attitudes. One way is to think carefully before
encoding messages in order to give full messages and not

leave gaps that could leave people to make the wrong assumptions, Accuracy and
precision in the message is important if it is to be decoded correctly. Successful
communication occurs when the barriers of prejudice, bias and unsuitable language
are avoided and the information is transmitted using the most appropriate channel in

39
line with the needs of the recipient. Avoid jargon or technical words that may not be
understood and try to avoid ambiguity. It is always important to understand the
relationship between the sender and the receiver. Most effective business
communication is based on credibility – the receiver needs to feel comfortable with
the message, to trust in it (and, therefore, the sender). An understanding of an
audience’s needs should mean that you are able to have the same “mental picture” of
the subject of the communication. Issues of status between the sender and receiver can
also be relevant – the way in which something is said or written may be interpreted
differently if the sender is in a superior position. Following these rules will not
guarantee perfect communication on every occasion. There will betimes when
external “noise” and internal “distortion” will still erect barriers, and times when
straightforward disagreement or even failure are the outcome of attempts to
communicate. However, if you strive to follow these rules on the occasion, you will
find that communicating becomes far more effective as you learn to consider the other
person’s point of view and assess the real purpose of what you are trying to achieve.
Remember, too, that the purpose behind being aware of the theoretical elements of
communication is that you can attempt to avoid the problems and the pitfalls of
communication in practice.

Personal Communication Skills

This is one of the simplest ways in which communication may be improved.
Communication skills cover the ability to write clear English so that a meaning is
expressed directly and without ambiguity. They also include the ability to talk to a
wide range of people in formal and informal situations to achieve a range of purposes.
More important, perhaps, are the skills that are often neglected. These include the
range of reading skills, which are needed for the correct understanding of information,
and to these we must also add the ability to listen and understand, so that the speaker
knows that you are sympathetic and aware of what he or she is saying. A simple
awareness of these abilities – particularly the last – as skills, which can be developed,
will help you great deal in improving your communication at business and also at
personal level.
1.6 Effective communication

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43
44
45
46
47
48
Retaining

49
This is the second step in the listening process. Memory is essential to the listening
process because the information we retain when involved in the listening process is
how we create meaning from words. We depend on our memory to fill in the blanks
when we're listening. Because everyone has different memories, the speaker and the
listener may attach different meanings to the same statement. However, our memories
are fallible and we cannot remember everything that we have ever listened to. There
are many reasons why we forget some information that we've received. The first is
cramming. When you cram there is a lot of information entered into your short term
memory. Shortly after cramming, when you don't need the information anymore, it is
purged from your brain before it can be transferred into your long term memory. The
second reason is that you aren't paying attention when you receive the information.
Alternatively, when you receive the information you may not attach importance to it,
so it loses its meaning. A fourth reason is at the time the information was received you
lacked motivation to listen carefully to better remember it. Using information
immediately after receiving it enhances information retention and lessens the
forgetting curve Retention is lessened when we engage in mindless listening, where
little effort is made to listen to a speaker's message. Mindful listening is active
listening.

Responding

Listening is an interaction between speaker and listener. It adds action to a normally

passive process. The speaker looks for verbal and nonverbal responses from the
listener to determine if the message is being listened to. Usually the response is
nonverbal because if the response is verbal the speaker/listener roles are reversed so
the listener becomes the speaker and is no longer listening. Based on the response the
speaker chooses to either adjust or continue with his/her communication style.

Tactics

Active listening involves the listener observing the speaker's behaviour and body
language. Having the ability to interpret a person's body language lets the listener
develop a more accurate understanding of the speaker's message. When the listener
does not respond to the speaker's nonverbal language, she/he engages in a content-
only response which ignores the emotions that guide the message. Having heard, the
listener may then paraphrase the speaker's words. It is important to note that the
listener is not necessarily agreeing with the speaker by simply stating what was said.
In emotionally charged communications, the listener may listen for feelings, rather
than merely repeating what the speaker has said, the active listener will describe the
underlying emotion

50
Individuals in conflict often contradict each other. This has the effect of denying the
validity of the other person's position. Ambushing occurs when one listens to someone
else's argument for its weaknesses and ignores its strengths. The purpose is to attack
the speaker’s position and support their own. This may include a distortion of the
speaker’s argument to gain a competitive advantage. Either party may react
defensively, and they may lash out or withdraw. On the other hand, if one finds that
the other party understands, an atmosphere of cooperation can be created. This
increases the possibility of collaborating and resolving the conflict.

What are barriers to communication?

How can you overcome them?

Give two examples of barriers that can distract children from learning

Barriers to active listening

All elements of communication, including listening, may be affected by barriers that

can block the flow of conversation and such barriers include distractions, trigger
words, vocabulary, and limited attention span.

Listening barriers may be psychological or physical (e.g. noise and visual distraction).
Cultural differences including speakers' accents, vocabulary, and misunderstandings
due to cultural assumptions often obstruct the listening process. Most often, the
listener's personal interpretations, attitudes, biases, and prejudices lead to ineffective
communication.

Overcoming listening barriers

It is important to use the active listening technique to improve interpersonal

communication, you will need to put personal emotions aside during the conversation,
asks questions and paraphrases back to the speaker to clarify understanding, and one
also tries to overcome all types of environment distractions. Judging or arguing
prematurely is a result of holding onto a strict personal opinion. This hinders the
ability to be able to listen closely to what is being said. Furthermore, the listener
considers the speaker's background, both cultural and personal, to benefit as much as
possible from the communication process. Eye contact and appropriate body

51
languages are seen as important components to active listening. Effective listening
involves focusing on what the speaker is saying, at times the listener might come
across certain key words which may help them understand the speaker. The stress and
intonation may also keep them active and away from distractions. Taking notes on the
message can aid in retention.

1.8 Note taking

Note taking is another important topic that you need to understand. I hope have learnt
about note taking during your school days. In this topic, we are just going to get more
information on note taking. Here are some tips:

 Do not write down everything that you read or hear. Be alert and attentive to
the main points. There is need for concentration.

