• A graph G = (V, E) consists of two parameters.

i. A set V=V(G), set of vertices or nodes of G.

ii. A set E=E(G), set of edges, joining pairs of distinct vertices of G.
Graph is a pair of two set, vertex set (V) and edge set (E). Where V is non empty
set, and E, subset of V, can be empty also.

Fig: Graph G
Here,
V=V(G)={a,b,c,d}
E=E(G)={(a,c),(a,b),(b,c),(c,d)}
Order and size of a graph:
The order of any graph G is the total number of vertices associated with
G.Since the vertex set of any graph is non-empty,the order of any graph
is at least one. It is denoted by ‘n’.
The size of any graph G is the total number of edges associated with G. It
is denoted by ‘m’
In above graph G, n(G)=4 and m(G)=4
Incident:
An edge is said to be incident to the two vertices if it joins the two
vertices.
Adjacent:
Two vertices are said to be adjacent if they are connected by an edge. Adjacent
vertices are neighbor vertices. In above graph G, vertex a is incident to b,c vertices.
Types of graph:
• Labeled graph
A labeled graph is a graph in which labels are assigned to vertex.
• Unlabeled graph
An unlabeled graph is a graph in which vertex have no distinct identification.
• Trivial graph
A graph with exactly one vertex and zero edge is called trivial graph.

• Null graph
If the no. of vertex is finite but no edge between any of its vertices, then it is called
null graph.

• Finite graph
If the no. of vertex and edge is finite then the graph is called finite graph

• Infinite graph
If the no. of vertex and edge is not finite then the graph is called infinite graph
• Undirected Simple graph:
Undirected simple graph is an undirected graph in which there is no loop (no edge
from a vertex to itself), and no multipath (no more than one edge between each pair
of vertices).

• Undirected Multigraph:
Undirected multigraph is an undirected graph with multipath but not with the loop.
Edge ad has multipath in the following graph, so it is multigraph.
• Pseudograph
Pseudograph includes loop(s) but may or may not include multipath(multiple
edges).It is not directed graph.

• Directed Simple Graph

It is simple graph with direction.

• Directed multigraph
It is multigraph with direction and loop(s)
Degree of a vertex in an undirected graph:
The degree of a vertex in an undirected graph denoted by deg(v) is a number of
edges incident in the vertex. A loop at a vertex is counted as two edges i.e. incoming
and outgoing while counting degree. A vertex of degree zero is called isolated
vertex and vertex with degree one is called pendant vertex. Loop in a vertex counts
twice to the degree but number of edge of loop is counted one only.

deg (a)= 2
deg (b)= 3
deg (c) = 4
deg (d) = 2
deg (e) = 3
deg (f) = 2
In-degree and Out-degree of a vertex in a directed graph:
In directed graph the in-degree of a vertex v, denoted by deg-(v), is a number of
edges, that have v as their terminal vertex. The out-degree of a vertex v, denoted by
deg+(v), is the number of edges that have v as their initial vertex. Loop at a vertex
adds up both in-degree and out-degree to one more than calculated in-degree and
out-degree.
Find in-degree and out-degree of each vertex.
• Solution:
In-degrees of the vertices are as follows:
deg- (1) = 2, deg-(2) = 3, deg-(3) = 2 and deg- (4) = 1
Out-degrees of the vertices are as follows:
deg+(1) = 1, deg+ (2) = 1, deg+ (3) = 1 and deg+ (4) = 4
The Handshaking Theorem:(Imp)
Let G = (V, E) be an undirected graph with V vertices and E edges, then the sum of
degree of all the vertices of a graph G is twice the number of edges in graph G, that
is 2E = ∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg(𝑣).
Proof:
deg(a) = deg(f)= deg(d)=2
deg(b) = deg(e)=3
deg(c) = 4
We have, LHS = 2*E = 2× 8=16
RHS = ∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg(𝑣) =2+ 2+ 2 + 3 + 3 + 4=16
Therefore, LHS=RHS.
Q.State the handshaking theorem for an undirected graph and use this
theorem to prove the theorem that undirected graph has an even number of
vertices of odd degree(Imp):
Let V1 and V2 be the set of vertices of even and odd degrees respectively in an
undirected graph G = (V, E) .
Then from handshaking theorem we can write,
2E = ∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg(𝑣) = ∑𝑣∈𝑉1 deg(𝑣)+ ∑𝑣∈𝑉2 deg(𝑣)
From above equality, we see that L.H.S is even. In order to hold the above equality
true,R.H.S also should be even. Here, the sum of deg (v) for v ϵ V1 is even since
every vertices has even degree. So for the left hand to be even, sum of deg (v) for v
ϵ V2 must be even. Since all vertices in the set V2 have odd degree the number of
such vertices must be even for the sum to be even. Thus we can say that undirected
graph has an even number of vertices of odd degree.
Example:
Which vertices in following graph are isolated and pendant and what is maximum
degree? What types of graph is it? Determine the number of its edges and sum of
the degrees of all its vertices in given graph.
Solution:
Vertex f is isolated, vertices a, d and j are pendant. Maximum degree is deg (h) = 5.
This graph is pseudograph (undirected loops).
Total number of edges(E)=9
The sum of degree of all the vertices=2*E=2*9=18 [From handshaking theorem]
Theorem:
In a directed graph G= (V, E) ,
∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg- (v) = ∑𝑣∈𝑉 deg+ (v) = |E|
Classes of simple graph:(Imp)
Complete graph: The complete graph with n vertices is denoted by Kn. It is the
simple graph that contains exactly one edge between each pair of distinct vertices.
Cycle Graph:
The cycle graph with n vertices is denoted by Cn for n≥3.It consists of n vertices as
v1, v2,……vn and set of edges as {(v1, v2), (v2, v3), ……(vn-1, vn) and (vn, v1)}.

