) Effect of temperature and pressure on thermal conduc vity 1.

Calcula ng the Temperature Gradient:

Metals: The thermal conduc vity of metals generally increases with temperature due to increased la ce vibra ons and electron sca ering. Temperature gradient (dT/dx) = (T1 - T2) / L = (130 - 100) / 0.15 = 200 °C/m
However, for some metals, the thermal conduc vity may decrease at very high temperatures due to increased electron sca ering. Pressure has
a negligible effect on the thermal conduc vity of metals. 2. Calcula ng the Heat Transfer Rate:

Gases: The thermal conduc vity of gases increases with temperature due to increased molecular mo on and collisions. Pressure also affects The heat transfer rate (Q) through the rod can be calculated using Fourier's Law:
the thermal conduc vity of gases. At low pressures, the mean free path of gas molecules is large, and the thermal conduc vity is low. As Q = -kA(dT/dx)
pressure increases, the mean free path decreases, and the thermal conduc vity increases.
Where:
(ii) Insulated and convec ve boundary condi ons
 k = thermal conduc vity of the rod material (W/mK)
 Insulated boundary condi on: This condi on implies that there is no heat flux across the boundary. Mathema cally, it is represented
as:  A = cross-sec onal area of the rod = πD²/4

-k * (dT/dx) = 0 3. Calcula ng the Heat Loss from the Rod Surface:

This condi on is applicable to insulated surfaces, such as those covered with insula on material. The heat loss from the rod surface to the ambient air can be calculated using Newton's Law of Cooling:

 Convec ve boundary condi on: This condi on implies that heat is transferred between the surface and the surrounding fluid by Q = hA(T2 - T∞)
convec on. Mathema cally, it is represented as:
Equa ng the two heat transfer equa ons:
-k * (dT/dx) = h * (Ts - Tf)
-kA(dT/dx) = hA(T2 - T∞)
where h is the convec on heat transfer coefficient, Ts is the surface temperature, and Tf is the fluid temperature. This condi on is applicable to
surfaces exposed to fluids, such as air or water. Solving for the thermal conduc vity (k):

(iii) Thermal diffusivity and its dependence on me and penetra on k = -h(T2 - T∞) / (dT/dx)

Thermal diffusivity (α) is a material property that characterizes how quickly heat diffuses through a material. It is defined as: Subs tu ng the given values:

α = k / (ρ * Cp) k = -60 * (100 - 35) / 200 = -19.5 W/mK

where k is the thermal conduc vity, ρ is the density, and Cp is the specific heat capacity. Since thermal conduc vity cannot be nega ve, there seems to be an error in the problem statement or the given values. Please double-
check the values and problem statement.
Thermal diffusivity does not depend on me or penetra on depth. However, the temperature distribu on within a material at a given me
depends on the thermal diffusivity and the ini al and boundary condi ons. As me progresses, the temperature distribu on penetrates deeper If the problem statement is correct, we can s ll calculate the heat transfer rate (Q) using either of the two heat transfer equa ons:
into the material. Q = hA(T2 - T∞) = 60 * π * (0.0275)²/4 * (100 - 35) ≈ 6.8 W
Cable wire numerical
Mild sphere chapter 2
1. Heat Loss Without Insula on: i) Time required to cool the sphere to 105°C:
Surface area (A1) = πD1L = π(0.022 m)(L)
(T - T_∞) / (T_i - T_∞) = exp(-ht/ρVc)
Heat loss (Q1) = h1A1(T1 - T∞)
t = -(ρVc/hA) * ln[(T - T_∞) / (T_i - T_∞)]
2. Heat Loss With Insula on:
Subs tu ng the given values:
Surface area (A2) = πD2L = π(0.022 + 2t)L
t = -(7850 * (4/3)π(0.016/2)³ * 474) / (125 * π(0.016)² * ln[(105 - 20) / (620 - 20)])
Thermal resistance of insula on (Rins) = ln(D2/D1) / (2πkL)
Calculate the value of t.
Total thermal resistance (Rtot) = Rins + 1/(h1A2)
ii) Ini al rate of cooling:
Heat loss (Q2) = (T1 - T∞) / Rtot dT/dt = -(hA/ρVc) * (T - T_∞)
3. Cost Func on:
At t = 0, T = T_i:
Cost = Cost of insula on + Cost of energy loss (dT/dt)_ini al = -(hA/ρVc) * (T_i - T_∞)
Cost = C1 * volume of insula on + C2 * Q2
iii) Instantaneous heat transfer rate at the end of 1 minute:
4. Op miza on: Q = hA(T - T_∞)
Differen ate the cost func on with respect to the insula on thickness (t) and set it equal to zero to find the op mal thickness. iv) Total energy transferred from the sphere during the first 1 minute:
5. Percentage Increase in Heat Dissipa on and Current Capacity: Q_total = ∫(0 to 60) Q dt
Percentage increase in heat dissipa on = [(Q2 - Q1) / Q1] * 100%