 Notes should consist of key words, or very short sentences. As a speaker gets
side-tracked you can go back and add further information.
 Take accurate notes. You should usually use your own words, but try not to
change the meaning. If you quote directly from the author, quote correctly
 Think about your material before you start making notes. Take notes that will
be of real value to you when you look over them later.
 Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make sense to
you. Use a skeleton outline, and show importance by indenting. Leave lots of
white space for later additions.
 Keep your notes short and to the point. Condense your material so you can
grasp it rapidly.
 Do not worry about missing a point. Leave space and try to pick up the
material you miss at a later date, either through reading, questioning, or
common sense.

 Do not keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in order and in
one place.

Shortly after making your notes, go back and rework your notes by adding extra
points, spelling out unclear items. If you do not do that, you are likely to forget.

It is important to take notes as they may be very helpful in future. One can always
refer to the notes taken in case she/he has forgotten. Note-taking is the practice of
recording information captured from another source. By taking notes, the writer
records the essence of the information, freeing their mind from having to recall

52
everything. Notes are commonly drawn from a transient source, such as an oral
discussion at a meeting, or a lecture (notes of a meeting are usually called minutes, in
which case the notes may be the only record of the event. Note taking is a form of
self-discipline. Note-taking is a central aspect of a complex human behaviour related
to information management involving a range of underlying mental processes and
their interactions with other cognitive functions. The person taking notes must acquire
and filter the incoming sources, organize and restructure existing knowledge
structures, comprehend and write down their interpretation of the information, and
ultimately store and integrate the freshly processed material. The result is a knowledge
representation, and a memory storage.

Many different formats are used to structure information and make it easier to find and
to understand, later. The format of the initial record may often be informal and/or
unstructured.
One common format for such notes is shorthand, which can allow large amounts of
information to be put on paper very quickly. Note-taking is an important skill for
students, especially at the college level
1.9 Summary
In this unit we have discussed communication and the different ways of
communicating. You have also leant about the types of communication as well as
communication in an organization. We also covered listening and note taking. I
hope you will benefit a lot from this unit as it will enlighten you on various ways
of taking notes. You will also be able to communicate effectively with your friends
and colleagues.

Further Reading

Burnett, M.J., & Dollar, A. (1989). Business Communication: Strategies for Success.
Houston, Texas: Dane.

Ivancevich, J.M., Lorenzi, P., Skinner, S.J., & Crosby, P.B. (1994). Management:
Quality and Competitiveness. Burr Ridge, IL: Irwin.

Gibson, J.W., & Hodgetts, R.M. (1990). Business Communication: Skills and
Strategies. NY, : Harper & Row.

Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V. (1992). Business Communication Today. , NY: McGraw-
Hill.

Berko, R.M., Wolvin, A.D., & Curtis, R. (1986). This Business of Communicating.
Dubuque, IO: WCB.

53
Wright, P.M., & Noe, R.A., (1995). Management of Organizations. Chicago, IL:
Irwin.

British Journal of Educational Technology (2008) doi:10.1111/j.1467-

8535.2008.00906.x Optimising the use of note-taking as an external cognitive aid for
increasing learning Tamas Makany, Jonathan Kemp and Itiel E. Dror

http://www.idemployee.id.tue.nl/g.w.m.rauterberg/amme/makany-et-al-2008.pdf

Locke J. (1706). A new method of making common-place-books. Google Books: [A

new method of making common-place-books http://books.google.com/books?
id=sF0HMAEACAAJ].

Piolat, A., Olive, T. & Kellogg, R. T. (2005). Cognitive effort during note-taking.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 291–312.

Rico, G. L. (1983). Writing the natural way: using right-brain techniques to release
your expressive powers. New York: Penguin Putnam.

Canas, A. J., Coffey, J. W., Carnot, M. J., Feltovich, P., Hoffman, R. R., Feltovich, J.
et al. (2003). A summary of literature pertaining to the use of concept mapping
techniques and technologies for education and performance support. Report to the
Chief of Naval Education and Training Pensacola FL 32500.

Novak, J. D. & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

Pauk, W. (2001). How to study in college. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Nast, J. (2006). Idea mapping: how to access your hidden brain power, learn faster,
remember more, and achieve success in business. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Van Matre, Nicholas H.; Carter, John (1975). The Effects of Note-Taking and Review
on Retention of Information. Presented by Lecture. Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Washington, D.C.,
March 30-April 4, 1975).

Carter, John F.; Van Matre, Nicholas H. (1975). Note Taking Versus Note Having.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 6, 900-4, Dec 75

UNIT 2 Business Letters

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Objectives

By the end of the module, you should be able to:

 Describe a business letter

 Outline the different formats used in letter writing
 Explain the different types of business letters
 Describe memorandums and circulars

2.1 Definition

Writing letters is one way in which people can communicate. A letter can be written to
different people informing them about something or asking for something. These kind
of letters are known as business letters. It is important to know how to write a business
letter as it will assist you in requesting for other things. A business letter is a letter
which deals with business.

2.2 Formats

There are different ways of writing letters. If one wants to write a letter, she/he can
use a format of his/her own choice and this depends on who the letter is addressed
to.Knowing how to format and write a proper business letter is one of the marks of a
true professional. While there are many types of business letters, from sales pitches to
letters of formal introduction, the basic structure, tone, considerations and necessary
components of a business letter remain the same.

A business letter can use two main formats when it comes to margins, and they are
quite similar to one another. In a full block format, every item from the header to the
signature is left justified. A modified block format places some sections, typically the
header, closing salutation and name, to the right, while the subject line is cantered. If
you are unsure as to which is more appropriate, use the full block format, and because
it is considered the more formal of the two. The format for writing addresses and dates
on business letters is highly specific so as to avoid confusion. The date may be written
either in day, month and year or month-day-year format, with no suffix added to the
day's number.

No matter what type of business your letter is referencing, it is common courtesy to

keep it brief, preferably to one page. Cover letters, letters of request and letters of
recommendation are all items businessmen receive on a regular basis, and they are
generally prone to scanning all letters they receive. No matter what the subject,
keeping your business letter short shows respect for the recipient's time.

55
Formatting

Business letters are always single-spaced, and typically the paragraphs are not
indented. A space should separate the header from the date, the date from the inside
address and the inside address from the salutation. Also use a space to separate
paragraphs from one another, as well as from both the opening and closing salutations.
Use four spaces to separate your typed name from your closing salutation to make
room for your signature.