Wheel Graph:
When a new vertex is added to a cycle Cn and this new vertex is connected to each
of the n vertices in Cn, we obtain a wheel Wn.
 n-cubes(n-dimensional hypercube):
-It is denoted by Qn.
-Number of vertices= 2n.
-Length of bit string=n
-Each vertices is represented by a bit string of length n.
-Two vertices are said to be adjacent if they differ exactly in one bit position.
010 110

01 11 011
111

000 100

00 10
001 101
Operations on graphs:
• Sub graph
A subgraph of a graph G = (V, E) is a graph H = (W, F), where W ⊆ V and F ⊆ E.

• Union
The union of two simple graphs G1 =(V1 , E1) and G2 = (V2 , E2) is the simple graph
with vertex set V=(V1 U V2) and edge set E=(E1 U E2). The union is denoted by G1
U G2
Walk,Trail,Path Circuit and Cycle:
Walk:
A walk is a finite alternative sequence of vertices and edges. In walk, vertex can be
repeated and edges can be repeated.
A walk that begins and ends at the same vertex is called a closed walk. If u be
initial vertex, v be terminal vertex. If u = v, then walk w is closed.
A walk that is not closed is an open walk. If u be initial vertex, v be terminal vertex.
If u≠v then it is open walk.
The number of edges encountered in a walk (including multiple occurrence of an
edges) is called the length of the walk.
w: x, y, w, y, v, w is therefore a walk. Length of walk is the no. of edges. Here 5 is
the length.
Trail:
A trail is the walk in which no edge is repeated but vertex can be repeated. Here u,
w, y, x, w, v is a u-v trail even though it repeats the vertex w. But x, y, w, y, v, w is
not a trail as the edge {w,y} is repeated.
Path:
A path is a walk with no vertices and no edge repetition. If no vertex in a walk is
repeated then no edge is repeated either. Hence, every path is a trail. If we traverse a
graph such that we do not repeat a vertex and nor we repeat an edge then it is a path.
u, w, y, v is a u-v path.
Circuit:
A closed trail is a circuit. A circuit in graph G is a closed trail of length 3 or more.
Hence, a circuit begins and ends at the same vertex but repeats no edges. In a
circuit, vertices can be repeated in addition to the first and last. For example:
c : y, w, u, v, w, x, y
c: x, y, w, u, v, w, x
c: w, x, y, w, u, v, w
Cycle: A cycle is closed path. A circuit that repeats no vertex except for the first and
last is a cycle. A K-cycle is a cycle of length K. A 3-cycle is also referred to as a
triangle. A cycle of odd length is called odd cycle, a cycle of even length is called as
even cycle. c' = x, y, v, w, x is a cycle.
Connectedness:Any undirected graph G is said to be connected if there exist a
path between every pair of distinct vertices.
Connected components:
A graph that is not connected is the union of more than one connected graphs that
do not share the common vertex. These disjoint connected sub graphs are called
connected components of a graph.
In the following graph the connected components are: {a, b, c,}, {d, e}, {f, g, h}.
In the following graph G the number of connected components K(G) = 3

