Cluster Computing

Introduction:
Cluster computing is a collection of tightly or loosely connected computers that work together so that
they act as a single entity. The connected computers execute operations all together thus creating the
idea of a single system. The clusters are generally connected through fast local area networks (LANs).

Cluster Computing
Why is Cluster computing important?
1. Cluster computing gives a relatively inexpensive, unconventional to the large server or
mainframe computer solutions.
2. It process the services in a faster way.
3. Many organizations and IT companies are implementing cluster computing to enhance their
scalability, availability, processing speed and resource management at economic prices.
4. It ensures that computational power is always available.
5. It provides a single general strategy for the implementation and application of parallel high-
performance systems independent of certain hardware vendors and their product decisions.

A Simple Cluster Computing Layout

Types of Cluster computing:

1. High performance (HP) clusters:

HP clusters use computer clusters and supercomputers to solve advance computational problems. They
are used to performing functions that need nodes to communicate as they perform their jobs. They are
designed to take benefit of the parallel processing power of several nodes.
2. Load-balancing clusters:
Incoming requests are distributed for resources among several nodes running similar programs or
having similar content. This prevents any single node from receiving a disproportionate amount of task.
This type of distribution is generally used in a web-hosting environment.
3. High Availability (HA) Clusters:
HA clusters are designed to maintain redundant nodes that can act as backup systems in case any failure
occurs. Consistent computing services like business activities, complicated databases, customer services
like e-websites and network file distribution are provided. They are designed to give uninterrupted data
availability to the customers.
Classification of Cluster:
1. Open Cluster:
IPs are needed by every node and those are accessed only through the internet or web. This type of
cluster causes enhanced security concerns.
2. Close Cluster:
The nodes are hidden behind the gateway node, and they provide increased protection. They need
fewer IP addresses and are good for computational tasks.
Cluster Computing Architecture:
 It is designed with an array of interconnected individual computers and the computer systems
operating collectively as a single standalone system.
 It is a group of workstations or computers working together as a single, integrated computing
resource connected via high speed interconnects.
 A node – Either a single or a multiprocessor network having memory, input and output functions
and an operating system.
 Two or more nodes are connected on a single line or every node might be connected
individually through a LAN connection.
 Cluster Computing Architecture
Components of a Cluster Computer:
1. Cluster Nodes
2. Cluster Operating System
3. The switch or node interconnect
4. Network switching hardware

Cluster Components
Advantages of Cluster Computing:

1. High Performance:
The systems offer better and enhanced performance than that of mainframe computer networks.
2. Easy to manage:
Cluster Computing is manageable and easy to implement.
3. Scalable:
Resources can be added to the clusters accordingly.
4. Expandability:
Computer clusters can be expanded easily by adding additional computers to the network. Cluster
computing is capable of combining several additional resources or the networks to the existing
computer system.
5. Availability :
The other nodes will be active when one node gets failed and will function as a proxy for the failed node.
This makes sure for enhanced availability.
6. Flexibility :
It can be upgraded to the superior specification or additional nodes can be added.
Disadvantages of Cluster Computing:
1. High cost :
It is not so much cost-effective due to its high hardware and its design.
2. Problem in finding fault :
It is difficult to find which component has a fault.
3. More space is needed :
Infrastructure may increase as more servers are needed to manage and monitor.
Applications of Cluster Computing :
 Various complex computational problems can be solved.
 It can be used in the applications of aerodynamics, astrophysics and in data mining.
 Weather forecasting.
 Image Rendering.
 Various e-commerce applications.
 Earthquake Simulation.
Petroleum reservoir simulation.
Grid Computing
What is Grid Computing?
Grid Computing can be defined as a network of computers working together to perform a task that
would rather be difficult for a single machine. All machines on that network work under the same
protocol to act as a virtual supercomputer. The tasks that they work on may include analyzing huge
datasets or simulating situations that require high computing power. Computers on the network
contribute resources like processing power and storage capacity to the network.
Grid Computing is a subset of distributed computing, where a virtual supercomputer comprises
machines on a network connected by some bus, mostly Ethernet or sometimes the Internet. It can also
be seen as a form of Parallel Computing where instead of many CPU cores on a single machine, it
contains multiple cores spread across various locations. The concept of grid computing isn’t new, but it
is not yet perfected as there are no standard rules and protocols established and accepted by people.
Why is Grid Computing Important?
 Scalability: It allows organizations to scale their computational resources dynamically. As
workloads increase, additional machines can be added to the grid, ensuring efficient processing.
 Resource Utilization: By pooling resources from multiple computers, grid computing maximizes
resource utilization. Idle or underutilized machines contribute to tasks, reducing wastage.
 Complex Problem Solving: Grids handle large-scale problems that require significant
computational power. Examples include climate modeling, drug discovery, and genome analysis.
 Collaboration: Grids facilitate collaboration across geographical boundaries. Researchers,
scientists, and engineers can work together on shared projects.
 Cost Savings: Organizations can reuse existing hardware, saving costs while accessing excess
computational resources. Additionally, cloud resources can be cost-effectively.
Working of Grid Computing
A Grid computing network mainly consists of these three types of machines
 Control Node: A computer, usually a server or a group of servers which administrates the whole
network and keeps the account of the resources in the network pool.
 Provider: The computer contributes its resources to the network resource pool.
 User: The computer that uses the resources on the network.