Percentage increase in current capacity ≈ Percentage increase in heat diss

Unit 3 van karman
Furnace wala 2nd unit se
The von Karman momentum integral equa on is a powerful tool used to analyze the boundary layer flow over a flat plate. It simplifies the where:
Navier-Stokes equa ons by integra ng them over the boundary layer thickness.  Eλ(T) is the spectral radiance (power emitted per unit area per unit wavelength)
 h is Planck's constant
Deriva on Steps
 c is the speed of light
1. Consider a control volume: Imagine a control volume within the boundary layer, extending from the plate surface to the edge of the  λ is the wavelength
boundary layer.  k is Boltzmann's constant
 T is the temperature
2. Apply Conserva on of Mass: The mass flow rate entering the control volume must equal the mass flow rate leaving it. This leads to
To find the wavelength of maximum spectral radiance, we need to find the maximum of Eλ(T) with respect to λ. We can do this by
the con nuity equa on: taking the derivative of Eλ(T) with respect to λ and setting it equal to zero:
d(Eλ(T))/dλ = 0
3. ρuδ = constant
After some algebraic manipulation, we obtain:
o ρ is the fluid density λ_max * T = constant
This is Wien's Displacement Law, which states that the wavelength of maximum spectral radiance of a black body is inversely
o u is the fluid velocity proportional to its absolute temperature.