2.3 Types of business letters

Business letters refer to any written communication that begins with a salutation and
ends with a signature. In the olden days, business letters were sent through postal
mail. Today the internet is rapidly changing the way businesses communicate. There
are many standard types of letters and each of them has a specific focus for example
typical sales letters start off with a very strong statement to capture the interest of the
reader. These letters include strong calls to action since the purpose is to get the reader
to do something. It also includes details that benefit the reader and includes
information such as a telephone number or website link as well as encouraging the
reader to take action.

Order letters are sent by consumers or businesses to a manufacturer or wholesaler to

order goods or services. These letters must contain specific information such as model
number, name of the product, the quantity desired and expected price. Payment is
sometimes included in the letter. Complaint letters can also be written. The words and
tone you choose to use in a letter complaining to a business may be the deciding factor
on whether your complaint is satisfied. You need to be direct and tactful and always
use a professional tone if you want the company to listen to you. An adjustment letter
is normally sent in response to a claim or complaint. If the adjustment is in the
customer’s favour, begin the letter with that news. If not, keep your tone factual land
let the customer know that you understand the complaint. An enquiry letter asks a
question or elicits information from the recipient.

When composing this type of letter, keep it clear and succinct and list exactly what
information you need. Do not forget to include your contact information so that it is
easy for the reader to respond. Follow up letters are usually sent after some type of
initial communication. This could be a sales department thanking a customer for an
order, a businessman reviewing the outcome of a meeting or a job inquiring about the
status of his application. In many cases, these letters are a combination of thank you
note and sales letter. Prospective employers often ask job applicants for letters of
recommendation before they hire them. This type of letter is usually from a previous

56
employer or professor and it describes the sender’s relationship with an opinion of the
job seeker. Acknowledgement letters act as simple receipts. Businesses send them to
let others know that they have received a prior communication, but action may or may
not have taken place. Cover letters usually accompany a package, report or other
merchandise. They are used to describe what is enclosed, why it is being sent and
what the recipient should do with it, if there is any action that needs to be taken. These
types of letters are generally very short and succinct. When an employee plans to
leave his job, a letter of resignation is usually sent to his immediate supervisor giving
him notice and letting him/her know when the last day of employment will be. In
many cases, the employee also will detail his/her reason for leaving the company.

2.4 Circular letters

Circular letter is a written document that is addressed to a closed group of people.

The term may refer to:

 Flyer (pamphlet), a single page leaflet

 Circular Letter (Interlingua), an early Interlingua publication
 Circular letter or encyclical, a letter written by a bishop and addressed to his
clergy

You are advised to do some research and find more information on circular letters.

Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?

title=Circular_letter&oldid=543831799Categories:

Letters

In this unit we shall examine the main forms of written communication common in
business organizations. We shall look at the requirements of the particular form and
when each should be used. Throughout, you need to keep in mind the principles of
effective communication detailed in the previous nit – namely, the identification of the
intended response to the communication and awareness of the nature of the reader,
and the importance of planning, organization, structure and clarity in getting the
message across in the best way. If you keep this principle in mind, you will be able to
write effective business letters, memos, etc. which convey even very complicated
subject matter and ideas.

1. Writing business letters

57
Despite the great expansion of electronic means of communication, letters still form a
very important element in business communication. They are cheap to produce and
deliver, can be written quickly, and provide a permanent record for both sender and
receiver. In the great majority of cases, they are the firm’s principal means of external
communication with other forms or with individuals. For this reason, knowledge of
the principles of letter writing, the correct layout of letters, and an awareness of the
main kinds and uses, is essential to successful communication in business.

Common Features

Whatever their purpose, all letters have several features in common. Most of these are
present in all letters, although some will only be according to the particulars of a
specific letter.

a. Sender’s address and other details

All letters must contain the sender’s full address, usually somewhere at the top of the
first page. Most companies have printed letterheads – sheets of stationary which
printed with the name and address of the firm. This saves writing or typing the details
on every letter, and also gives a good impression of the company’s standing and
efficiency. However, if you’re not using headed stationary, there are two important
points to bear in mind.

Make sure that the address is complete, and includes the post town and post code. You
will probably have your firm’s full address; make sure that you copy it correctly and
completely. When you are writing as a private individual, you should put only the
address at the top of the letter, and not your name. The name is only added by people
who are in business as individual,e.g. consultants, artists or writers, but it is not
common practice for a private individual to do this. This section of the letter will also
normally include the sander’s telephone number, as well as other communications
information such as fax or telex numbers, and E-mail address. These allow the
receiver to contact the sender by other means if necessary, particularly if he/she feels
an immediate or personal response is required.

58
3.2 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

b. Receiver’s name and address

You include this so hat you have a record of the destination of he letter, and also so
that should the letter become opened or damaged in transit, it can be forwarded
promptly to the intended recipient. If you’re writing to someone in their capacity as
e.g. Sales Manager, include their position, like this: J .Smith Sales Manager Bloggs
&CoIf Mr. smith is away from the office, someone will open the letter and act upon it
rather than leave it thinking its personal.

c. “Confidential” heading

If a letter is particularly confidential, and you don’t want anyone else – such as the
receiver’s secretary or assistant – to read if first, you should type “CONFIDENTIAL”
or “PRIVATE ANDCONFIDENTIAL” in capital at the top of the letter. This is
usually put above the recipients name and address. This expression must be clearly
visible on the envelope – either by putting it on the envelope itself or by being seen
through the window in the envelope through which the address is show.

d. Date

You should remember to date all correspondence. This puts the correspondence in a
specific time period and allows both you and the receiver to pit letters in order, and
have an idea of the development of ideas which has taken place over a period of some
months or even longer. Letterheads usually have a caption for the date to be inserted
somewhere near the top of the letter.

e. References

Reference is used to enable both the reader and sender to link the subject matter of the
letter to previous, related correspondence and other documentation. They allow
correspondence to be filed with such related material and, hence, retrieved and
referred to at a later date. Business letterheads usually contain captions for both “Our
Ref” and “Your Ref”

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The most common form of “Our Ref” is the initials of the writer of the letter followed,
after an oblique stroke, by the initials of the typist, as shown in the sample letters later
in this section. Other references could be an account number, a customer reference
number linking the letter to an earlier file containing correspondence, or some other
form of reference.

