Chapter 4 revision

Von Neumann Architecture

● The idea to hold programs and data in memory.

● Data would then move between the memory unit and the processor.
● The processor and memory unit are linked using buses.
■ Address bus.
■ Carries signals related to addresses.
■ Uni-directional.
3. Data bus.
■ Carries data.
■ Bi-directional.
4. Control bus.
■ Carries signals relating to control & coordination of all computer
activities.
■ Both uni and bi-directional, depending on internal connections
within the computer.
● Addresses indicate where the data is stored and registers are needed so that
data can be manipulated within the computer.
● An address is the location of where data can be found in a computer memory.

BUSES
Address (bus)-Carries an address of the next item to be fetched. Data travels one
way (unidirectional)

Data (bus)-Carries data that is currently being processed or that will be. Data can
travel in both directions (bidirectional)

Control (bus) -Carries signals. Controls the actions of the CPU. Can be either
Unidirectional or Bidirectional

CPU

The fetch-execute cycle

● the PC (program counter) contains the address of the next instruction to be
fetched
● the address contained in the PC (program counter) is copied to the MAR
(memory address register) via the address bus
● the instruction is then copied from the memory location contained in the MAR
(memory address register) and is placed in the MDR (memory data register)
● the entire instruction is then copied from the MDR (memory data register) and
placed in the CIR (current instruction register)
● the value in the PC (program counter) is then incremented so that it points to
the next instruction to be fetched
 ● the address part of the instruction is placed in the MAR (memory address
register)
● The instruction is finally decoded and is then executed.

USES OF BINARY STORED IN REGISTERS

● address in main memory.
● ASCII value / Unicode value / character
● Number
● part of image / small image
● a sound / sound sample / small sound track
● Instruction

PRIMARY MEMORIES
SECONDARY MEMORIES
Memory and data storage

File formats

Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)

● A communications protocol that allows electronic musical instruments to

interact with each other and the computer.
● It uses 8 bit serial transmission with one start and stop bit, and is
asynchronous, with one start and stop bit.
● Examples of MIDI parameters
○ Note on/off
○ Key pressure
 ● Playback through different instruments requires a sequencer software.
● Don’t contain audio tracks, and so have smaller size.

MPEG-3 (MP3)

● Uses audio compression to convert music and other sounds into MP3 file
format.
● CD files can be converted to MP3 using file compression software.
● Perceptual music shaping removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
properly, allowing the file to be compressed to 10% its original size.
● MP3 employs lossy compression.
● Quality of MP3 files depend on the bit rate - that is the number of bits used
per second to store audio.

MPEG-4 (MP4)

● MP4 files allow the storage of multimedia like music, videos, photos and
animation.

Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

● JPEG is a file format that uses lossy compression.

● It compresses raw bitmap files into lower file sizes.

Text and number file formats

● Text is usually stored in ASCII format.

● Numbers can be stored in the formats real, integer, data, time, currency, etc.
● This uses lossless compression. One way is substituting repeating sections of
words with something else.

Compression

Lossless file compression

● All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed when the file is again
uncompressed.
 ● In a text file:
○ Uses compression algorithm
○ Repeating words / phrases / patterns are identified and are replaced
with a smaller placeholder value
○ File / dictionary / index of phrases created
○ Index will store word/phrase with value

Lossy file compression

● The file compression algorithm eliminates some unnecessary bits of data.

● It is impossible to get the original file back once it is compressed.

Memory and storage

Primary memory

Random Access Memory (RAM)

● Volatile/temporary. The contents of the RAM are lost when the power is turned
off.
● It is used to store data, files, or the part of the operating system that is
currently in use.
● It can be written to or read from and the contents can be changed.

Dynamic RAM

● Each chip consists of millions of transistors and capacitors.

○ Capacitor holds the bits of information (0 or 1)
○ Transistor acts as a switch, and allows the chip control circuitry to read
the capacitor or change the capacitor’s value.
● The capacitor needs to be recharged every 15 microseconds to not lose its
value.

Static RAM

● It uses ‘flip flops’ which hold each bit of memory.

