Transmission Modes in Computer Networks (Simplex, Half-Duplex and Full-Duplex)

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission mode:-

 Simplex Mode

 Half-Duplex Mode

 Full-Duplex Mode

Simplex Mode

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor
can only give the output.

Half-Duplex Mode

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both direction at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both the
directions.

Full-Duplex Mode

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full_duplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in other direction, this
sharing can occur in two ways:

 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and other
for receiving.

 Or the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone
line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Line Configuration in Computer Networks

A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link is a communication pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. Devices can be a computer, printer or any other device
that is capable to send and receive data. For visualization purpose, imagine any link as a line drawn
between two points.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the
same time. There are two possible types of connections:

1. Point-to-Point Connection

2. Multipoint Connection

Point-to-Point Connection:

1. A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

2. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

3. Most point-to-point connections use a actual length of wire or cable to connect the two end,
but other options such as microwave or satellite links are also possible.

4. Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most
conventional network
topologies.

5. It is also the simplest to establish and understand.

Example: Point-to-Point connection between remote control and Television for changing the
channels.

Multipoint Connection:
 1. It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or more devices share a
single link.

2. More than two devices share the link that is the capacity of the channel is shared now. With
shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line configuration:

Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, its called Spatially shared line
configuration.
Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link, then its called Temporally shared or
Time Shared Line configuration.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network which comprises of nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred as network topology. The various network topologies are :

a) Mesh Topology :

In mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via particular channel.

Figure 1 : Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These channels are known
as links.
  If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh topology, then total
number of ports that is required by each device is N-1. In the Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence total number of ports required is 4.

 If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh topology, then total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2i.e. N(N-1)/2. In the Figure 1, there
are 5 devices connected to each other, hence total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.

Advantages of this topology :

 It is robust.

 Fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.

 Provides security and privacy.

Problems with this topology :

 Installation and configuration is difficult.

 Cost of cables are high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.

 Cost of maintenance is high.

b) Star Topology :

In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e. not intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as active hubs. Active hubs have repeaters in them.

Figure 2 : A star topology having four systems connected to single point of connection i.e. hub.

Advantages of this topology :

 If N devices are connected to each other in star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.

 Each device require only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub.

Problems with this topology :

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will
crash down.

 Cost of installation is high.

 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

c) Bus Topology :

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in single direction. No bi-directional feature is in
bus topology.

Figure 3 : A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.

Advantages of this topology :

 If N devices are connected to each other in bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1 which is known as backbone cable and N drop lines are
required.

 Cost of the cable is less as compared to other topology, but it is used to built small networks.

Problems with this topology :

 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.

 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD etc.

d) Ring Topology :

In this topology, it forms a ring connecting a devices with its exactly two neighbouring devices.
Figure 4 : A ring topology comprises of 4 stations connected with each forming a ring..

The following operations takes place in ring topology are :

1. One station is known as monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform the
operations.

2. To transmit the data, station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token
is to be released for other stations to use.

3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.

4. There are two types of token release techniques : Early token release releases the token just
after the transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgement is received from the receiver.

Advantages of this topology :

 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.

 Cheap to install and expand.

Problems with this topology :

 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.

 Addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.

e) Hybrid Topology :

This topology is a collection of two or more topologies which are described above. This is a scalable
topology which can be expanded easily. It is reliable one but at the same it is a costly topology.
Figure 5 : A hybrid topology which is a combination of ring and star topology.

Layers of OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1974. It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from
one person to another across the globe.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form
of bits. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. When receiving
data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data
Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
The functions of the physical layer are :

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing
a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit
level.

2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits
sent per second.

3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topolgy.

4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the
two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex
and full-duplex.

* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware
Layers.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main function of
this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another, over the physical
layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.
Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :

1. Logical Link Control (LLC)

2. Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size
of NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the
header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request
onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC
address.

The functions of the data Link layer are :

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.

4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus , flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.

5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC
sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at
a given time.

* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.

** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host
machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by networklayer.
The functions of the Network layer are :

1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.