o δ is the boundary layer thickness b) Percentage Reduction in Heat Exchange with a Radiation Shield
Without the Shield:
4. Apply Conserva on of Momentum: The net force ac ng on the control volume must equal the rate of change of momentum. This
The net heat exchange between two parallel plates with emissivities ε₁ and ε₂ and temperatures T₁ and T₂, respectively, is given by:
leads to the momentum equa on:
Q₁₂ = σA(T₁⁴ - T₂⁴) / (1/ε₁ + 1/ε₂ - 1)
5. ρu²δ = τ_w x With the Shield:
The net heat exchange with the shield can be calculated in two steps:
6. Introduce the Momentum Thickness (θ): The momentum thickness (θ) is defined as: 1. Heat exchange between plate 1 and the shield:
2. Q₁s = σA(T₁⁴ - T_s⁴) / (1/ε₁ + 1/ε_s - 1)
7. θ = ∫(0 to δ) (1 - u/U) (u/U) dy 3. Heat exchange between the shield and plate 2:
4. Q_s₂ = σA(T_s⁴ - T₂⁴) / (1/ε_s + 1/ε₂ - 1)
8. Differen ate the Momentum Thickness: Differen a ng θ with respect to x, we get: The total heat exchange with the shield, Q₂, is the sum of Q₁s and Q_s₂.
Percentage Reduction:
9. dθ/dx = (1/U) ∫(0 to δ) u(∂u/∂x) dy
Percentage reduction = [(Q₁₂ - Q₂) / Q₁₂] * 100%
10. Relate the Momentum Thickness to Wall Shear Stress: Using the defini on of wall shear stress (τ_w = μ(∂u/∂y)|y=0) and the Substitute the expressions for Q₁₂, Q₁, and Q₂ and solve for the percentage reduction.
momentum integral equa on, we can relate dθ/dx to τ_w:
c) Radiation Exchange Between Gray Black Bodies with and Without a Radiation Shield
11. dθ/dx = (τ_w)/(ρU²) Without the Shield:
The net radiation exchange between two gray bodies is given by:
12. Combine Equa ons: By combining the equa ons for dθ/dx and the momentum equa on, we arrive at the von Karman momentum Q₁₂ = σA(T₁⁴ - T₂⁴) / (1/ε₁ + 1/ε₂ - 1)
integral equa on: With the Shield:
As derived in part (b), the net heat exchange with the shield is:
13. dθ/dx = (C_f/2) Q₂ = Q₁s + Q_s₂
By comparing Q₁₂ and Q₂, we can derive the relation between the radiation exchange with and without the shield.
Thermal Boundary Layer and Thermal Boundary Layer Thickness
a) Planck's Law and Stefan-Boltzmann Law
14. Thermal Boundary Layer: Planck's Law describes the spectral radiance of black body radiation as a function of wavelength and temperature. It is given by:
15. When a fluid flows over a surface with a different temperature, a thermal boundary layer develops near the surface. This layer is Eλ(T) = (2πhc²/λ⁵) * (1/(exp(hc/λkT) - 1))
characterized by a significant temperature gradient, with the fluid temperature gradually increasing from the surface temperature to the
where:
free-stream temperature.
16. Thermal Boundary Layer Thickness (δ_t):  Eλ(T) is the spectral radiance (power emitted per unit area per unit wavelength)
17. The thermal boundary layer thickness (δ_t) is defined as the distance from the surface where the fluid temperature reaches 99% of the  h is Planck's constant
free-stream temperature. It is typically smaller than the hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness (δ).  c is the speed of light
18. Correlation between Thermal Boundary Layer and Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient:  λ is the wavelength
19. The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is directly related to the thermal boundary layer thickness. A thinner thermal boundary
layer results in a higher temperature gradient and, consequently, a higher heat transfer coefficient.  k is Boltzmann's constant
 T is the temperature 1
Key Points: Deriving Stefan-Boltzmann Law from Planck's Law:
 The thermal boundary layer thickness depends on the flow conditions, fluid properties, and surface temperature. To obtain the total emissive power (E) emitted by a black body over all wavelengths, we integrate Planck's law over all wavelengths:
 A higher Prandtl number (Pr) results in a thinner thermal boundary layer. E = ∫(0 to ∞) Eλ(T) dλ
After a complex integration, we obtain:
 The thermal boundary layer can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the flow regime.
E = σT⁴
 The convective heat transfer coefficient is higher in turbulent flow compared to laminar flow due to increased mixing and enhanced This is the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
heat transfer.
In different flow regimes:
 Laminar Flow: The thermal boundary layer develops gradually along the surface. The heat transfer coefficient is relatively low.
 Turbulent Flow: The thermal boundary layer is thicker and more turbulent, leading to higher heat transfer coefficients.

b) Radia on Exchange Between Non-Black Infinite Parallel Planes

a) Deriving Wien's Displacement Law using Planck's Law
Planck's Law describes the spectral radiance of black body radiation as a function of wavelength and temperature: Radia on Exchange Between Two Black Surfaces:
Eλ(T) = (2πhc²/λ⁵) * (1/(exp(hc/λkT) - 1))
The net radia ve heat exchange between two black surfaces with temperatures T₁ and T₂, respec vely, is given by:
Q₁₂ = σA(T₁⁴ - T₂⁴) o F₁₂ is the view factor from surface 1 to surface 2 (dimensionless)