When a computer makes a request for resources to the control node, the control node gives the
user access to the resources available on the network. When it is not in use it should ideally contribute
its resources to the network. Hence a normal computer on the node can swing in between being a user
or a provider based on its needs. The nodes may consist of machines with similar platforms using the
same OS called homogeneous networks, else machines with different platforms running on various
different OSs called heterogeneous networks. For controlling the network and its resources a
software/networking protocol is used generally known as Middleware. This is responsible for
administrating the network and the control nodes are merely its executors. As a grid computing system
should use only unused resources of a computer, it is the job of the control node that any provider is not
overloaded with tasks.

What are the Types of Grid Computing?

 Computational grid: A computational grid is a collection of high-performance processors. It
enables researchers to utilize the combined computing capacity of the machines. Researchers
 employ computational grid computing to complete resource-intensive activities like
mathematical calculations.
 Scavenging grid: Similar to computational grids, CPU scavenging grids have a large number of
conventional computers. Scavenging refers to the process of searching for available computing
resources in a network of normal computers.
 Data grid: A data grid is a grid computing network that connects multiple computers together to
enable huge amounts of data storage. You can access the stored data as if it were on your local
system, without worrying about where it is physically located on the grid.
Advantages of Grid Computing
 Grid Computing provide high resources utilization.
 Grid Computing allow parallel pro
 cessing of task.
 Grid Computing is designed to be scalable.
Disadvantages of Grid Computing
 The software of the grid is still in the evolution stage.
 Grid computing introduce Complexity.
 Limited Flexibility
 Security Risks

Cloud Computing
Nowadays, Cloud computing is adopted by every company, whether it is an MNC or a startup many are
still migrating towards it because of the cost-cutting, lesser maintenance, and the increased capacity of
the data with the help of servers maintained by the cloud providers.
One more reason for this drastic change from the On-premises servers of the companies to the Cloud
providers is the ‘Pay as you go’ principle-based services provided by them i.e., you only have to pay for
the service which you are using. The disadvantage On-premises server holds is that if the server is not in
use the company still has to pay for it.
What Is Cloud Computing?
Cloud Computing means storing and accessing the data and programs on remote servers that are
hosted on the internet instead of the computer’s hard drive or local server. Cloud computing is also
referred to as Internet-based computing, it is a technology where the resource is provided as a service
through the Internet to the user. The data that is stored can be files, images, documents, or any other
storable document.
The following are some of the Operations that can be performed with Cloud Computing
 Storage, backup, and recovery of data
 Delivery of software on demand
 Development of new applications and services
 Streaming videos and audio
How Cloud Computing Works?
Cloud computing helps users in easily accessing computing resources like storage, and processing over
internet rather than local hardwares.
 Infrastructure: Cloud computing depends on remote network servers hosted on internet for
store, manage, and process the data.
 On-Demand Acess: Users can access cloud services and resources based on-demand they can
scale up or down the without having to invest for physical hardware.
 Types of Services: Cloud computing offers various benefits such as cost saving, scalability,
reliability and acessibility it reduces capital expenditures, improves efficiency.
Architecture Of Cloud Computing
Cloud computing architecture refers to the components and sub-components required for cloud
computing. These components typically refer to:
1. Front end ( Fat client, Thin client)
2. Back-end platforms ( Servers, Storage )
3. Cloud-based delivery and a network ( Internet, Intranet, Intercloud )
1. Front End (User Interaction Enhancement)
The User Interface of Cloud Computing consists of 2 sections of clients. The Thin clients are the ones that
use web browsers facilitating portable and lightweight accessibilities and others are known as Fat Clients
that use many functionalities for offering a strong user experience.
2. Back-end Platforms (Cloud Computing Engine)
The core of cloud computing is made at back-end platforms with several servers for storage and
processing computing. Management of Applications logic is managed through servers and effective data
handling is provided by storage. The combination of these platforms at the backend offers the
processing power, and capacity to manage and store data behind the cloud.
3. Cloud-Based Delivery and Network
On-demand access to the computer and resources is provided over the Internet, Intranet, and
Intercloud. The Internet comes with global accessibility, the Intranet helps in internal communications of
the services within the organization and the Intercloud enables interoperability across various cloud
services. This dynamic network connectivity ensures an essential component of cloud computing
architecture on guaranteeing easy access and data transfer.
Mobile Cloud Computing
MCC stands for Mobile Cloud Computing which is defined as a combination of mobile computing, cloud
computing, and wireless network that come up together purpose such as rich computational resources
to mobile users, network operators, as well as to cloud computing providers.
Mobile Cloud Computing is meant to make it possible for rich mobile applications to be executed on a
different number of mobile devices. In this technology, data processing, and data storage happen
outside of mobile devices. Mobile Cloud Computing applications leverage this IT architecture to
generate the following advantages:
1. Extended battery life.
2. Improvement in data storage capacity and processing power.
3. Improved synchronization of data due to “store in one place, accessible from anywhere ”
platform theme.
4. Improved reliability and scalability.
5. Ease of integration.
Factors Fostering Adoption Of Mobile Cloud Computing
 1. Trends and demands: Customers expect convenience in using companies’ websites or
applications from anywhere and at any time. Mobile Cloud computing is meant for this purpose.
Users always want to access business applications from anywhere, so that they can increase
their productivity, even when they are on the commute.
2. Improved and increased broadband coverage: 3G and 4G along with WiFi, femtocells, are
providing better connectivity for mobile devices cloud computing.
3. Enabling technologies: HTML5, CSS3, a hypervisor for mobile devices, cloudlets and Web 4.0 are
enabling technologies that will drive adoption of mobile cloud computing.
Characteristics Of Mobile Cloud Computing Application
1. Cloud infrastructure: Cloud infrastructure is a specific form of information architecture that is
used to store data.
2. Data cache: In this, the data can be locally cached.
3. User Accommodation: Scope of accommodating different user requirements in cloud app
development is available in mobile Cloud Computing.
4. Easy Access: It is easily accessed from desktop or mobile devices alike.
5. Cloud Apps facilitate to provide access to a whole new range of services.
Mobile Cloud Computing Working
On a remote data center, Mobile Cloud Applications are operated generally by a third-party, data is
stored, and compute cycles are carried out. The uptime, integration, and security aspects are taken care
of, by a backend, which also enables support to a multitude of access methods. These apps can function
online quite well, however, they need timely updating. These need not be permanently stored on the
device but they do not always occupy any storage space on a computer or communications device.
Moreover, it offers the same experience as that of a desktop application, while offering the portability of
a web application.
Mobile Cloud Computing Applications
There are two types of applications of mobile cloud computing (MCC) that are almost similar. These are
as follows:
1. Mobile Cloud application: It is defined as a model where processing is done in the cloud, and the
storage is also in the cloud, and the presentation platform is the mobile device. For this, the internet
connection should have to reliable and cell-phone to run a browser. It enables to use the smartphone
with cloud technology with the following characteristics :
1. A smart-phone has a recognizable Operating System.
 2. It provides advanced calling i.e. video calling and conferencing features.
3. Smart-phone must have the capability to run the installable application
4. Messaging features are available.
5. A smart-phone must have a persistent and proper internet connection.
2. Mobile Web Services: In Mobile Web Services mobile devices consume more network traffic. It may
lead to some challenges for web services such as mismatch of resolution and details of desktop
computers. The device needs to know about that service and the way it can be accessed to use any web-
service so that the mobile device can transmit specific information about the condition of the device and
the user. Enabling Mobile Web Services are as follows:
1. Enables web-service systems with web services.
2. Enables in-built external services.
3. Enable the rest protocol.
4. Enables XML-RPC protocols.
5. Enables the capabilities to authenticate user roles.
Benefits of Mobile Cloud Computing
1. Mobile Cloud Computing saves Business money.
2. Because of the portability which makes their work easy and efficient.
3. Cloud consumers explore more features on their mobile phones.
4. Developers reach greater markets through mobile cloud web services.
5. More network providers can join up in this field.
Challenges of Mobile Cloud Computing
1. Low bandwidth: This is one of the big issues in mobile cloud computing. Mobile cloud use radio
waves which are limited as compared to wired networks. Available wavelength is distributed in
different mobile devices. Therefore, it has been three times slower in accessing speed as
compared to a wired network.
2. Security and Privacy: It is difficult to identify and manage threats on mobile devices as
compared to desktop devices because in a wireless network there are more chances of the
absence of the information from the network.
3. Service Availability: Users often find complaints like a breakdown of the network,
transportation crowding, out of coverage, etc. Sometimes customers get a low-frequency signal,
which affects the access speed and storage facility.
 4. Alteration of Networks: Mobile cloud computing is used in a different operating system driven
platforms like Apple iOS, Android, and Windows Phone. So it has to be compatible with different
platforms. The performance of different mobile platform network is managed by the IRNA
(Intelligent Radio Network Access) technique.
5. Limited Energy source: Mobile devices consume more energy and are less powerful. Mobile
cloud computing increases battery usage of mobile devices which becomes an important issue.
Devices should have a long-life battery to access applications and other operations. When the
size of the altered code is small, the offloading consumes more energy than local processing.