“You Ref” is usually the number or letter sequence given on a letter to which you are
replying if this is the reason for your letter.

f. Salutation or greeting

This is the start of the actual letter. It usually contains the words “Dear”, but what
follows depends on how well you know the receiver.

When writing a

General

Letter to a firm, begin “Dear Sirs”

57

3 Business communication 3.2 Written Communication

If writing to an

Individual whom you have not met or corresponded with

, begin “Dear Sir” or “Dear Madam”.

When writing to an

60
Individual member of a firm whose name you do not know

– for example, the “Personnel Manager” or the “Export Manager” – you should begin
“Dear Sir or Madam”

If you are writing to

Someone whom you have met or corresponded with for

Sometime

, you should use “Dear Mr/Ms/Miss/Mrs” as appropriate. It now standard practice in

many companies to begin letters to women with “Dear Ms”. If you are replying to a
letter, you should use the title that is shown there. If none is shown, and you don’t
know whether the woman is a “Miss” or a “Mrs.”, it is good practice to use “Ms”.

g. Subject heading

This makes clear in a few words the subject of he letter. Its purpose is to save time and
space. It may state a general subject, such as Income Tax Returns 1987-8, or be more
specific, mentioning an account or reference number. The heading is usually
underlined to make it more prominent, and can either be central or on the left hand
side.

h. Substance of the Letter

Letters should be brief, but they should also contain all the necessary detail and be
courteous. We’ll be covering this more detail shortly. You should write letters in fairly
short paragraphs, since this helps the reader to assimilate them quickly – an important
matter where busy people are concerned.

i. Complimentary close

This is the form conclusion to the letter. There is a simple rule as to exactly which
form of expression should be used.

61
•

If the salutation or greeting to the letter was to a named person, the closure should
used the expression “yours sincerely”.

If the salutation or greeting was not personal (i.e. as in the form of “Dear Sir”), the
closure should use the expression “yours faithfully”. Thus, if you began with “Dear
Madam”, you should close “Yours faithfully”, if “Dear Mr. Jones”. “Yours sincerely”.

j. Signature

Typed letters will leave space for the writer to sign

Immediately after the complimentary close. It is normal practice to also type your
name under that space so that the receiver won’t have to decipher your signature in
order to know exactly who you are. It is also to put the sender’s position within the
company after his/her name. If you’re writing by hand, don’t forget to print your name
and position below your signature. You may come across a letter which is signed not
by the person whose name is typed at the end, but by another person, with the initials
“p.p.” before or after it. This stands for “pro persona”, and means that someone else,
usually a secretary or assistant, has signed the letter on behalf of the writer in his or
her absence.

2.5 Memorandums

A memorandum of understanding is a document describing a bilateral or multilateral

agreement between two or more parties. It expresses a convergence of will between
the parties, indicating an intended common line of action. It is often used in cases
where parties either do not imply a legal commitment or in situations where the parties
cannot create a legally enforceable agreement.

62
Whether or not a document constitutes a binding contract depends only on the
presence or absence of well-defined legal elements in the text proper of the document.
The required elements are: offer, consideration, intention, and acceptance. The
specifics can differ slightly depending on whether the contract is for goods. Many
companies and government agencies use memorandums to define a relationship
between departments, agencies or closely held companies. In international relations,
memorandums fall under the broad category of treaties and should be registered in the
United Nations treaty database. In practice and in spite of the United Nations' Legal
Section insistence that registration be done to avoid 'secret diplomacy, memorandums
are sometimes kept confidential. As a matter of law, the title of memorandums do not
necessarily mean the document is binding or not binding under international law.

To determine whether or not a particular memorandum is meant to be a legally

binding document (i.e. a treaty), one needs to examine the intent of the parties as well
as the position of the signatories. A careful analysis of the wording will also clarify
the exact nature of the document.

A memorandum may have any format, or it may have a format specific to an office or
institution. In law specifically, a memorandum is a record of the terms of a transaction
or contract, such as a policy memo, memorandum of understanding, memorandum of
agreement, or memorandum of association. Alternative formats include memos,
briefing notes, reports, letters or binders. They could be one page long or many. If the
user is a cabinet minister or a senior executive, the format might be rigidly defined
and limited to one or two pages. If the user is a colleague, the format is usually much
more flexible. At its most basic level, a memorandum can be a handwritten note to
one's supervisor. In business, a memo is typically used by firms for internal
communication, as opposed to letters which are typically for external communication.

Memorandum

Memorandum is designed to be read and acted on. They are, therefore, generally short
and to the point. However, even though they may be a less formal means of
communicating than a letter, there is still a degree of formality in their presentation.
You must also remember that they are generally kept and filed as a record of the
communication. Increasingly, internal memoranda are being sent via E-mail, but the
principles of their preparation remain the same.

Format

Consider the following sample memorandum.

63
There are four features which are common to memoranda, as follows.

a. To and from headings

These serve the same purpose as all the detail about the sender and receiver and their
addresses in a letter, but since it is an internal communication, none of the detail is
necessary. You only need to note who the recipient is and who you, the writer, are. (It
is usual, though, to include the position in the company of the sender and recipient.)It
may be appropriate also to include the sender’s telephone number to facilitate a quick
response, if needed. Memos are often sent to a number of people, in which case the
“To” heading may have a number of names against it. Alternatively, memos may be
copied to others “for information” which means they are not expected to act on the
subject matter, but should just note that the correspondence has taken

place. In such cases, the additional recipients will also be listed against the notation
“c.c.” (as we saw in respect of letters), usually underneath the “To” heading.

b. Date

The date is important because it makes clear the place of the memo in sequence of
correspondence. It can also settle any disputes about whether the recipient was
informed before or after some other action was taken.

c. Ref

Short for reference, you can use the space for your initials, or an invoice number or a
filing location, or anything else you want to like the memo with.

d. Subject Heading

A very brief subject heading, of half a dozen words at the very most, is essential in a
memo. It saves space and adds to the efficiency of the communication by making the
topic clear immediately.

