What is a Microprocessor?

Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) is called a
microprocessor.

A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU is called microcomputer.

It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock -driven, register-based electronic device that reads binary
instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and processes data
according to those instructions and provides results as output.

The microprocessor contains millions of tiny components like transistors, registers, and diodes that work
together.

Block Diagram of a Microcomputer

A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit and register array. Where ALU performs arithmetic
and logical operations on the data received from an input device or memory. Control unit controls the
instructions and flow of data within the computer. And, register array consists of registers identified by
letters like B, C, D, E, H, L, and accumulator.

Evolution of Microprocessors
We can categorize the microprocessor according to the generations or according to the size of the
microprocessor:

First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)

The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year 1971-1972 by Intel Corporation. It was
named Intel 4004 since it was a 4-bit processor.

It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple arithmetic and logical operations such as
addition, subtraction, Boolean OR and Boolean AND.

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I had a control unit capable of performing control functions like fetching an instruction from storage
memory, decoding it, and then generating control pulses to execute it.

Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)

The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973 again by Intel. It was a first 8 - bit
microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words. It was Intel 8008, and
another improved version was Intel 8088.

Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)

The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's 8086, Zilog Z800
and 80286, which were 16 - bit processors with a performance like minicomputers.

Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)

Several different companies introduced the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular one is the Intel
80386.

Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)

From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new processor namely
Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a single system to
achieve multiprocessing.

Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad, Octa Core processors.

Table: Important Intel Microprocessors

Microprocessor Year of Word Pins Clock Remarks

Invention Length Memory
addressing
Capacity

4004 1971 4-bit 1 KB 16 750 First

KHz Microprocessor

8085 1976 8-bit 64 KB 40 3-6 Popular 8-bit

MHz Microprocessor

8086 1978 16-bit 1MB 40 5-8 Widely used in

MHz PC/XT

80286 1982 16-bit 68

16MB real, 4 6-12.5 Widely used in
GB virtual MHz PC/AT

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80386 1985 32-bit 4GB real, 20-33 Contains MMU
132
64TB virtual MHz on chip
14X14
PGA

80486 1989 32-bit 4GB real, 168 25-100

Contains MMU,
64TB virtual 17X17 MHz
cache and FPU,
PGA
1.2 million
transistors

Pentium 1993 32-bit 4GB 237 60-200

Contains 2
PGA
ALUs,2 Caches,
real,32bit FPU, 3.3
address,64-bit Million
data bus transistors, 3.3
V, 7.5 million
transistors

Pentium Pro 1995 32-bit 64GB real, 387 150-

It is a data flow
36bit address PGA 200
bus processor. It
MHz
contains second
level
cache also,3.3
V

Pentium II 1997 32-bit - - 233-

All features
400
Pentium pro
MHz
plus MMX
technology,3.3
V, 7.5 million
transistors

Pentium III 1999 32-bit 64GB 370 600-1.3

Improved
PGA MHz
version of
Pentium II; 70
new SIMD
instructions

Pentium 4 2000 32-bit 64GB 423 600-1.3 Improved

PGA GHz version of
Pentium III

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 Itanium 2001 64-bit 64 address 423 64-bit EPIC
733
lines PGA Processor
MHz-
1.3
GHz
Where,

PGA - Pin Grid Array

MMX - MultiMedia eXtensions

EPIC - Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing

SIMD - Single Instruction Multiple Data

ALU - Arithmetic and Logic Unit

MMU - Memory Management Unit

FPU - Floating Point Unit

Basic Terms used in Microprocessor

Here is a list of some basic terms used in microprocessor:

Instruction Set - The group of commands that the microprocessor can understand is called Instruction
set. It is an interface between hardware and software.

Bus - Set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or control information to different elements in
a microprocessor. A microprocessor will have three types of buses, i.e., data bus, address bus, and
control bus.

IPC (Instructions Per Cycle) - It is a measure of how many instructions a CPU is capable of executing
in a single clock.

Clock Speed - It is the number of operations per second the processor can perform. It can be expressed
in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also called the Clock Rate.

Bandwidth - The number of bits processed in a single instruction is called Bandwidth.

Word Length - The number of bits the processor can process at a time is called the word length of the
processor. 8-bit Microprocessor may process 8 -bit data at a time. The range of word length is from 4
bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.

Data Types - The microprocessor supports multiple data type formats like binary, ASCII, signed and
unsigned numbers.

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Working of Microprocessor

The microprocessor follows a sequence to execute the instruction: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute.

Initially, the instructions are stored in the storage memory of the computer in sequential order. The
microprocessor fetches those instructions from the stored area (memory), then decodes it and executes
those instructions till STOP instruction is met. Then, it sends the result in binary form to the output port.
Between these processes, the register stores the temporary data and ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)
performs the computing functions.

Features of Microprocessor

Low Cost - Due to integrated circuit technology microprocessors are available at very low cost. It
will reduce the cost of a computer system.

High Speed - Due to the technology involved in it, the microprocessor can work at very high
speed. It can execute millions of instructions per second.

Small Size - A microprocessor is fabricated in a very less footprint due to very large scale and ultra
large scale integration technology. Because of this, the size of the computer system is reduced.

Versatile - The same chip can be used for several applications, therefore, microprocessors are
versatile.

Low Power Consumption - Microprocessors are using metal oxide semiconductor technology,
which consumes less power.

Less Heat Generation - Microprocessors uses semiconductor technology which will not emit
much heat as compared to vacuum tube devices.

Reliable - Since microprocessors use semiconductor technology, therefore, the failure rate is very
less. Hence it is very reliable.

Portable - Due to the small size and low power consumption microprocessors are portable.