Quantum computing
The things which can’t be done by regular computers can be done by a computer called quantum
computers which make use of “Qubit” instead of ‘bits’.
A bit is like a light switch that can only be on or off, like a zero or a one. But a qubit can be both zero and
one at the same time! This means quantum computers can do many things at once and work much
faster than regular computers. It’s like having many helpers working on a task together instead of just
one.
Regular computers use bits, which are either ones or zeros, to process information. These bits are
passed through logic gates, like AND, OR, NOT, and XOR, that manipulate the data and produce the
desired output.
On the other hand, quantum computers use a unit called a qubit to process information. A qubit is
similar to a bit, but it has unique quantum properties such as superposition and entanglement.
Quantum Superposition: Qubits- they can be in two states at the same time. This means quantum
computers can do many things at once and work much faster than regular computers. This special ability
is called quantum superposition, and it’s what makes quantum computers so powerful.
Quantum Entanglement: Let’s continue the same story from quantum superposition, the tiny helpers
called qubits can be in two states at the same time? Well, sometimes those qubits can become special
friends and work together even when they are far apart! This is called quantum entanglement.
Imagine you have two toys, a car, and a boat. If you put the car toy in one room and the boat toy in
another room, and you make them special friends so that if you change something about one toy, the
other toy will change too. Even if you’re not looking at one toy, you’ll know what’s happening with the
other toy just by looking at the other one. This is what quantum entanglement is, it’s like a secret
connection between qubits.
Advantages:
Speed: Quantum computers can perform certain calculations much faster than classical computers.
Parallelism: Quantum computing allows for the parallel processing of information, which means that
multiple computations can be performed simultaneously.
Cryptography: Quantum computing has the potential to break many of the encryption methods
currently used to secure data. However, it also has the potential to develop new and more secure
encryption methods, which could be more resistant to attacks by hackers.
Chemistry: Quantum computing can simulate the behavior of molecules at a level of detail that is not
possible with classical computing. This could lead to new discoveries in drug design, materials science,
and other areas.
Disadvantages of Quantum Computers
Quantum computers have the potential to revolutionize the field of computing, but they also come with
a number of disadvantages. Some of the main challenges and limitations of quantum computing include:
1. Noise and decoherence: One of the biggest challenges in building a quantum computer is the
problem of noise and decoherence. Quantum systems are extremely sensitive to their
environment, and any noise or disturbance can cause errors in the computation.
2. Scalability: Another major challenge is scalability. Building a large-scale quantum computer with
a large number of qubits is extremely difficult, as it requires the precise control of a large
number of quantum systems.
3. Error correction: Error correction is another major challenge in quantum computing. In classical
computing, errors can be corrected using error-correcting codes, but in quantum computing, the
errors are much more difficult to detect and correct, due to the nature of quantum systems.
4. Lack of robust quantum algorithms: Even though some quantum algorithms have been
developed, their number is still limited, and many problems that can be solved using classical
computers have no known quantum algorithm.
5. High cost: Building and maintaining a quantum computer is extremely expensive, due to the
need for specialized equipment and highly trained personnel
6. Power consumption: Quantum computers are extremely power-hungry, due to the need to
maintain the delicate quantum state of the qubits. This makes it difficult to scale up quantum
computing to larger systems, as the power requirements become prohibitively high.
Optical computing (also known as optoelectronic computing and photonic computing) is a computation
paradigm that uses photons (small packets of light energy) produced by laser/ diodes for digital
computation.
Photons have higher bandwidth than the electrons we use in conventional computer systems. The
optical computers would give us a higher performance and hence be faster than the electronic ones.

The speed of computation depends on two factors: how fast the information can be transferred and
how fast that information can be processed that is data computation.

Photons basically use wave propagation and the interference pattern of waves to determine outputs.
This allows for instantaneous computation without inducing latency. Data is processed while it’s
propagating. There is no need to stop the data movement and flow for its processing. This speed factor
would transform the computer industry.

Photons are almost mass less, hence we need very less amount of energy to excite them. Also, instead
of operating in a serial fashion like most of the classical computers, optical computing operates in a
parallel way, which helps it to tackle complex problems using light reflection, as well as have increased
bandwidth as compared to electron-based systems. Coming to security, as optical computing processes
data while it is in motion, very less data is exposed. This leads to increased security than the
conventional systems.
Advantages:
 Low heating
 Can tackle complex computations very quickly
 Can be scaled to larger networks efficiently.
 Increased computation speed
 Higher bandwidth with very low data loss transmission.
 Free from electrical short circuits.
Disadvantages:
 Components of optical computers would be very costly.
 Size is very bulky.
 Integrating optical gates is complex.
 Interference can be caused by dust or any imperfections.
What is Nano Computer?
A nano computer refers to a computing device that operates on the scale of nanometers or utilizes
nanotechnology principles for its construction and operation.
Important Terms Related to Nano Computers
 Nano computer: A computer system that is very small in size it usually uses nano components
for its operation. Nano computers are much smaller than any other type of computer because
their parts and circuits are made at the nano level – using nanotechnology.

Nanotechnology: Nano technology is the science of manipulating matter at the atomic or molecular
level to produce microscopic devices.

 Quantum Computing: Quantum computing operates based on quantum physics laws which
enable calculation. Unlike classical computers that use bits (0 or 1) for processing data, quantum
computers use quantum bits (qubits) able to be in multiple states simultaneously through
superposition. There seem to be several problems like optimization, cryptography, and
simulations which they might solve much faster than classical computers can do.

 Integrated Circuits (ICs): Integrated circuits are small electronic circuits that include
semiconductor devices and passive components connected on a semiconductor wafer or
substrate. Electronics were changed by ICs because they made it possible to put thousands or
even billions of electronic components on one chip. This is the basis of modern computing and
required for nano computers. You can now fit more things together into an area, which means
faster speeds with less power use and cost.

 MEMS (Microelectromechanical Systems): MEMS refers to systems where there are tiny
mechanical parts combined with electrical ones, usually made using a process similar to making
integrated circuits. There are many different kinds of microelectromechanical system devices
but some examples include sensors; actuators; microfluidic systems containing channels for
liquids on the micrometer scale; etc., all these have some kind of electronics built into them too!
Applications can be found in automotive industries (such as airbag deployment), aerospace
technology like deployable space structures or satellites ,biomedical field where tools like lab-
on-a-chip may be used for diagnosis at point-of-care settings consumer goods such as inkjet
printer heads.