Organization of the Content

The aim of a memo is to convey information economically. You must come straight to
the point and leave out anything which is not immediately relevant. That said, the way
in which the main body of a memo is organized is very similar to that of a letter.
There should be short opening paragraph which sets the scene – for example,
explaining the purpose of the memo, describing the circumstance which has prompted
the memo or explaining the relevant facts. In the second and subsequent paragraphs,

64
the subject will be discussed and instructions give nor action identified. It is likely that
there will be a final paragraph summarizing the key points or giving general advice or
encouragement about actions to be taken (especially in longer memos).Language may
not be such a problem in memos as with letters. Being an internal communication, a
number of assumptions can be made about the recipients sharing a similar
understanding of certain jargons terms and even abbreviations. However, the needs of
those expected to read and act on the memo must still be considered. Where
memoranda are used to issue company-wide instructions-save about arrangements for
Christmas holidays – the sender must be sure that the language used is appropriate for
all the recipients.

2.6 Summary

In this unit you have learnt about memorandums and the different formats used in
writing memos. You have again learnt about the importance of using memorandums
in an organization and I hope that this style you will use in your various workplaces. It
is again in this unit that you have learnt about business letters and circulars.

Further Reading

Majone, G. 1989. Evidence, Argument, and Persuasion in the Policy Process. New
Haven, CT: Yalley University Press. p. 21

Gary Blake and Robert W. Bly, The Elements of Technical Writing, pg. 113. New
York: Macmillan Publishers, 1993. ISBN 0020130856

Charles Peters. How Washington Really Works. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,

1983.

Barthes, Roland (1985). In the Responsibility of Forms. New York Hill and Wang.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Listening&oldid=562833299"

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Memorandum&oldid=552820781"
Categories:

UNIT 3 Communication to parents

65
Objectives

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Explain the importance of communicating with parents

 Demonstrate ways in which teachers communicate with parents
 Describe notices
 Explain the benefits of effective communication

Topics

3.1 Effective communication with parents

There is no how one can run an organization without stressing the importance of
parent and teacher communication. Parents and the relationships that they share with
their child's teacher have been researched for many years now. These studies have
concluded that when a parent is actively involved with their child's education, it
benefits all involved in one way or another. Communication is one of the top
strategies for fostering the relationships that grow between a parent and the educators
that work with their child. The educational system is faced with many challenges and
obstacles, and when parents and teachers communicate effectively these may be
successfully overcome. I hope that as you read through, you will understand the
importance of having good parent teacher relationships.
The first step to effective communication is to ensure that you understand that it is
more than just gathering reports from your child's teacher on their overall performance
in the classroom. It is also more than acquiring information about the child's behavior
while in the educational environment. It is about achieving a fluid exchange of
information between both the teacher and the parent about the achievements within
the classroom as well as the child's general persona. It is about sharing the child's
weaknesses and strengths both at home and at school. It also aids in the collaboration
between the teacher's agenda and lesson plans with the parent so that the skills being
introduced in the classroom are being reinforced in the home environment.
Many parents make the mistake of allowing the teachers to ‘do their job’. What many
parents fail to understand is that the first and perhaps the most impressionable
classroom is the home. Parents have the greatest understanding of their child. They
know their personalities, they know how they learn, they know the types of interests
that they have, and they know where their child's weaknesses are. Teachers, on the
other hand, rarely get the opportunity to focus on a child as an individual in the

66
classroom and rarely get to a point where they are just as familiar with a child as a
parent is. While there is not a lot of room in the classroom for individualized
instructions, it is important for a parent to express the characteristics and qualities of
their child to the teacher so that the teacher may have a better understanding of the
child as a unique student. Should a situation arise, this information could prove to be
exceptional in overcoming that situation.
It is important to understand that when parents and teachers communicate, it provides
an opportunity for the child to reach their maximum potential both in the classroom
and outside of the classroom. This is because of the fact that when regular
communication is engaged in, a relationship will form. This relationship will assist the
child in realizing that they have a solid support system that is working together for
their benefit. Children who know that their parent and their teacher communicate
often have been found to perform better academically. They have also been found to
exhibit more appropriate behavior in the classroom setting. It has also been
established that children who have a parent that communicates with their teacher
regularly have a better understanding of consequence as it relates to their academic
performance and their behavior.
Parents have an important role when it comes to their child's academic success. It has
been established that the parent is the top educator in their child's life. It has also been
established that the parent is the prime role model for their child. While teachers are
important as well, the child will benefit more if there is a collaboration that involves
regular communication. Teachers have the capability to express the skills and the
concepts that are being introduced in the classroom so that parents may reinforce them
at home through an assortment of learning activities. The teacher has the ability to
offer productive suggestions on learning tools and even exercises that may be
performed at home in order to optimize the child's learning experience.
There are many ways that parent and teacher communication may be enhanced. If you
are interested in developing a relationship with your child's teacher, the following
suggestions may assist you in achieving success:
 First, it is important to understand that parent and teacher communication is
intended to benefit the child's overall success academically. It is important to
know that academic success is more than just a grade or a score. It is about
ensuring that the child has a complete understanding of the skills and concepts
that are being taught in the educational environment. A complete understanding
of a concept is more important than a numeric score

 While the numeric scores will outline a child's level of achievement on tests
and other assignments, it is important to realize that a numeric score is also
beneficial in identifying a child's weaknesses. When it comes to the academic
67
 success of the child, it is important to identify weaknesses instead of focusing
solely on successes. By doing so, you will be able to increase their knowledge
and future success

 Many parents make the mistake of sitting back and allowing a teacher to come
to them with issues. It is absolutely essential that you avoid doing this. In many
cases, when an issue is discovered in the classroom, the child is falling behind
at a high rate. It is important to make it a point to communicate regularly with a
child's teacher. If there are issues that are starting to develop, you will be able
to identify them quickly and resolve them

 It is important to sign up as a volunteer in your child's classroom and ensure

that you visit their class often. This will allow you to see how your child
listens, how they work, and how the teacher handles themselves. If you are a
strong presence in the child's education, they will start to develop an
understanding of its overall importance

 It is important to understand that parent/teacher conferences may not always be

appropriate as far as time is concerned.
 Encourage your child's teacher to provide you with an alternative means of
communication such as a telephone number or an email address. This will
allow you and the teacher to communicate during periods that you are
unavailable in person.
 Remember, communication is an essential component to your child's academic
success. By increasing your level of communication, you are optimizing your
child's ability to perform well in the educational environment.

 The best way to avoid misunderstandings with parents is to have ongoing, clear
lines of communication from the beginning. The more you keep them informed
about classroom news and include them in school happenings, the more they'll
feel like a part of the team. Parents who are supportive, understanding, and a
little less likely to jump to negative conclusions.

Here are five rules which will guide you to effectively communicate with parents:

 Begin the year by explaining how and when you'll keep in touch with them.
Let parents know that you value their questions and concerns. Explain that in

68
 order to give them your undivided attention, you've set aside specific times to
talk. It's important to decide when you want to take and return phone calls
and emails and when you're available for school conferences, and to actually
be available during those times. Post these times and procedures and send
them home with your welcome letter or first newsletter. Earmarking office
hours and sticking to them eliminates the need parents may feel to grab your
ear in the parking lot or to monopolize your attention outside your classroom
door before or after school.

 Never feel pressured to make an important decision, evaluation, or

assessment during a parent conference or conversation. Instead, be prepared
to take some time to think and get back to the parent. Then make it a point to
tell the parent exactly when he or she can expect a response. This allows you
time to consider the issue, develop possible solutions, and consult with
colleagues, administrators, or other professionals

 Let parents know they can trust you and avoid discussing students with other
parents or engaging in any negative faculty-room talk. I also make this a rule
for parent volunteers who spend time in the classroom. I tell parents that all
of us have good days and bad days. If a volunteer witnesses any negative or
challenging behaviour on the part of a student in the class, that particular
situation remains in the classroom and confidential

 Assure parents that you will inform them immediately about any concerns
you might have with regard to their child. Parents become extremely upset
when the first sign of trouble comes in the form of a progress report halfway
into the marking period or worse yet, on the report card itself.

 When presenting a concern to parents, always be ready to explain what

strategies you have already used to address the issue and what new strategies
you are considering. Parents don't want concerns dropped in their laps
without at least a tentative action plan, which you'll adjust based on their
input

 If you keep these communication ground rules in mind, parents will thank
you, and your life as a classroom teacher will be much easier
true

69
Below are some of the important points you have to remember about this unit

 Notice times when your kids are most likely to talk, for example, at bedtime,
before dinner, in the car and be available.
 Start the conversation; it lets your kids know you care about what's happening
in their lives.
 Find time each week for a one-on-one activity with each child, and avoid
scheduling other activities during that time.
 Learn about your children's interests for example, favourite music and activities
and show interest in them.
 Initiate conversations by sharing what you have been thinking about rather than
beginning a conversation with a question.

 When your children are talking about concerns, stop whatever you are doing
and listen.
 Express interest in what they are saying without being intrusive.
 Listen to their point of view, even if it is difficult to hear.
 Let them complete their point before you respond.
 Repeat what you heard them say to ensure that you understand them correctly.

 Soften strong reactions; kids will tune you out if you appear angry or defensive.
 Express your opinion without putting down theirs; acknowledge that it is okay
to disagree.
 Resist arguing about who is right. Instead say, I know you disagree with me,
but this is what I think.
 Focus on your child's feelings rather than your own during your conversation.

 Ask your children what they may want or need from you in a conversation,
such as advice, simply listening, help in dealing with feelings or help solving a
problem.
 Kids learn by imitating. Most often, they will follow your lead in how they deal
with anger, solve problems and work through difficult feelings.
 Talk to your children don't lecture, criticize, threaten or say hurtful things.
 Kids learn from their own choices. As long as the consequences are not
dangerous, don't feel you have to step in.
 Realize your children may test you by telling you a small part of what is
bothering them. Listen carefully to what they say, encourage them to talk and
they may share the rest of the story.

 Listening and talking are the key to a healthy connection between you and your
children. But parenting is hard work and maintaining a good connection and it

70
 can be challenging, especially since parents are dealing with many other
pressures

3.2 Notices

These also give information to parents on activities taking place at the school. A
notice can be an invitation to a meeting, invitation to a ceremony for example,
graduation day, civic day or prize giving day. Notices will inform the parent to attend
in order to support his/her child.

The advantages of notices is that they do not require a lot of time when being written
and one can be able to write as many as possible.

3.3 Communicating assessment to parents

Every child’s ability to communicate develops gradually over time. Communication is

important as it is a way in which people are able to share ideas with others as well as
resolving conflicts if any.
Early communication and language development can be divided into four stages

 Discoverers react to how they feel and to what are happening around them, but
have not yet developed the ability to communicate with a specific purpose in
mind.

 Communicators send specific messages directly to a person, without using

words.

 First words users use single words (or signs or pictures)

 Combiners combine words into sentences of two or three words.

Children with communication difficulties progress through the same stages as other
children, but more slowly. In some cases, children with significant delays may not get
through all the stages.

Activity

Think about how your child is currently communicating and jot it down in ten points

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Reporting Assessment Results

Success of the school improvement process is measured by advances in student

knowledge, skills, behaviours, and attitudes. Progress in these areas often is gauged by
student assessment programs managed by state agencies or school districts. After the
schools receive the assessment results, educators need to carry out specific activities
in order to use the information effectively. One important task is reporting the
assessment results to interested individuals and groups so that their needs for
information are met and they have a clear understanding of the assessment. When
properly presented, assessment reports can help build support for schools and for
initiatives that educators wish to carry out. But if assessment results are poorly
reported, they can be disregarded or interpreted incorrectly, adversely affecting
students, educators, and others in the school community.

At times, students, parents, and community members often misinterpret assessment

data because they do not view the information in the proper context. They may fail to
consider the many variables involved in the education process, such as students'
diverse backgrounds and motivation levels. All children do not come to school equally
prepared to learn. In addition, low-performing children are more likely to move
frequently, so schools may have little opportunity to intervene with these students
before assessment takes place.

Too often, assessment contributes to a competitive atmosphere among schools,

districts, and states. When assessment data for a school shows a low rating, the public
has a tendency to blame the school environment.

The real goal of reporting assessment results to the students, parents, school, and the
public is to help children learn. Yet this message is rarely reported or conveyed when
schools release assessment results. The reason for this omission might be that some
educators and policymakers are not fully aware of the different purposes for
assessment. They may not know how to convey those purposes, as well as assessment
results, to various audiences.

Problems in the reporting of results also may arise if the media oversimplifies this
complex topic. Reporters sometimes are more concerned with finding a story than
with reporting the complete results. Educators must remember to deliver the
assessment results in a manner that puts the information in the proper educational
perspective.
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Despite the current attention given to student assessment, relatively little has been
written on the use and reporting of assessment results. Even less research exists on the
effectiveness of alternative strategies for using and reporting student assessment
results. Yet public reporting of large-scale assessment results generates some of the
largest complaints about student assessment.

An important goal is that accurate and useful reporting of assessment results enables
teachers, students, parents and the public to understand why various assessment
instruments are being applied and how the results will be used as part of the school
improvement process. Educators involved in reporting assessment results should:

 Determine the specific goals of the reporting activities at the outset of the
process.
 Select reporting strategies that are consistent with these goals and that
effectively relay the desired information.
 Communicate student assessment results in a clear and accurate manner to
students, parents, and the public.
 Report results at a level of understanding appropriate for the group or
individual receiving the report.

When preparing for assessment report writing, educators should:

 Determine how individual, group, and school results of various tests will help
the school to improve instruction and learning.
 Determine the audience for the reporting activity which may include students,
parents, the school board, or the public
 Be clear about why assessment results should be reported to these audiences. A
clear statement of rationale is necessary
 Be equally clear the information is to be communicated, for what purposes,
andthe types of reporting techniques. Remember that multiple strategies are
likely to be more effective

Educators have several options when preparing reports:

 Reports can be provided in person, in writing, or in both forms.

 Reports can be primarily text-based, graphical, or both.
 Reports can be lengthy and elaborate, or brief and straightforward.

The following sections describe methods that can be used when reporting assessment
results to students, parents, the school board, and the public.

Reporting Results to Students

73
This is a two-step process is recommended for reporting assessment results to
students. The first step is a briefing provided to the entire group of students who
received individual results. The second step is individual follow-up meetings with
students. These meetings should focus on how the teacher(s) will be addressing the
individual needs of students.

Reporting Results to Parents

Parents want to know how their children are performing in school, so assessment
information collected by schools is of great interest to them. Parents also want to
know how the entire student body is performing in comparison with other schools.
Reporting results to parents can satisfy both of these needs. Always keep in mind that
parents want to know how the school scored overall, even if their own children were
not assessed.

The administrator and teachers should be involved in carrying out both types of
reporting activities. This collaboration helps build active partnerships between
teachers and parents focused on the learning of children.

Strategies suggested for reporting results to parents are: individual parent/teacher

conferences, an individual written report sent home, parent group meetings, articles.
Written reports may provide a more accessible form of communication between
teachers and parents. In all types of reports, the information should include how well
an individual student did on the assessment and what steps the educator will take to
make improvements in instruction so that the student will learn what is needed.
Written reports also should include information concerning how parents can actively
participate in a plan of action to address the instructional needs of their child.

Reporting Results to the School Board

The school board is the legal policymaking entity at the district level. As such, it
deserves to receive reports on the results of assessment. A three-part reporting strategy
is recommended for reporting to the school board. The first report provides
background information about the assessment effort itself. It explains what was
assessed, what type of assessments was used, why they were used, and how the results
will be applied and reported. This report might best be given when the assessment
information is being collected, but before assessment results become available. Such
timing encourages the school board members to focus on the message of the
assessment rather than the numbers.

The second report contains the results of the assessment at the school and district
levels. It should answer questions raised by policymakers. The third report follows up
74
on the status of efforts to improve instruction at the school and the effectiveness of
these changes. This report, though optional, goes a long way in conveying to the
school board that the real purpose of student assessment is to help improve teaching
and learning, not to serve as a scorecard on the quality of the school.

Reporting Results to the Public

It is also necessary to report results to the public. Many educators are frustrated that
communities receive most reports of assessment results through the news media. The
public seems to know little else about schools other than test results. As a
consequence, school districts may be leery about reporting assessment results or being
candid with the public regarding the level of student performance.

Several steps are involved in successful public reporting of the assessment results.
First, educators must decide what audience is going to be addressed. The public
consists of many different groups of people with varying levels of prior knowledge
and information needs. Second, purposes and goals for reporting must be resolved.
Third, procedures for reporting the results need to be determined. Remember, the
news media is only one way that the public can learn about schools.

Implementation pitfalls: The largest pitfall is reporting assessment results in an

unclear manner. If the information is overly complex or poorly written, it may be
misunderstood or misused by the audience. To eliminate this pitfall, reports should be
reviewed by various school staff members to ensure clarity.

The effectiveness of the entire reporting process will be greatly hindered if the school
or district makes no effective use of the assessment information. If teachers,
administrators, and parents do not learn from and act upon the information provided
by the assessments, the entire process will be of little or no benefit to the children.

Different points of view: There are differences in opinion about how much
assessment information to report, as well as whether or not some types of assessment
information should be publicly reported. Some people assume that if a public agency
invests tax dollars in carrying out assessment activities, then the students, their
parents, the local school board, and the public deserve to know how students did and
what actions will be taken as a result.

Other individuals believe that assessment results should be shared with a much more
limited audience.

3.4 Summary

75
In this topic we have discussed the different types of communication with parents as
well as communication assessment to parents. I hope you can now be able to explain
the different types of communication.

Further Reading

Caig, R. T. (2008). Communication as a Practice. Thousand Oaks. Sage.

Johnston, J. and Williams, L.N. (2009). Early Childhood Studies. New York: Pearson.
Czarniawska-Joerges, B. (2009). The Three-Dimensional Organization. Thousand
Oaks. Sage.

Jalongo , M.R. Reig, S. and Heller bran, V.(2006). Planning for Learning:
Collaborative Approaches to lesson design and review. New York: Teachers College
Press

UNIT 4 Story telling

Objectives

By the end of the unit, you should be able to

 Describe good stories for young children

 Explain the importance of story telling
 Explain how stories develop children cognitively

Topics

4.1 Importance of Story telling

What comes into your mind when we talk about stories? Have you ever been told a
story? How did you feel like? Did you enjoy the story?

This is another important topic in Early Childhood Education. Children learn a lot
from stories and they like being told stories. Young children also like telling stories
even if they repeat the same words, they enjoy stories. When you tell young children
stories make sure that where they are sitting, all of them can see and hear you. Stories
help children in the following:

 Practice of the listening skills

 Speaking skills
 They are able to describe events
 They can compose their own stories
 Cognitive development takes place

76
 Children discover things for themselves

Children should sit in a semi circle as they listen to the teacher telling them a story.
In some cases, you will have to use a book with big print and pictures so that when
you say the words of the story, children follow. This will assist them to recognize
words which are being said by the teacher.