Fig:Grpah G
Cut sets:(Imp)
A cut set of a connected graph G is a set S of edges with the following properties
The removal of all the edges in S disconnects G.
The removal of some (but not all) of edges in S does not disconnect G.
A graph G is said to be disconnected if there is no path between any two nodes in a
graph G.
In the figure, set of three edges bd, be and ce is a cut set because we can disconnect
G by removing these three edges, but we cannot disconnect it by removing just one
or two of these edges.
Cut Vertex and Cut Edge:(Imp)
If the removal of a vertex and the edges incident with it in a graph produces more
connected components than in the original graph then such vertex is called a cut
vertex.
A cut edge is an edge by removing which one can partition the graph in to more
connected components.
In the following figure, Cut vertices are c and e and Cut edge is {c, e}
Eulerian (Euler) Graph:(Imp)
Euler Circuit: An Euler circuit is a circuit that uses every edge of a graph exactly
once. An Euler circuit always starts and ends at the same vertex.
Euler Graph: A connected graph G is called an Euler graph, if it has Euler circuit,
that is, if there is a closed trail which includes every edge of the graph G.A
connected graph G is an Euler graph if and only if all vertices of G are of even
degree.
Euler Path: An Euler path is a path that uses every edge of a graph exactly once.
An Euler path starts and ends at different vertices.

C
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Euler Circuit and Euler
Path:(Imp)
1)A connected graph G has an Euler circuit if and only if each of its vertices has an
even degree.
2)A connected graph G has an Euler path if and only if exactly two vertices of G
have odd degree.
Q)Which of the following graphs contain a Eularian circuit?
Eulerian for Directed graph:
A non trivial connected digraph D is Eulerian if and only if out degree = in degree
for every vertex.
Hamiltonian (Hamilton) Graph:(Imp)
A connected graph G contains a Hamiltonian circuit if there is a circuit which
visits every vertex once with no repetition. Being a circuit, it must start and end at
the same vertex.
A graph that has Hamiltonian circuit (cycle) is called a Hamiltonian graph.
A path that contains every vertex of G exactly once without repetition, but does not
have to start and end at the same vertex is called a Hamiltonian path.
Note: If in any graph G there is a Hamiltonian circuit then automatically there
exists Hamiltonian path.
Sufficient Conditions for Hamiltonian Circuit:
Dirac's theorem: If G is a simple graph with n vertices with n ≥ 3 such that the
degree of every vertex in G is at least 𝑛/2 , then G has a Hamiltonian circuit.
It is only a sufficient condition.

Here, in the given graph, Dirac’s Theorem does not hold true
which means that the sufficient condition for the presence of
hamiltonian circuit is not there. However there can be
hamiltonian circuit although the sufficient condition is not met
because this is not a necessary condition.Here,hamiltonin circuit
cannot be formed but there is presence of hamiltonian path
given by:a,b,c,d,e.
Ore’s Theorem:
If G is a simple graph with n vertices with n ≥ 3 such that deg (u) + deg(v) ≥ n for
every pair of non adjacent vertices u and v in G, then G has a Hamiltonian path.
It is only a sufficient condition.

Here, although the sufficient condition for hamiltonian Circuit

is not met, hamiltonian circuit is present given by: a,b,e,c,d,a
Bipartite graph, Planar graph, Regular graph:(Imp)
Bipartite Graph
A simple graph G is called bipartite if its vertex set V can be partitioned into two
disjoint sets V1 and V2 such that every edge in the graph connects a vertex in V1 and
a vertex in V2 (so that no edge in G connects either two vertices in V1 or two
vertices in V2). When this condition holds, we call the pair (V1, V2) a bipartition of
the vertex set V of G.
Is C6 Bipartite graph?
Solution:
C6 is bipartite, as shown in Figure, because its vertex set can be partitioned into the
two sets V1 = {v1, v3, v5} and V2 = {v2, v4, v6}, and every edge of C6 connects a
vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2.