where: 5. View Factor for Infinite Parallel Plates: For two large parallel plates, the view factor F₁₂ is equal to 1, as all the radia on emi ed by
one surface is intercepted by the other.
 Q₁₂ is the net heat exchange
Therefore, the expression for radia ve exchange between two black bodies separated by a non-absorbing medium becomes:
 σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Q₁₂ = σA(T₁⁴ - T₂⁴)
 A is the area of each surface
 The net heat transfer is propor onal to the difference in the fourth powers of the temperatures of the two surfaces.
Radia on Exchange Between Two Non-Black Surfaces:
 A higher temperature difference results in a higher rate of heat transfer.
For non-black surfaces with emissivi es ε₁ and ε₂, the net heat exchange can be calculated using the following equa on:
 The larger the surface area, the greater the heat transfer.
Q₁₂ = (σA(T₁⁴ - T₂⁴)) / (1/ε₁ + 1/ε₂ - 1)
Fick's Law of Diffusion and Steady-State Equimolar Counter Diffusion
Explana on:
Fick's Law of Diffusion
 The emissivity (ε) of a surface is a measure of its ability to emit radia on compared to a black body.
Fick's Law of Diffusion describes the diffusion of a substance within another substance due to a concentra on gradient. It states that the rate of
 The term (1/ε₁ + 1/ε₂ - 1) in the denominator accounts for the reduced emissivity of the surfaces compared to black bodies. diffusion of a substance is propor onal to the concentra on gradient.

Assump ons: Mathema cally:

 The surfaces are large and parallel, so the shape factor between them is 1. J = -D ∇C

 The surfaces are diffuse emi ers and diffuse reflectors. Where:

 The medium between the surfaces is non-absorbing and non-sca ering.  J is the diffusion flux (mass/area/ me)

 D is the diffusion coefficient (area/ me)

 ∇C is the concentra on gradient (concentra on/distance)

Deriving the Expression for Radia ve Exchange Between Black Bodies Separated by a Non-Absorbing Medium Steady-State Equimolar Counter Diffusion

Understanding Black Bodies and Radia on Heat Transfer In steady-state equimolar counter diffusion, two gases A and B diffuse in opposite direc ons through a stagnant medium at the same molar
rate. This means that the molar flux of A is equal and opposite to the molar flux of B.
 Black Body: A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagne c radia on, regardless of frequency or
angle of incidence. Mathema cal Expression:

 Radia on Heat Transfer: This mode of heat transfer involves the emission of electromagne c waves, primarily in the infrared Consider two gases A and B diffusing in opposite direc ons through a stagnant medium. Let:
spectrum.
 N_A be the molar flux of gas A
Assump ons:
 N_B be the molar flux of gas B
 Both bodies are black bodies, meaning they absorb and emit radia on perfectly.
 C_A and C_B be the molar concentra ons of A and B, respec vely
 The medium between the bodies is non-absorbing, non-reflec ng, and non-sca ering.
 D_AB be the diffusion coefficient of A in B
 The bodies are large compared to their separa on distance, allowing us to assume diffuse radia on exchange.
For steady-state equimolar counter diffusion:
Deriva on:
N_A = -N_B
1. Radia ve Emission: According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the total radiant energy emi ed per unit area per unit me by a black
body at temperature T is given by: Applying Fick's Law to both gases:

N_A = -D_AB * (dC_A/dx)