Choosing stories

When choosing a realistic story, you must make sure that all elements (characters,
the plot and setting) are true. All events in the story should show real life.

Character development

 All characters in a realistic story must be true

 The interaction between the characters must be believable
 Behaviour of characters must match the age and background
 Characters should not be stereotyped

Plot development

 The action should be believable

 Events should follow a logical sequence
 The facts should be correct
 The facts should link to your learners experiences
 Racism should be avoided

Success in story telling

The pleasure that young people get from stories depend on how you present the
story. You need to prepare well and use appropriate resource materials. You
need to know the story very well. You should know all the characters as well as
the sequence. Sit on a low chair or on the floor when telling the story. Make
sure that you make a good beginning as this will stimulate the children hence
developing interest in the story. You should always avoid unnecessary
explanations and descriptions. Your voice is also important and be aware of the
tempo for example when action speeds up the tempo can go faster. Ensure that
the length of the stories match children’s attention span. Use short sentences as
this will assist children who are below average. You should be friendly during
story telling.

77
4.2 Communication after story telling

Communication is an important tool for learning. When listening to stories, children

learn a lot and they get a lot of information. So it is important to talk about the story
after the presentation. This is where a lot of learning will take place. From stories,
children increase their vocabulary as the talk and describe things. Children have to
respond to questions asked after reading a story. Talking about stories increases young
children’s vocabulary.

Activity

In your own words, explain the importance of story telling

4.3 Summary

We have only two topics for this unit. This shows that it just an addition to what you
know about stories. We have discussed different ways of story telling

Further Reading

Gibson, J.W., & Hodgetts, R.M. (1990). Business Communication: Skills and
Strategies. NY, NY: Harper & Row.

Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V. (1992). Business Communication Today. NY, NY:
McGraw-Hill.

Berko, R.M., Wolvin, A.D., & Curtis, R. (1986). This Business of Communicating.
Dubuque, IO: WCB.

Wright, P.M., & Noe, R.A., (1995). Management of Organizations. Chicago, IL:
Irwin.

Caig, R. T. (2008). Communication as a Practice. Thousand Oaks. Sage.

British Journal of Educational Technology (2008) doi:10.1111/j.1467-

8535.2008.00906.x Optimising the use of note-taking as an external cognitive aid for
increasing learning Tamas Makany, Jonathan Kemp and Itiel E. Dror

http://www.idemployee.id.tue.nl/g.w.m.rauterberg/amme/makany-et-al-2008.pdf

Locke J. (1706). A new method of making common-place-books. Google Books: [A

new method of making common-place-books

78
http://books.google.com/books?id=sF0HMAEACAAJ].

Piolat, A., Olive, T. & Kellogg, R. T. (2005). Cognitive effort during note-taking.
Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 291–312.

Rico, G. L. (1983). Writing the natural way: using right-brain techniques to release
your expressive powers. New York: Penguin Putnam.

Canas, A. J., Coffey, J. W., Carnot, M. J., Feltovich, P., Hoffman, R. R., Feltovich, J.
et al. (2003). A summary of literature pertaining to the use of concept mapping
techniques and technologies for education and performance support. Report to the
Chief of Naval Education and Training Pensacola FL 32500.

Novak, J. D. & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

Pauk, W. (2001). How to study in college. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Nast, J. (2006). Idea mapping: how to access your hidden brain power, learn faster,
remember more, and achieve success in business. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Van Matre, Nicholas H.; Carter, John (1975). The Effects of Note-Taking and Review
on Retention of Information. Presented by Lecture. Paper presented at the Annual
Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (Washington, D.C.,
March 30-April 4, 1975).

Carter, John F.; Van Matre, Nicholas H. (1975). Note Taking Versus Note Having.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 6, 900-4, Dec 75

Self Assessment Exercise

1. What is story telling?

2. Give four advantages of story telling

3. State four ways in which teachers can communicate with parents

4.What are the advantages of the communication process

5. What are the advantages of good listening

6. Explain the two types of business letters

79
7. Explain the difference between memorandums and circulars

8. Distinguish between verbal and nonverbal communication

9How is listening a form of communication?

10.Explain four advantages of note taking

11. State and explain four communication barriers

12.Why is communication important in an organization?

Case study

Mr. Sejo invited parents to a meeting in his pre-school. Parents came in large numbers
and the hall in which they were seated was full. The meeting stared at 4pm instead of
3pm as per the schedule. Mr. Sejo started the meeting and all the points that were
discussed were in English. During question time only two parents asked questions
while majority remained silent.

1. Would you say there was communication in the meeting?

2. Why did the parents remain silent?
3. What would you do if you were the manager of the school?
4. Take the position of the parents and state how you could ensured
understanding

REFERENCES

Barthes, Roland (1985). In the Responsibility of Forms. New York Hill and Wang.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Listening&oldid=562833299"

Berko, R.M., Wolvin, A.D., & Curtis, R. (1986). This Business of Communicating.
Dubuque, IO: WCB.

Bovee, C.L., & Thill, J.V. (1992). Business Communication Today. NY, NY:
McGraw-Hill.

80
British Journal of Educational Technology (2008) doi:10.1111/j.1467-
8535.2008.00906.x Optimising the use of note-taking as an external cognitive aid for
increasing learning Tamas Makany, Jonathan Kemp and Itiel E. Dror

Burnett, M.J., & Dollar, A. (1989). Business Communication: Strategies for Success.
Houston, Texas: Dane.

Caig, R. T. (2008). Communication as a Practice. Thousand Oaks. Sage.

Canas, A. J., Coffey, J. W., Carnot, M. J., Feltovich, P., Hoffman, R. R., Feltovich, J.
et al. (2003). A summary of literature pertaining to the use of concept mapping
techniques and technologies for education and performance support. Report to the
Chief of Naval Education and Training Pensacola FL 32500.

Carter, John F.; Van Matre, Nicholas H. (1975). Note Taking Versus Note Having.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 6, 900-4, Dec 75

Charles Peters. How Washington Really Works. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,

1983.

c
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