So, C6 is a bipartite graph

Complete bipartite graph:
The complete bipartite graph is denoted by Km,n for m ≤ n where m and n are the
no.of vertices in first set and second set respectively. In complete bipartite graph,
every vertex of one set is connected to every vertex of another set.
Planner graphs:
A graph is called a planar if it can be drawn in the plane without any edges crossing
and such drawing is called a planar representation of the graph.
The planar representation of graph K4:

Planar representations of a graph split the plane into the same number of regions,
including an unbounded region. In above graph R1 , R2, R3 are bounded regions and
R4 is unbounded region.
Q.Is graph K3,3 a planar graph?(Imp)

Solution:
First consider the vertices V1,, V2, V4 and V5.The four edges {V1, V4}, {V4,V2},
{V2, V5}, {V5, V1} form a closed curve that splits the plane into two regions say
R1 and R2.

Next, V3 must be either in R1 or R2. Assume V3 is in R2. Then edges {V3, V4}
and {V3, V5} separate R2 into two sub regions say R21 and R22.
 Now, there is no way to place vertex V6 without forcing a crossing.
● If V6 is in R1, then (V6, V3) must cross an edge.
● If V6 is in R21, then {V6, V2} must cross an edge.
● If V6 is in R22, then {V6, V1} must cross an edge.
Alternatively assume V3 is in R1. Then the edge {V3, V4} and {V3, V5} separate
R1 into two sub-regions say R11 and R12 as shown below.
Now there is no way to place vertex V6 without forcing a crossing.
● If V6 is in R2 then {V6, V3} must cross an edge.
● If V6 is in R11, then {V6, V2} must cross an edge.
● If V6 is in R12, then {V6, V1} must cross an edge.
Thus we can conclude that K3,3 is not a planar graph.
Euler's Formula:
Let G be a connected planar simple graph with e edges and v vertices. Let r be the
number of regions in a planar representation of G. Then r = e-v+2.

no. of edge, e = 6
no. of vertices, v = 4
no. of regions, r = e-v+2=6-4+2=4
Corollary 1 :
If G is a connected planar simple graph with e edges and v vertices where v ≥ 3,
then e ≤ 3v – 6
Corollary 2 :
If G is a connected planar simple graph, then G has a vertex of degree not
exceeding 5.
Corollary 3 :
If a connected planar simple graph G has e edges and v vertices with v ≥ 3 and no
circuits of length 3, then e ≤ 2v-4
Q.
Solution:
K5 has 5 vertices and 10 edges i.e. v=5 and e=10.Here , v ≥ 3
So, if K5 is planar, it must be true that
e ≤ 3v-6
or,10 ≤ 3*5-6
or, 10 ≤ 9 which is false.
So, the given graph K5 is not planar.
Q.Is graph K3,3 a planar graph?
K3,3 has vertices (v) = 6 .
K3,3 has edges (e) = 9
Here, v ≥ 3. The following condition should be true if K3,3 is planar
i.e. e ≤ 3v-6
or,9 ≤ 3*6-6
or,9 ≤ 12 which is true.

Also if K3,3 is planar the degree of each vertex should be less than or equal to 5
which is true in this case.
Again if K3,3 is planar then it should not contain circuits of length exactly 3 which
is true in this case. Also the following condition should be true
i.e. e ≤ 2v-4
or, 9 ≤ 2*6-4
or, 9 ≤ 8 which is false.
Therefore, K3,3 is a non-planar
Regular Graphs:
Any graph G is said to be regular graph if all the vertices of a graph G
has same degree. A regular graph with vertices of degree ‘k’ is called a k-
regular graph.
Q.In a round robin tournament the tigers beat the blue jays. The tigers beat
the cardinals, the tigers beat the orioles, the blue jays beat the orioles, and the
cardinals beat the orioles. Model this outcome with a directed graph.
Solution:
A round robin tournament is a tournament where each team plays with each other
team exactly once. Here the name of the team is represented by the vertex or node
and the direction of the edge shows that which team beats the another team.
Dijkstra’s Algorithm:(Imp)
Dijkstra's Algorithm is one of the various algorithm to find the shortest path from
source(start) vertex to destination vertex in a weighted graph.
Graphs that have a number assigned to each edges is called a weighted graph. The
length of a path in a weighted graph is the sum of the weights on the edges.
Steps:
1]Initially zero(0) is assigned to the source vertex and all other remaining vertices
are assigned by infinity symbol (∞).This indicates that the distance from the source
vertex to these vertices are not calculated yet or unknown.
2]The distances of the adjacent vertices are calculated from the source vertex.
3]While calculating the distances, if the newly calculated distance is less than that
of the previously calculated distance then the old one is replaced by the new one.
However if both are equal then both should be kept. The process is repeated until
and unless a destination vertex is reached.
Q.Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the length of the shortest path between the
vertices a and z in the weighted graph displayed below.
Here, the shortest path is (a,c,b,d,e,z) and the length of the shortest path is 13
Q.Use Dijkstra’s Algorithm to find the length of shortest path from vertex a to
vertex f in the following weighted graph. Also highlight the shortest path/paths
in the graph.
Here,the shortest paths are:
(a,c,e,d,f) or (a,b,c,e,d,f) and
the length of the shortest
path is:14
Q.Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the length of the shortest path between the
vertices a and f in the weighted graph displayed below.
Here, the shortest path is (a,b,e,d,f) and the length of the shortest path is 7
Q.Use Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the length of the shortest path between the
vertices a and z in the weighted graph displayed below.
Here the shortest path is (a,b,c,e,z) and the length of the shortest path is 10
The shortest path is:
(a,c,d,e,g,h) and the length of
the shortest path is 16