2. E = σT⁴
N_B = -D_AB * (dC_B/dx)
o E is the emissive power (W/m²)
Since N_A = -N_B:
o σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 x 10⁻⁸ W/m²K⁴)
D_AB * (dC_A/dx) = D_AB * (dC_B/dx)
o T is the absolute temperature (K)
Integra ng both sides and applying the boundary condi ons:
3. Radia ve Exchange Between Two Surfaces: Consider two black surfaces A₁ and A₂, with temperatures T₁ and T₂, respec vely. The net
radia ve heat exchange between these surfaces can be expressed as: C_A1 - C_A2 = C_B2 - C_B1
4. Q₁₂ = σA₁F₁₂(T₁⁴ - T₂⁴) This equa on relates the concentra on differences of the two gases across the diffusion path.
o Q₁₂ is the net heat transfer rate from surface 1 to surface 2 (W) Momentum, Energy, and Concentra on Equa ons and Their Similari es
o A₁ is the area of surface 1 (m²) Momentum Equa on
The momentum equa on, also known as the Navier-Stokes equa on, describes the conserva on of momentum in a fluid flow. In its general 1. Steady-state: The condensa on process is assumed to be steady-state, meaning that the condi ons do not change with me.
form for a Newtonian fluid, it is given by:
2. Laminar Film Condensa on: The condensate film is assumed to be laminar and smooth.
ρ(∂u/∂t + u∂u/∂x + v∂u/∂y + w∂u/∂z) = -∂p/∂x + μ(∂²u/∂x² + ∂²u/∂y² + ∂²u/∂z²) + ρg_x
3. Constant Proper es: The proper es of the fluid (density, viscosity, thermal conduc vity, and specific heat) are assumed to be
 ρ is the fluid density constant.

 u, v, w are the velocity components in the x, y, and z direc ons 4. Negligible Surface Tension Effects: The effect of surface tension on the film thickness is neglected.

 p is the pressure 5. Negligible Vapor Shear Stress: The shear stress exerted by the vapor on the condensate film is negligible.

6. Constant Wall Temperature: The temperature of the ver cal surface is assumed to be constant.
 μ is the dynamic viscosity
Expression for Local Condensing Heat Transfer Coefficient:
 g_x is the accelera on due to gravity in the x-direc on
Nusselt's theory provides an expression for the local condensing heat transfer coefficient (h_x) at a distance x from the leading edge of the
Energy Equa on ver cal plate:
The energy equa on describes the conserva on of energy in a fluid flow. It accounts for both convec ve and conduc ve heat transfer: h_x = [ρ_l * g * h_fg * k_l³ / (μ_l * g_x)]^(1/4)
ρCp(∂T/∂t + u∂T/∂x + v∂T/∂y + w∂T/∂z) = ∇·(k∇T) + ρQ
where:
 ρ is the fluid density
 ρ_l: Density of the liquid
 Cp is the specific heat capacity  g: Accelera on due to gravity
 T is the temperature
 h_fg: Latent heat of vaporiza on
 k is the thermal conduc vity
 k_l: Thermal conduc vity of the liquid
 Q is the volumetric heat genera on rate  μ_l: Dynamic viscosity of the liquid
Concentra on Equa on
 g_x: Accelera on due to gravity in the x-direc on (parallel to the plate)
The concentra on equa on, also known as the species conserva on equa on, describes the conserva on of a species in a fluid mixture. It is
given by:

∂C/∂t + u∂C/∂x + v∂C/∂y + w∂C/∂z = D∇²C

 C is the concentra on of the species

 D is the diffusion coefficient

Similari es

All three equa ons share the following similari es:

 Conserva on Law: Each equa on represents a conserva on law for a specific quan ty (momentum, energy, or mass).

 Convec ve Terms: The terms involving u, v, and w represent the convec ve transport of the quan ty.

 Diffusive Terms: The terms involving deriva ves of the quan ty with respect to spa al coordinates represent the diffusive transport
of the quan ty.

 Source/Sink Terms: The terms on the right-hand side of the equa ons represent sources or sinks of the quan ty (e.g., pressure
gradient, heat genera on, or chemical reac ons).

Prandtl, Schmidt, and Lewis Numbers

These dimensionless numbers are used to characterize the rela ve importance of different transport processes:

 Prandtl Number (Pr): Ra o of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity. It characterizes the rela ve importance of momentum and
thermal diffusion.

 Schmidt Number (Sc): Ra o of momentum diffusivity to mass diffusivity. It characterizes the rela ve importance of momentum and
mass diffusion.

 Lewis Number (Le): Ra o of thermal diffusivity to mass diffusivity. It characterizes the rela ve importance of thermal and mass
diffusion.

Nusselt's Theory of Condensa on

Assump ons of Nusselt's Theory: