Ministry of Secondary Education Republic of Cameroon

Progressive
&
Comprehensive High School Peace – Work – Fatherland
PCHS Mankon – Bamenda School Year 2014/2015
Department of Computer Studies

INFORMATION SYSTEM &

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Class: Comp. Sc A/L By: DZEUGANG PLACIDE

Systems are created to solve problems. Systems development can generally be thought of as
having two major components: Systems analysis and Systems design. System design is the
process of planning a new business system or one to replace or complement an existing
system. But before this planning can be done, we must thoroughly understand the old system
and determine how computers can best be used to make its operation more effective. System
analysis, then, is the process of gathering and interpreting facts, diagnosing problems, and
using the information to recommend improvements to the system.

Lesson objectives
It is expected that after going through this lesson, you would be able to
- Understand information system describe its components and various types of IS.
- explain the different phases of system development life cycle
- Understand and describe Phases of system and software Design
- Learn the steps in project planning to develop a defensible plan and logical schedule.
- Learn the tools needed to plan, schedule, and budget a project.
- Represent timing of a project using Gantt chart, PERT chart, calculate and represent
critical path

Table of Contents
I. DATA PROCESSING CYCLE ............................................................................................................... 2
II. INFORMATION SYSTEM................................................................................................................... 3
III. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE ................................................................................................... 7
IV. INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN .................................................................. 9
V. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC) .................................................................................. 13

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 1 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

I. DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

The term “data processing” (or by abuse

information processing) usually refers to the
manipulation off raw information (called
data) to produce useful information.
Information processing cycle refers to the
sequence of events which includes four
principal stages: Input, processing and
output

1- Input: Data input refers to the various manual and automated ways by which data
enter the computer. This stage involves collection of data from the outside or also
from within the system. The input stage can be further broken down into data
acquisition, data entry and data validation.
- Data acquisition refers to the collection of the raw data from the outside so that it
can be put into an Information system.
- Data entry is the process of putting the acquired data into the IS. Example: typing
students details into a database
- Data validation refers to the process of checking the data to ensure it is error free. It
uses routines also called validation routines or check routines, that check for
correctness, meaningfulness and security of data that are input to the system.
 format check: e.g. date has to be in the format DD/MM/YY
 Data type check: e.g. the letter ‘O’ should not be typed instead of the integer 0.
 Range check: The month should lie between 1 and 12
 Limit check: the age should not be negative
 Presence check: e.g. Any customer must have a telephone number
 Consistency check: e.g. If Title = “Mrs”, then the gender = “F”
 …
2- Processing : In this stage the computer processes the minutest details entered. It is the
fact of manipulating data to produce information.

Common processing methods

 Batch Processing: This is a method where the information to be organized is

sorted into groups to allow for efficient and sequential processing.
 Online Processing: This is a method that utilizes Internet connections and
equipment directly attached to a computer. It is used mainly for information
recording and research.
 Real-Time Processing: This technique has the ability to respond almost
immediately to various signals in order to acquire and process information.
 Distributed Processing: This method is commonly utilized by remote
workstations connected to one big central workstation or server. ATMs are good
examples of this data processing method.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 2 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

3- Output: In this stage, the processed information is now transmitted to the user.
Output is the act of sending out information by a data processing system such as the
computer.
4- Other stages : Other stages include:
(a) Storage: After the data has been processed, along with the output to the user, the
data is also stored.
(b) Retrieval: This is the reverse of storage
(c) Communication: This is the process of sending data or information to another places.
(d) Data verification: This is the process whereby the process is checked for accuracy
and inconsistencies after data migration. Data verification is used to prevent errors
occurring when data is copied from one medium to another. Common data
verification methods include:
- Proof reading (visual check): checked for errors by looking through the data. E.g.
proof-reading a typed document
- Double keying: This is a check to see whether the data has been keyed in correctly.
The data is keyed twice, and the computer will only accept the data for processing in
the two versions are identical.
- Parity: Used to check for transmission errors over network or between memory and
disk. An extra bit is added to each binary number before it is transmitted. Even parity
system makes sure that each number has an even number of “1” bits. After
transmission each number is checked to see if it still has an even number of “1” bits.
If not, then the computer will conclude that the corruption of data has occurred.
(e) Archiving: Archiving means taking the data off the main storage (e.g. hard drive)
and storing it offline (not immediately available) usually on tape in the way it will not
take up important hard disk space.
(f) Deleting: This is the process of erasing or wiping our recorder data (usually from a
recorded unit).

II. INFORMATION SYSTEM

2.1. What is a System?

We can define a System as a combination of resources or functional units working together to

accomplish a given task.

a) Basic element of a system

The basic elements of the system may be listed as:

→ Resources: Resources can be hardware, software or liveware.

→ Procedures: Every system functions under a set of rules that govern the system to
accomplish the defined goal of the system. This set of rules defines the procedures for
the system
→ Data/Information,

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 3 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

→ Processes: The systems have some processes that make use of the resources to
achieve the set goal under the defined procedures.

b) Characteristics of a system

Systems also exhibit certain features and characteristics, some of which are:

→ Objective: Every system has a predefined goal or objective towards which it works.
A system cannot exist without a defined objective.
→ Standards: It is the acceptable level of performance for any system. Systems should
be designed to meet standards.
→ Environment: Every system whether it is natural or man made co-exists with an
environment. It is very important for a system to adapt itself to its environment.
→ Feedback: Feedback is an important element of systems. The output of a system
needs to be observed and feedback from the output taken so as to improve the system
and make it achieve the laid standards.
→ Boundaries and interfaces: Every system has defined boundaries within which it
operates. Beyond these limits the system has to interact with the other systems.

c) Types of Systems

→ Manual Systems: These are systems that are basically mechanical in nature and do
not require or use any automation. Such systems existed predominantly in the past and
were not very reliable or fast.
→ Information Systems: (IS) Any system that makes use of automation and especially
harnessed by people, procedures, software, hardware and digital data is called an
information system (IS).

2.2. What is an Information System?

An Information System (IS) is defined as an organized collection of technical and human

resources for the processing, storing and distribution of an organization’s information. An IS
using a computer is called a Computer Based Information System (CBIS).

2.2.1. Components of IS

The 5 components that must come together in order to produce a Computer-Based

Information system are:

 Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes the
computer itself, which is often referred to as the central processing unit (CPU), and all
of its support equipments.
 Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any)
that support them.
 Data: Data are facts that are used by programs to produce useful information.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 4 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

 Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer
system. "Procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is a common analogy
that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a CBIS.
 People: Often the most over-looked element of the CBIS are the people, probably the
component that most influence the success or failure of information systems.

2.3. Importance of an IS in an organization

To gain the maximum benefits from your company's information system, you have to exploit
all its capacities. Importance of IS within an organisation are numerous:

 Communication: Part of management is gathering and distributing information, and

information systems can make this process more efficient by allowing managers to
communicate rapidly.
 Operations: How you manage your company's operations depends on the
information you have. Information systems can offer more complete and more recent
information, allowing you to operate your company more efficiently.
 Decisions: The company information system can help you make better decisions by
delivering all the information you need and by modelling the results of your decisions.
 Records: Your Company needs records of its activities for financial and regulatory
purposes as well as for finding the causes of problems and taking corrective action.

2.4. Types of Information System

Information systems differ in their business needs. Also depending upon different levels in
organization information systems differ. Three major information systems are:
1. Transaction processing
2. Management information system
3. Decision support system
4. Executive Information System

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 5 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

2.4.1. Executive Information System (EIS):

This is a computer based system intended to help and support the information and decision
making needs of senior executives of a company or organization. It provides easy access to
internal and external information needed to achieve the strategic goals of the organization. It
is commonly considered as a specialized form of DSS.

Functions of a EIS in terms of data processing requirements

Inputs Processing Outputs
External Data Summarizing Summary reports
Internal Files Simulation Forecasts
Pre-defined models "Drilling Down" Graphs / Plots

2.4.2. Decision support system (DSS)

A decision support system is a computer application that helps users analyse problems and
make business decisions more confidently. It uses data routinely collected in organizations
and special analysis tools to provide information support to complex decisions. To store all
the necessary decision-making data, DSSs or EISs often use extremely large databases,
called data warehouses. A data warehouse stores and manages the data required to analyze
historical and current business circumstances. DSS manipulate and build upon the
information from a MIS and/or TPS to generate insights and new information.

Functions of a DSS in terms of data processing requirements

Inputs Processing Outputs
Modelling
Internal Transactions Summary reports
Simulation
Internal Files Forecasts
Analysis
External Information? Graphs / Plots
Summarizing

2.4.3. Management Information system (MIS)

The MIS is defined as a system which provides information support for decision
making in the organization. They use the results of transaction processing and some other
information also. It is an information system that generates accurate, timely and organized
information so managers and other users can make decisions, solve problems, supervise
activities, and track progress. An important element of MIS system is database. MIS are built
on the data provided by the TPS

Functions of a MIS in terms of data processing requirements

Inputs Processing Outputs
Internal Transactions Sorting Summary reports
Internal Files Merging Action reports

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 6 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

Structured data Summarizing Detailed reports

2.4.4. Transaction Processing System (TPS)

A transaction processing system (TPS) is an information system that captures and

processes data generated during an organization’s day-to-day transactions. A transaction is
any activity of an organization including a business activity such as a deposit, payment,
order or reservation. As computers became more powerful, system developers built online
transaction processing systems. With online transaction processing (OLTP) the computer
processes transactions as they are entered.

Functions of a TPS in terms of data processing requirements

Inputs Processing Outputs
Validation
Sorting Lists
Transactions Listing Detail reports
Events Merging Action reports
Updating Summary reports?
Calculation

2.4.5. Other types of information systems

a) Office Automation System (OAS): These are systems that use varied computer
machinery and software to digitally create, collect, store, manipulate and relay office
information needed for accomplishing basic tasks in an organisation. All office functions
like dictation, typing, filing, copying, fax, telex, microfilm and records management,
telephone and telephone switch board operations are included.
b) Expert system (ES): An expert system is an information system that captures and stores
the knowledge of human experts and then imitates human reasoning and decision-making
processes for those who have less expertise. Expert systems are composed of two main
components: a knowledge base and inference rules.
- A knowledge base is the combined subject knowledge and experiences of the human
experts.
- The inference rules are a set of logical judgments applied to the knowledge base
each time a user describes a situation to the expert system.
c) Integrated Information Systems (IIS): With today’s sophisticated hardware, software
and communications technologies, it is often difficult to classify a system as belonging
uniquely to one of the information system types discussed. Although expert systems still
operate primarily as separate systems, organizations increasingly are consolidating their
information needs into a single, integrated information system.

III. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

3.1. What’s an organizational structure?

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 7 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

An organizational structure defines how activities such as task allocation, coordination and
supervision are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be
considered as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their
organization and its environment. Organizational structure determines how the roles, power
and responsibilities are assigned, controlled, and coordinated, and how information
flows between The different levels of management. A structure depends on
the organization's objectives and strategy.

 In a centralized structure, the top layer of management has most of the decision
making power and has tight control over departments and divisions.
 In a decentralized structure, the decision making power is distributed and the
departments and divisions may have different degrees of independence.

3.2. Why should you develop a structure for your organization?

 Structure gives members clear guidelines for how to proceed. A clearly-

established structure gives the group a means to maintain order and resolve
disagreements.
 Structure binds members together. It gives meaning and identity to the people
who join the group, as well as to the group itself.
 Structure in any organization is inevitable -- an organization, by definition,
implies a structure.

3.3. Organizational Chart

An organizational chart illustrates the organizational structure. It is Visual representation of
how a firm intends authority, responsibility, and information to flow within its
formal organizationa structure. It usually depicts different management functions
(accounting, finance, human resources, marketing, production, R&D, etc.) and
their subdivisions as boxes linked with lines along which decision making power travels
downwards and answerability travels upwards.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 8 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

IV. INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

System Analysis and Design (SAD) is the process of defining the architecture, components,
modules, interfaces and data for a system to achieve a specific goal or satisfy specific
requirements. System development can generally be thought of having two major
components: systems analysis and systems design.
→ In System Analysis more emphasis is given to understanding the details of an
existing system or a proposed one and then deciding whether the proposed system is
desirable or not and whether the existing system needs improvements.
→ System design is the process of planning a new business system or one to replace or
complement an existing system. Analysis specifies what the system should do. Design
states how to accomplish the objective.

4.1. System analysis

System analysis is the process of investigating a system, identifying problems, and using the
information to recommend improvements to the system.

4.1.1. What is the purpose of the analysis phase?

 the present system is studied in depth, and new requirements are specified
 We are NOT concerned with the new design here, only in determining the
requirements for the new system

4.1.2. What is a system analyst?

He is the person responsible for the development of an information system. Systems analysts
design and modify systems by turning user requirements into a set of functional
specifications, which are the blueprint of the system. Some responsabilities of a system
analyst are:

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 9 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

 Identify, understand and plan for organizational and human impacts of planned
systems, and ensure that new technical requirements are properly integrated with
existing processes and skill sets.
 Plan a system flow from the ground up.
 Interact with internal users and customers to learn and document requirements that
are then used to produce business requirements documents.
 Write technical requirements from a critical phase.
 Interact with designers to understand software limitations.
 Help programmers during system development, ex: provide use cases, flowcharts
or even database design.
 Perform system testing.
 Deploy the completed system.
 Document requirements or contribute to user manuals.

4.2. System design

System design is the process of planning a new business system or one to replace or
complement an existing system. In the systems design phase, a new or alternative information
system is designed. It consists of three tasks:

3.2.1 Designing Alternative Systems

 In almost all instances, more than one design can be developed to meet the
information needs.
 Each alternative must be checked for feasibility including:
o Economic feasibility (Will the costs of the new system be justified by the
benefits? How long will it take to pay for itself)
o Technical feasibility: Are reliable hardware, software, and training available to
make the system work, and if not, can it be obtained?
o Operational feasibility: Can the system actually be made to operate in the
organization, or will people – employees, managers, clients – resist it?

3.2.2 Selecting the Best System

Management must consider four key questions when selecting the best (optimal) system
 Will the system fit in the organization’s overall information system?
 Will the system be flexible enough so it can be modified in the future?
 Can it be made secure against unauthorized use?
 Are the benefits worth the costs?
Consider some criteria like reusability and portability

Reuse: Using components of one product to facilitate development of a different product

with different functionality

A product is portable if it is significantly easier to modify it to run on another system

configuration (compiler, hardware, operating system) than recode it from scratch

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 10 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

3.2.3 Writing the systems design report

 The systems design report is prepared for higher management and describes
alternate designs.
 It presents the costs and benefits and outlines the effect of alternate designs on the
organization
 It concludes by recommending one of the systems

4.3. Common analysis tools.

3.3.1 Decision tables :

Decision tables are used to model complicated programming logic. They can make it easy to
see that all possible combinations of conditions have been considered; when conditions are
missed, it is easy to see this.

Example of decision table: Printer troubleshooter

Conditions/ Courses of action Rules

Printer does not print YY YYNN NN
Conditions A red light is flashing YY NNYY NN
Printer is unrecognized YN YNYN YN
Check the power cable X
Check the printer-computer cable X X
Actions Ensure printer software is installed X X X X
Check/replace ink XX XX
Check for paper jam X X

3.3.2 System flowchart:

System flowchart is the graphical representation of the flow of data in the system, and represents
the work process of the system. Various symbols are used in the flowchart to designate specific
actions. We will use the following symbols:

input process storage output

For example, a system flowchart describing a program is:

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 11 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

Here, the program Pay010 has keyboard input, and produces output on the monitor and printer.

3.3.3 Data flow diagrams

The Data Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the flow of data through an
information system. It enables you to represent the processes in your information system
from the viewpoint of data. Data flow diagrams are used by systems analysts to design
information-processing systems but also as a way to model whole organizations. There exist
two methods to represent DFD: Gane & Sarson method and Yourdon method.

Concept Gane & Sarson Yourdon Description

Process Location where data is transformed.
See Process.

Flow Oriented link between objects,

which conveys data. See Flow.
Data store Repository of data. See Data store.

External entity Source or destination of data. See

External entity.

Example: A context-level data flow diagram for an airline reservation system.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 12 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

V. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

SDLC, System Development Life Cycle is a

process used by software industry to design,
develop and test high quality software. The
SDLC aims to produce a high quality software
that meets or exceeds customer expectations,
reaches completion within times and cost
estimates. It consists of a detailed plan
describing how to develop, maintain, replace
and alter or enhance specific software. The life
cycle defines a methodology for improving the
quality of software and the overall development
process.

5.1. Stages of a SDLC.

A typical Software Development life cycle consists of the following stages:

Stage 1: Planning and Requirement Analysis : Requirement analysis is the most

important and fundamental stage in SDLC. It is performed by the senior members of the team
with inputs from the customer, the sales department, market surveys and domain experts in
the industry. This information is then used to plan the basic project approach and to
conduct product feasibility study in the economical, operational, and technical areas.

Stage 2: Defining Requirements : Once the requirement analysis is done the next step is
to clearly define and document the product requirements and get them approved from
the customer or the market analysts. This is done through ‘SRS’ (Software
Requirement Specification) document which consists of all the product requirements to
be designed and developed during the project life cycle.

Stage 3: Designing the product architecture : A design approach clearly defines all the
architectural modules of the product along with its communication and data flow
representation with the external and third party modules (if any). The internal design
of all the modules of the proposed architecture should be clearly defined with the
minutest of the details in DDS(Design Document Specification).

Stage 4: Building or Developing the Product: In this stage of SDLC the actual development
starts and the product is built. The programming code is generated as per DDS during this
stage. If the design is performed in a detailed and organized manner, code generation can be
accomplished without much hassle.

Stage 5: Testing the Product: This stage is usually a subset of all the stages as in the
modern SDLC models, the testing activities are mostly involved in all the stages of SDLC.
However this stage refers to the testing only stage of the product where products

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 13 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

defects are reported, tracked, fixed and retested, until the product reaches the quality
standards defined in the SRS.

Stage 6: Deployment in the Market and Maintenance : Once the product is tested and
ready to be deployed it is released formally in the appropriate market. Sometime
product deployment happens in stages as per the organizations’ business strategy. Then
based on the feedback, the product may be released as it is or with suggested
enhancements in the targeting market segment. After the product is released in the market, its
maintenance is done for the existing customer base.

5.2. SDLC Models

4.2.1 Waterfall Model

This model is also known as linear sequential model. The first published model, suggests a
systematic, sequential approach to software development that begins at the system level and
progresses through analysis, design, coding, testing, and support. It is very simple to
understand and use. In a waterfall model, each phase must be completed fully before the next
phase can begin. At the end of each phase, a review takes place to determine if the project is
on the right path and whether or not to continue or discard (give up, surrender) the project. In
waterfall model phases do not overlap.

Advantages of Waterfall model:

 Simple and easy to understand and use.
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model – each phase has specific deliverables
and a review process.
 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood
 Good for management control (plan, staff, track)

Disadvantages of Waterfall model:

 Once an application is in the testing stage, it is very difficult to go back and change
something that was not well-thought out in the design/concept stage.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 14 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.

 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing.

When to use Waterfall model

 Requirements are very well known, clear and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is understood.
 There are no ambiguous requirements
 Ample resources with required expertise are available freely
 The project is short.

4.2.2. Iterative Model

An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of
requirements. Instead, development begins by specifying and implementing just a part of the
software, which can then be reviewed in order to identify further requirements. This process
is then repeated, producing a new version of the software for each cycle of the model.

Advantages of the model

 In iterative model we can only create a high-level design of the application before we
actually begin to build the product and define the design solution for the entire product.
Later on we can design and built a skeleton version of that, and then evolved the design
based on what had been built.
 In iterative model we are building and improving the product step by step. Hence we can
track the defects at early stages. This avoids the downward flow of the defects.
 In iterative model we can get the reliable user feedback. When presenting sketches and
blueprints of the product to users for their feedback, we are effectively asking them to
imagine how the product will work.
 In iterative model less time is spent on documenting and more time is given for
designing.

Disadvantages of the model

 Each phase of an iteration is rigid with no overlaps

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 15 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

 Costly system architecture or design issues may arise because not all requirements are
gathered up front for the entire lifecycle

When to use iterative model

 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
 When the project is big.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some details can evolve with time.

4.2.3. Incremental Model

The incremental model is an intuitive approach to the waterfall model. Multiple development
cycles take place here, making the life cycle a “multi-waterfall” cycle. Cycles are divided
up into smaller, more easily managed iterations. Each iteration passes through the
requirements, design, implementation and testing phases.

A working version of software is produced during the first iteration, so you have working
software early on during the software life cycle. Subsequent iterations build on the initial
software produced during the first iteration.

Advantages of the model

 Generates working software quickly and early during the software life cycle.
 More flexible – less costly to change scope and requirements.
 Easier to test and debug during a smaller iteration.
 Customer can respond to each built.
 Lowers initial delivery cost.
 Easier to manage risk because risky pieces are identified and handled during its iteration.

Disadvantages of the model

 Needs good planning and design.
 Needs a clear and complete definition of the whole system before it can be broken down
and built incrementally.
 Total cost is higher than waterfall.

When to use Incremental model

 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some details can evolve with time.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 16 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

 There is a need to get a product to the market early.

 A new technology is being used
 Resources with needed skill set are not available
 There are some high risk features and goals.

4.2.4. V-Shaped Model

V-model means Verification and Validation model. Just like the waterfall model, the V-
model life cycle is a sequential path of execution of processes. Each phase must be completed
before the next phase begins. Testing of the product is planned in parallel with a
corresponding phase of development.

 Requirements like BRS (Business Requirement Specification) and SRS (System

Requirement Specification) begin the life cycle model just like the waterfall model.
But, in this model before development is started, a system test plan is created. The
test plan focuses on meeting the functionality specified in the requirements gathering.
 The high-level design (HLD) phase focuses on system architecture and design. It
provides overview of solution, platform, system, product and service/process.
An integration test plan is created in this phase as well in order to test the pieces of the
software systems ability to work together.
 The low-level design (LLD) phase is where the actual software components are
designed. It defines the actual logic for each and every component of the system.
Class diagram with all the methods and relation between classes comes under LLD.
Component tests are created in this phase as well.
 The implementation phase is, again, where all coding takes place. Once coding is
complete, the path of execution continues up the right side of the V where the test
plans developed earlier are now put to use.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 17 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

Advantages of the V-Model

 Simple and easy to use.
 Testing activities like planning, test designing happens well before coding. This saves a
lot of time. Hence higher chance of success over the waterfall model.
 Proactive defect tracking – that is defects are found at early stage.
 Avoids the downward flow of the defects.
 Works well for small projects where requirements are easily understood.

Disadvantages of V-Model
 Very rigid and least flexible.
 Software is developed during the implementation phase, so no early prototypes of the
software are produced.
 If any changes happen in midway, then the test documents along with requirement
documents has to be updated.

When to use V-Model

 The V-shaped model should be used for small to medium sized projects where
requirements are clearly defined and fixed.
 The V-Shaped model should be chosen when ample technical resources are available
with needed technical expertise.

4.2.5. Spiral model

The spiral model is similar to the

incremental model, with more emphasis
placed on risk analysis. The spiral model
has four phases: Planning, Risk Analysis,
Engineering and Evaluation. A software
project repeatedly passes through these
phases in iterations (called Spirals in this
model). The baseline spiral, starting in the
planning phase, requirements are gathered
and risk is assessed. Each subsequent spirals
builds on the baseline spiral. Requirements
are gathered during the planning phase. In
the risk analysis phase, a process is
undertaken to identify risk and alternate solutions. A prototype is produced at the end of the
risk analysis phase. Software is produced in the engineering phase, along with testing at the
end of the phase. The evaluation phase allows the customer to evaluate the output of the
project to date before the project continues to the next spiral.
Advantages of the spiral model
 High amount of risk analysis hence, avoidance of Risk is enhanced.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 18 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

 Good for large and mission-critical projects.

 Strong approval and documentation control.
 Additional Functionality can be added at a later date.
 Software is produced early in the software life cycle.

Disadvantages of the spiral model

 Can be a costly model to use.
 Risk analysis requires highly specific expertise.
 Project’s success is highly dependent on the risk analysis phase.
 Doesn’t work well for smaller projects.

When use the spiral model

 When costs and risk evaluation is important
 For medium to high-risk projects
 Long-term project commitment unwise because of potential changes to economic
priorities
 Users are unsure of their needs
 Requirements are complex
 New product line
 Significant changes are expected (research and exploration)

4.2.6. Argile model

Agile SDLC model is a combination of iterative

and incremental process models with focus on
process adaptability and customer satisfaction by
rapid delivery of working software product. Agile
Methods break the product into small incremental
builds. These builds are provided in iterations.
Each iteration typically lasts from about one to
three weeks. In software development, the agile
model does not build an entire system at once, but
rather develops incrementally. Less time is invested
upfront for documenting requirements when
development is done incrementally. Another
characteristic of agile software development is that customer feedback occurs simultaneously
with development

Advantage of agile model

 Is a very realistic approach to software development

 Promotes teamwork and cross training.
 Functionality can be developed rapidly and demonstrated.
 Resource requirements are minimum.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 19 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

 Suitable for fixed or changing requirements

 Delivers early partial working solutions.
 Good model for environments that change steadily.
 Minimal rules, documentation easily employed.
 Enables concurrent development and delivery within an overall planned context.
 Little or no planning required
 Easy to manage
 Gives flexibility to developers

Disadvantages of argile model

 Not suitable for handling complex dependencies.

 More risk of sustainability, maintainability and extensibility.
 An overall plan, an agile leader and agile PM practice is a must without which it
will not work.
 Strict delivery management dictates the scope, functionality to be delivered, and
adjustments to meet the deadlines.
 Depends heavily on customer interaction, so if customer is not clear, team can be
driven in the wrong direction.
 There is very high individual dependency, since there is minimum documentation
generated.
 Transfer of technology to new team members may be quite challenging due to
lack of documentation.

4.2.7. RAD model

Rapid application development (RAD) is a software development methodology that uses

minimal planning in favor of rapid prototyping. The "planning" of software developed using
RAD is interleaved with writing the software itself. The lack of extensive pre-planning
generally allows software to be written much faster, and makes it easier to change
requirements.

The phases in the rapid application development (RAD) model are:

 Business modeling: The information flow is identified between various business

functions.
 Data modeling: Information gathered from business modeling is used to define data
objects that are needed for the business.
 Process modeling: Data objects defined in data modeling are converted to achieve
the business information flow to achieve some specific business objective.
Description are identified and created for CRUD of data objects.
 Application generation: Automated tools are used to convert process models into
code and the actual system.
 Testing and turnover: Test new components and all the interfaces.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 20 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

Advantages of the RAD model:

 Reduced development time.

 Increases reusability of components
 Quick initial reviews occur
 Encourages customer feedback
 Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.

Disadvantages of RAD model:

 Depends on strong team and individual performances for identifying business

requirements.
 Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD
 Requires highly skilled developers/designers.
 High dependency on modeling skills
 Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of modeling and automated code generation is
very high.

When to use RAD model:

 RAD should be used when there is a need to create a system that can be modularized
in 2-3 months of time.
 It should be used if there’s high availability of designers for modeling and the budget
is high enough to afford their cost along with the cost of automated code generating
tools.
 RAD SDLC model should be chosen only if resources with high business knowledge
are available and there is a need to produce the system in a short span of time (2-3
months).

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 21 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

4.2.8. Prototype model

Prototyping is the process of building a model of a system. The basic idea here is that
instead of freezing the requirements before a design or coding can proceed, a throwaway
prototype is built to understand the requirements. In terms of an information system,
prototypes are employed to help system designers build an information system that intuitive
and easy to manipulate for end users. Prototyping is an iterative process that is part of the
analysis phase of the systems development life cycle. A prototype is an original type, form,
or instance of something serving as a typical example, basis, or standard for other things of
the same category. With rare exceptions, multiple iterations of prototypes are used to
progressively refine the design.

Diagram of Prototype model:

Advantages of Prototype model:

 Users are actively involved in the development

 Since in this methodology a working model of the system is provided, the users get a
better understanding of the system being developed.
 Errors can be detected much earlier.
 Quicker user feedback is available leading to better solutions.
 Missing functionality can be identified easily
 Confusing or difficult functions can be identified Requirements validation, Quick
implementation of, incomplete, but functional, application.

Disadvantages of Prototype model:

 Can lead to insufficient analysis.

 Practically, this methodology may increase the complexity of the system as scope of
the system may expand beyond original plans.
 Incomplete application may cause application not to be used as the
full system was designed
 Incomplete or inadequate problem analysis.

When to use Prototype model:

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 22 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

 Prototype model should be used when the desired system needs to have a lot of
interaction with the end users. Typically, online systems, web interfaces have a very
high amount of interaction with end users, are best suited for Prototype model.
 They are excellent for designing good human computer interface systems.

4.2.9. Object modelling

Object-oriented modeling is an approach to modeling an application that is used at the

beginning of the software life cycle when using an object-oriented approach to software
development. The software life cycle is typically divided up into stages going from abstract
descriptions of the problem to designs then to code and testing and finally to deployment.
Modeling is done at the beginning of the process. Object-oriented modeling is typically done
via use cases and abstract definitions of the most important objects. The most common
language used to do object-oriented modeling is the Unified Modeling Language (UML).

4.2.10. Methods of interacting with a system.

There are various methods used by users to interact with the system:

 command language: A human-computer interaction method where users entered

explicit statements into a system to invoke operations.
 Menu: A human-computer interaction method where a list of system options is
provided and a specific command is invoked by user selection of a menu option
 Form: A highly intuitive human-computer interaction method whereby data fields
are formatted in a manner similar to paper based forms.
 Object: A human computer interaction method where symbols are used to represent
command or functions.
 Natural language: A human-computer interaction method whereby inputs to and
outputs from a computer base application are in conventional speaking language
such as English.

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 23 of 24
Topic: System Analysis and Design Par DZEUGANG PLACIDE

Visit www.dzplacide.overblog.com for further learning tools for ICT & Comp. Sc Page 24 of 24