The shortest paths are:

(A,B,D,F) and(A,C,D,F) and the
length of the shortest path is 9.
Tree:
A tree is a particular type of graph. A tree is a connected undirected simple graph
with no simple circuit.
Properties
1. There is a unique simple path between any two of its vertices.
2. No loops.
3. No multiple edges.

t
An undirected graph having no simple circuit and is not connected is called
forest. The forest has each of its connected components as tree .G3 displays a
forest.
Rooted (Directed) Tree:
A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designated as the root and
every edge is directed away from the root. We can change an unrooted tree into
a rooted by choosing any vertex as the root. The tree in which root is defined
produces a directed graph.
Note:The arrows indicating the directions of the edges in a rooted tree can be
omitted, because the choice of root determines the directions of the edges.

Parent: If v is a vertex in T other than the root, the parent of v is the unique vertex u such that there is a
directed edge from u to v [The parent of c is b].
Child: When u is the parent of v, v is called a child of u.[The children of g are h,i and j]
Siblings: Vertices with the same parents.[The siblings of h are i and j]
Ancestors: Vertices in path from the root to vertex v, excluding v itself, including the root.[The ancestors
of e are c,b and a]
Descendents: All vertices that have v as an ancestor.[The descendents of b are c,d and e]
Leaf: Vertex with no children.[The leaves are d,e,f,i,k,l and m]
Internal vertices: Vertices that have children[The internal vertices are a,b,c,g,h and j]
Subtree: Subgraphs consisting of v and its descendents and their incident edges.

Level of v: It is the length of unique path from root to v[Level of root=0,level of b=1,level of h=2]
Height: It is the maximum of vertices levels[Height=3]
M-ary trees:(Imp) A rooted tree is called m-ary if every internal vertex has no more than m
children. It is full m-ary if every internal vertex has exactly m children. A 2-ary tree is a binary
tree.
T1 is a full binary tree because each of its internal vertices has two children. T2 is a
full 3-ary tree because each of its internal vertices has three children. In T3 each
internal vertex has five children, so T3 is a full 5-ary tree. T4 is not a full m-ary tree
for any m because some of its internal vertices have two children and others have
three children.
Ordered Rooted Tree:
Ordered rooted tree is a rooted tree where the children of each internal node are
ordered. Ordered rooted trees are drawn so that the children of each internal vertex
are shown in order from left to right. In ordered binary tree, we can define:
• left child, right child
• left subtree, right subtree
For m-ary trees with m>2, we can use terms like "left most", "right most" etc.
Properties of Trees(Imp):
1. A tree with n vertices has n-1 edges

The tree in the figure has

14 vertices and 13 edges
2.A full m-ary tree with I internal vertices contains n=m*I +1 vertices.
Example:
The full binary tree in the given figure has
Vertices n=13
Internal vertices I=6
Leaves L=7
Therefore,13=2*6+1 which is true.
3.A full m-ary tree with:
i)n vertices has I=(n-1)/m internal vertices and
L=[(m-1)*n +1]/m leaves
ii) I internal vertices has n=m*I +1 vertices and
L=(m-1)*I +1 leaves
iii)L leaves has n=(m*L-1)/(m-1) vertices and
I=(L-1)/(m-1) internal vertices
In above figure:
m=2,n=13,I=6 and L=7
i)I=(13-1)/2=6 and L=[(2-1)*13+1]/2=7
ii)n=(2)(6)+1=13 and L=(2-1)*6+1=7
iii) n=(2*7-1)/(2-1)=13 and I=(7-1)/(2-1)=6
4.The level of a vertex in a rooted tree is the length of the path from the root to
the vertex(Level of the root is 0)
5.The height of the rooted tree is the maximum of the levels of vertices(Length
of the longest path from the root to any vertex).
Balanced Tree(Imp):
A rooted m-ary tree of height h is balanced if all the leaves are at levels h or h-1.

T1 is balanced, because all its leaves are at levels 3 and 4. However, T2 is not
balanced, because it has leaves at levels 2, 3, and 4. Finally, T3 is balanced,
because all its leaves are at level 3
Applications of trees:(Imp)
• How should items in a list be stored so that an item can be easily located? For this,
we use the concept of binary search trees.
• What series of decisions should be made to find an object with a certain property
in a collection of objects of a certain type? For this, we use the concepts of
decision trees.
• How should a set of characters be efficiently coded by bit strings? Here, we use
the concept of the prefix codes.
Binary Search Tree(BST):
Searching for items in a list is one of the most important tasks that arise in computer
science. Our primary goal is to implement a searching algorithm that finds items
efficiently when the items are totally ordered. This can be accomplished through the
use of binary search tree.
A binary search tree (BST) is a binary tree in which each child of a vertex is
designated as a right or left child, no vertex has more than one right child or left
child and each vertex is labeled with a key, which is one of the items.
• In BST, the left subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys lesser than the
node’s key. The right subtree of a node contains only nodes with keys greater than
the node’s key. The left and right subtree each must also be a binary search tree
Q)Form a binary search tree for the words mathematics, physics, geography,
zoology, meteorology, geology, psychology, and chemistry (using alphabetical
order)
Decision Trees: Rooted trees can be used to model problems in which a series of decision leads to
a solution. For instance, a binary search tree can be used to locate items based on a series of
comparisons, where each comparison tell us whether we have located the item or whether we
should go left or right in a subtree. A rooted tree in which each internal vertex corresponds to a
decision with a subtree at these vertices for each possible outcome of the decision is called a
decision tree. The possible solution of the problem corresponds to the paths to the leaves of the
rooted tree.

a
Prefix codes:
Consider using bit strings of different length to encode letters. Letters that occur
more frequently should be encoded using short bit strings. When letters are encoded
using varying number of bits, some method must be used to determine where the
bits of each character start and end.
For instance, if we encoded e with 0, a with 1 and t with 01, then the bit string 0101
could represent to eat or tea or eaea or tt.
One way to ensure that no bit string corresponds to more than one sequence of
letters is to encode letters so that the bit string for a letter never occurs as the first
part of the bit string for another letter. Codes with this property are called prefix
codes.
For example:
Encoding of e as 0, a as 10 and t as 11 is a prefix code. A word can be recovered
from unique bit string that encodes its letters.
For example: 10110 is the encoding of ate.
A prefix code can be represented using binary tree, where the characters are the
labels of the leaves of tree. The edges of tree are labeled so that an edge leading to a
left child is assigned as 0 and an right edge as 1. We construct prefix code from any
binary tree where the left edge at each internal vertex is labeled by 0 and right edge
by 1 and leaves are labeled by characters.
The tree in the figure represents the encoding of
e by 0, a by 10, t by 110, n by 1110, and s by
1111.
The tree representing a code can be used to
decode a bit string. For instance consider the
word encoded by 11111011100 using the code in
the figure. This bit string can be decoded by
starting at the root, using the sequence of bits to
form a path that stops when a leaf is reached.
So,the bit string 11111011100 can be decoded as
“sane”.
Spanning Trees(Imp):
Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree is a sub graph g of G that is a tree
containing every vertex of G.

Edge removed:

Figure: The Simple Graph G

Figure: Producing a
Spanning Tree for G
f f by removing edges
that forms simple
circuit
Edge removed: Edge removed:
Instead of constructing spanning trees by removing edges, spanning trees can be
built up by successively adding edges. Two algorithms based on this principle are:
Depth first search and breadth first search:
Depth first search and breadth first search are graph traversal method. We can build
spanning tree for a connected simple graph using depth first search and breadth first
search.
Depth first search:
First, arbitrarily choose a vertex of the graph as the root. Form a path starting at this
vertex by successively adding vertices and edges, where each new edges is incident
with last vertex in path and a vertex not already in the path. Continue adding
vertices and edges to this path as long as possible. If the path goes through all
vertices of the graph, the tree consisting of this path is a spanning tree. The depth
first search is also called backtracking algorithm because the algorithm returns to
previously visited vertices to add paths if the path does not go through all vertices
in the given graph.
Breadth-First Search:
Arbitrarily choose a root from the vertices of the graph. Then add all edges incident
to this vertex. The new vertices added at this stage become the vertices at level 1 in
the spanning tree. Arbitrarily order them. Next, for each vertex at level 1, visited in
order, add each edge incident to this vertex to the tree as long as it does not produce
a simple circuit. Arbitrarily order the children of each vertex at level 1. This
produces the vertices at level 2 in the tree. Follow the same procedure until all the
vertices in the tree have been added.
Minimum spanning trees:(Imp)
A minimum spanning tree in a connected weighted graph is a spanning tree that has
the smallest possible sum of weights of its edges. We will use two algorithms for
constructing minimum spanning trees.

Prim's Algorithm(Imp):
The algorithm was given by Robert Prim in 1957. To carry Prism's algorithm begin
by choosing any edge with smallest weight, putting it into the spanning tree.
If there is presence of loop, ignore it and if there is presence of multiple edges then
weight with maximum one is ignored and minimum one is taken. Successively add
to the tree edges of minimum weight that are incident to a vertex already in the tree
and never forming a simple circuit with those edges already in the tree. Stop when
n-1 edges have been added(or all the vertices of the graph are covered) where n is
the total number of the vertices in the graph.
Example. Draw the minimum spanning tree of the given weighted graph using Prim’s Algorithm
Solution:
Choice of edges:

using Prim’s Algorithm

Kruskal's Algorithm(Imp):
This algorithm was given by Joseph Kruskal. If there is presence of loop, ignore it
and if there is presence of multiple edges then weight with maximum one is ignored
and minimum one is taken. In Prim’s algorithm edges of minimum weight that are
incident to a vertex already in the tree, and not forming a circuit, are chosen;
whereas in Kruskal’s algorithm edges of minimum weight that are not necessarily
incident to a vertex already in the tree, and that do not form a circuit, are chosen.
Stop when n-1 edges(or all the vertices of the graph are covered) have been added
where n is the total number of the vertices in the graph.
{c,d}=1

{b,f}=1

{k,l}=1
 {f,j}=2
{c,g}=2

(g)

{a,b}=2 {b,c}=3
 (j)
(h)
{i,j}=3

{j,k}=3

(k)
(i)

{a,e}=3
{g,h}=3

using Kruskal’s Algorithm

Concept of Graph Coloring:
When a map is colored, two regions with a common border are customarily
assigned different colors. One way to ensure that two adjacent regions never have
the same color is to use a different color for each region.
Consider the problem of determining the least number of colors that can be used to
color a map so that adjacent regions never have the same color. For instance, for the
map shown on the left in Figure 1, four colors are sufficient(but three colors are not
enough). In the map on the right in Figure 1, three colors are sufficient (but two are
not).

RED BLUE
Green
Yellow
BLUE Yellow RED
BlUE RED
GREEN
RED BLUE
Dual graph:
Each map in a plane can be represented by a graph. Each region in a map is
represented by a vertex. Edges connect to vertices if the regions in a map have a
common border. The resulting graph is called the dual graph of the map.

The problem of coloring the regions of a

map is equivalent to the problem of
coloring the vertices of the dual graph so
that no two adjacent vertices in this
graph have the same color.
Graph coloring:
A coloring of a simple graph is the assignment of a color to each vertex of the
graph so that no two adjacent vertices are assigned the same color. Smallest number
of colors must be used instead of just assigning every vertices its own color. The
objective is to minimize the number of colors while coloring a graph.

A chromatic number of a graph is the least number of color needed for coloring
the graph. The chromatic number of a graph G is denoted by χ (G). (Here χ is the
Greek letter chi.)
Q. Draw the complete graph K5,cycle graphs C5 and C6,complete bipartite
graph K3,3 and K2,6 and Q3.Use graph coloring techniques to color each
vertices of the graph and find the chromatic number of the graph that you
have drawn.(Imp)
Red Red Red Green
Brown Green Green
Blue Red Chromatic number=2
Green

Green Black Red Blue Red Green

Chromatic number=5 Chromatic number=3 Red Red

Red
Chromatic number=2
Blue Blue Blue
Red Blue

Blue Red Red Red

Chromatic number=2
Chromatic number=2 Red
Blue
Red Blue Blue Blue Blue Blue Blue Blue
Max flow and min cut theorem(Imp):
➢ It states that in any network max flow is equal to min cut.
• In network or transport network the flow is the amount of commodity (number
of car in a road, gallon of oil in pipe, bits of information in channel etc.)
transported from one place to another for an instant of time.
• The maximum amount of flow is called the capacity of the line or arc or edge.
• The flow f(e)=f(v, w) and the capacity c(e)=c(v, w) are non negative real
numbers.
• f(e) ≤ c(e).
• The unique starting vertex that has in degree = 0 is called source s ∈V.
• The unique ending vertex that has out degree = 0 is called sink, t ∈V.
• In a network there is one source and one sink. Any other vertex is called
intermediate vertex.
• Flow conservation: For any intermediate vertex, total flow into x equals to the
flow out of x .
• Sum of flow from the source = Sum of flow to the sink.
• Saturated flow: The flow along an edge e(v, w) is said to be saturated if f(e)=c(e).
• If f(e)<c(e), then the flow is unsaturated, then residual capacity or slack is
s(e)=c(e)-f(e).
Flow augmenting path:
• The edge ei is called forward edge if it is directed to: xi to xi+1 and transportation
flow from xi to xi+1, it is backward edge if transportation flow from xi+1 to xi
• If a flow f is given by path p:s = x1, x2,………….. xk-1, xk= t, then it is called a flow
augmenting path if (i)every forward edge of path has excess capacity that is
f(e)<c(e) and (ii) every backward edge has f(e)>0.
Max flow:
• The flow that achieves the largest possible value is called the maximum flow or
maximal flow in a network.
• To calculate max flow calculate the unused capacity c(e)-f(e) for each forward arc
and f(e) in each backward arc.
• In a f- augmenting path from source to sink, for the forward edge increase the
flow with the minimum slack (unused capacity) followed in the path.
• For backward edge in the f- augmenting path from source to sink, decrease the
flow with the minimum slack.
• ∆ = min(c(e) - f(e))
• f* = f + ∆ (for forward edge)
• f* = f - ∆ (for backward edge)
Calculating Max flow for above network diagram:
Here the unused capacity = slack in f- augmenting path s, a, d, t are
S(s, a) = 2 – l = l
S(a, d) = 4 – l = 3
S(d, t) = 4 – l = 3
The minimum value is 1 in above slack value. So, now add the value 1 in the flow
of s, a, d, t.
f(s, a) = l + l = 2
f(a, d) = l + l = 2
f(d, t) = l + l = 2
Now S(s, a) = 2-2 = 0. So, there is not necessity for further calculation of slack in f-
augmenting path containing (s, a) edge.(remember for f-augmenting path (c(e)-
f(e))>0).
• Again, S(s, b) = 1-1 = 0, So, there is no necessity for further calculation of slack in
the augmented path containing edge (s, b).
• The max flow = flow from source s = 2 + 1 = 3.
Min cut:
• In min cut we calculate the capacity by separating the vertices into two subsets p
and p‘.
• p contains s only or s and other vertices which are not in p'.
• p' contains t only or t and other vertices which are not in p.
• If there are 4 vertices other than source and sink, then there are24 = 16,s - t cuts.
• The capacity of a cut denoted by c(p, p') is defined to be the sum of the capacities
of those edges directed from the vertices in set p to the vertices in p'.
• If the edge is backward edge put the value of the backward edge = 0.
• A cut is called minimum cut if its capacity does not exceed the capacity of any
other cut of the network.
Calculating Min cut for above network diagram:
• If p = {s} and p' = {a, b, c, d, t} then c(p, p') = c(s, a) + c(s, b) = 2 + l = 3.
• If p = {s, a} and p'={b, c, d, t} then c(p, p') = c(s, b) + c(a, b) + c(a, d) = l + 3 + 4 = 8.
• Similarly, Table for possible s-t cut

C,

d,