2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header
by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer. The
data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End delivery of
the complete message. Transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

• At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation and also
implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example,
when a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because
this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default port assigned.

• At receiver’s side:

Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has received
to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

The functions of the transport layer are :

1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer ,
breaks the message into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.

The services provided by transport layer :

1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include

– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and
secure.

2. Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection oriented Service is more
reliable than connection less Service.

* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.

** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with
the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication

and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :

1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes
to establish, use and terminate a connection.

2. Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error
so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.

3. Dialog Controller : The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

**All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in TCP/IP model as
“Application Layer”.
**Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known
as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

SCENARIO:

Let’s consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is compressed,
encrypted (if any secure data) and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.The data from the application layer is extracted
here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :

1. Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A
key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.

Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.

**Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are :

1. Network Virtual Terminal

2. FTAM-File transfer access and management

3. Mail Services

4. Directory Services

OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented in Internet because of its late
invention. Current model being used is the TCP/IP model.

Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the

transmitter and the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types.

1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed
and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Features:

 High Speed
  Secure

 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission
Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:

 Least expensive

 Easy to install

 High speed capacity

Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to external interference

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP

 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in fast-
data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk

 Comparitively faster

Disadvantages:

 Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive

 Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –

It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated
protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated
cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs
and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages:

 High Bandwidth

 Better noise Immunity

 Easy to install and expand

 Inexpensive

Disadvantages:

 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fiber Cable –

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for transmission of
large volumes of data.

Advantages:

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Light weight

 Less signal attenuation

 Immunity to electromagnetic interference

 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost

 Fragile

 unidirectional, ie, will need another fiber, if we need bidirectional communication

2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or unbounded transmission media.No physical medium is required
for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features:

 Signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure

 Used for larger distances

There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:

(i)Radiowaves–
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving antennas
need not be aligned. Frequency Range: 3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use
Radiowaves for transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned
with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the
antenna. Frequency Range: 1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.

(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range: 300GHz – 400THz. It is
used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.

Transmission modes

Serial and Parallel Transmission

There are two methods are used for transferring data between computers which are given below:
Serial Transmission, and Parallel Transmission.

Serial Transmission:
In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another computer in bi-direction. In this
transmission one bit flows at one clock pulse. In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time
having a start and stop bit.
Parallel Transmission:
In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously from one computer to another
computer. Parallel Transmission is faster than serial transmission to transmit the bits. Parallel
transmission is used for long distance.

Difference between Serial and Parallel Transmission:

S.NO SERIAL TRANSMISSION PARALLEL TRANSMISSION

In serial transmission, data(bit) In Parallel Transmission, data flows

1. flows in bi-direction. in multiple lines.

Parallel Transmission is not cost

2. Serial Transmission is cost efficient. efficient.

In serial transmission, one bit In Parallel Transmission, eight bits

3. transferred at one clock pulse. transferred at one clock pulse.

Serial Transmission is slow in

comparison of Parallel Parallel Transmission is fast in
4. Transmission. comparison of Serial Transmission.

Generally, Serial Transmission is Generally, Parallel Transmission is

5. used for short distance. used for long distance.

Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission

Synchronous Transmission:

In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or frames. This transmission is the full
duplex type. Between sender and receiver the synchronization is compulsory. In Synchronous
transmission, There is no gap present between data. It is more efficient and more reliable than
asynchronous transmission to transfer the large amount of data.
Asynchronous Transmission:

In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or character. This transmission is the half
duplex type transmission. In this transmission start bits and stop bits are added with data. It does
not require synchronization.

Now, let’s see the difference between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission:

S.NO SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

In Synchronous transmission,
Data is sent in form of blocks or In asynchronous transmission, Data is
1. frames. sent in form of byte or character.

Synchronous transmission is
2. fast. Asynchronous transmission is slow.

Synchronous transmission is Asynchronous transmission

3. costly. economical.

In Synchronous transmission, In asynchronous transmission, time

time interval of transmission is interval of transmission is not constant,
4. constant. it is random.

5. In Synchronous transmission, In asynchronous transmission, There is

 There is no gap present
between data. present gap between data.

Multiplexing (Channel Sharing) in Computer Network

Multiplexing which means multiple sources but one link. An alternative approach to it is Direct Point
to Point Connection but it has number of problems as it requires I/O port for each device, need line
for each device and also large amount of wiring is needed if on different floors. But instead if we use
a multiplexer approach then all devices are connected to MUX and one line to host, link carries
multiple channels of information and number of lines in equals to the number of lines out.

Types of Multiplexers:

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) –

Frequency spectrum is divided among the logical channels and each user has exclusive access to his
channel. It sends signals in several distinct frequency ranges and carries multiple video channels on a
single cable. Each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency and carrier frequencies are
separated by guard bands. Bandwidth of the transmission medium exceeds required bandwidth of
all the signals. Usually for frequency division multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to
transmit the signals, i.e. more susceptible to noise. Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges
to each user or signal on a medium. Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time, each using
different frequencies.

A multiplexer accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to each device. The multiplexor is attached to
the high speed communication line. A corresponding multiplexor or de-multiplexor is on the end of
the high speed line and separates the multiplexed signals. The frequency spectrum is divided up
among the logical channels where each user hangs onto a particular frequency. The radio spectrum
are examples of the media and the mechanism for extracting information from the medium.

Disadvantage of FDM:
{{

One problem with FDM is that it cannot utilize the full capacity of the cable. It is important that the
frequency bands do not overlap. Indeed, there must be a considerable gap between the frequency
bands in order to ensure that signals from one band do not effect signals in another band.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) –

Each user periodically gets the entire bandwidth for a small burst of time, i.e. entire channel is
dedicated to one user but only for a short period of time. It is very extensively used in computer
communication and tele-communication. Sharing of the channel is accomplished by dividing
available transmission time on a medium among users. It exclusively uses the Digital Signaling
instead of dividing the cable into frequency bands. TDM splits cable usage into time slots. Data rate
of transmission media exceeds dats rate of signals. Uses a frame and one slot for each slice of time
and the time slots are transmitted whether source has data or not.
There are two types of TDMs which are as follows:

1) Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing:

It is synchronous because the multiplexer and the de-multiplexer has to agree about the time slots.
The original time division multiplexing. The multiplexor accepts input from attached devices in a
round robin fashion and transit the data in a never ending pattern. Some common examples of this
are T-1 and ISDN telephone lines. If one device generates data at a faster rate than other devices,
then the multiplexor must either sample the incoming data stream from that device more often than
it samples the other devices, or buffer the faster incoming stream. If a device has nothing to
transmit, the multiplexor must still insert a piece of data from that device into the multiplexed
stream.

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing:

Time-division but on demand rather than fixed, reschedule link on a per-packet basis and packets
from different sources interleaved on the link. It allows connection of more nodes to the circuit than
the capacity of the circuit. Works on the premise that not all the nodes will transmit at full capacity
at all times. It must transmit a terminal identification i.e destination idno. and may require storage. A
statistical multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations. If a workstation is nit active,
no space is wasted on the multiplexed stream. It accepts the incoming data streams and creates a
frame containing only the data to be transmitted.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing –

It is same as FDM but applied to fibers, only the difference is that here the operating frequencies are
much higher actually they are in the optical range. There’s great potential for fibers since the
bandwidth is so huge. Fibers with different energy bands are passed through a diffraction grating
prism. Combined on the long distance link and then split at the destination. It has got high reliability
and very high capacity.

It multiplexes multiple data streams onto a single fiber optic line. Different wavelength lasers(called
lambdas) transmit the multiple signals. Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a
different rate from the other signals.

Dense wavelength division multiplexing combines many (30, 40, 50 or more) channels onto one
fiber. DWDM channels have a very high capacity and it keeps on improving.

Coarse wavelength division multiplexing combines only a few lambdas. In this, channels are more
widely spaced and is a cheaper version of DWDM