● This does not need to be constantly refreshed.
DRAM vs SRAM

● DRAM is less expensive to manufacture

● DRAM consumes less power
● DRAM has a higher storage density
● SRAM is faster (25 nanoseconds access time as opposed to 60 ns)

Read Only Memory (ROM)

● Non-volatile permanent memories.

● Stores the start-up instructions when a computer is switched on. (ROM might
store the basic input/output system, BIOS)
● The data or contents of a typical ROM chip can only be read, they cannot be
changed.

Secondary storage

Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

● Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces in tracks and

sectors of the disks in a HDD.
● The HDD has a number of platters which spin at around 7000 times a second.
● Slow data access when compared to RAM, so latency is significant.

Solid State Drives (SSD)

● No moving parts.
● Data is stored by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND chips,
inside millions of tiny transistors within the chip.
● SSDs with NAND chips are called flash storage.
● Some SSDs use Electronically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
(EEPROM), which uses NOR chips instead of NAND. This makes them faster
and more expensive.
● EEPROM allows data to be erased in bytes at a time, while flash storage only
allow blocks of data to be erased.

Off-line storage
CD/DVD

● These are optical storage devices.

● Laser light is used to read and write data on the surface of the disk.
● Data is stored in pits and bumps on a spiral track.
● Pits and lands represent binary values
● Pits reflect light back differently (to the area in between/land)
● Optical device can determine the binary value from the light reflection
● DVDs use dual layering, which means that two individual recording layers are
joined together. Reading and writing of the second layer is done by focusing
another red laser at a fraction of a millimetre difference compared to the first
layer. However, this can cause birefringence, which is when light is refracted
into two separate beams, causing errors.

DVD-RAM

● Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number of concentric tracks.

● This allows simultaneous read and write operations to take place.
● Numerous read and write operations and great longevity makes them ideal for
archiving.

Blu-ray Disks

● A blue laser instead of a red laser is used, which has a smaller wavelength.
● This means that the ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ can be much smaller. So, Blu-ray disks
can store five times as much data as normal DVDs.
● Doesn’t suffer from birefringence because it uses only one layer.
● Comes with a secure encryption system which helps prevent piracy and
copyright infringement.

USB flash memories

● Memory sticks use solid-state technology.

● They connect to the computer through the USB port, and are small,
lightweight devices.
● Complex or expensive software uses memory sticks called dongles. This
contains additional files that are needed to run the software. This prevents
piracy.
● Digital cameras use XD (eXtreme Digital) or SD (Secure Digital) cards. Each
memory card is made of NAND chips and does not contain moving parts.
● Data can be corrupted if the flash drive is removed before being made safe.
Removable hard disk drives

● HDDs that can be connected to the computer using a USB port. They can be
used as back-up devices.

PRIMARY vs SECONDARY

– Primary RAM and ROM

– Secondary HDD and SSD

– Primary is directly accessible by CPU

– Secondary is not directly accessible by CPU

– Primary is internal to computer

– Secondary can be internal or external to the computer

– Primary stores boot up instructions and can hold data whilst being processed

– Secondary stores files/software

– Primary has faster access speed

– Secondary has a slower access speed

– Primary has both volatile and non-volatile

– Secondary is non-volatile
Give reasons why an SSD, rather than a HDD, is used in the mobile device.
It is more durable // it has no moving parts
It has a faster read / write / access speed
It is more compact / light weight / smaller / portable
It uses less energy // battery will last longer
It is quieter
Not affected by magnetic forces
It runs at a cooler temperature
Less latency // takes less time to warm up

ADVANTAGES OF HIGH LEVEL AND LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES

High level language
– easier/faster to write code as uses English-like statements
– easier to modify as uses English-like statements
– easier to debug as uses English-like statements
– portable language code
Low level language
– can work directly on memory locations
– can be executed faster
– translated program requires less memory
Both an interpreter and a compiler can be used when writing a program in a
high-level language. Explain why a programmer would make use of both an
interpreter and a compiler.
− To translate the high-level language into low-level language
− Interpreter used whilst writing the program
− Interpreter used to debug code line by line
− Compiler used when program completed
− Compiler used to create separate executable file (so compiler no longer needed)
− If it runs first time in a compiler there are no syntax errors

functions of an operating system

– Provides a user interface
– Handles interrupts / errors
– Memory management
– File management
– Manages peripherals (inputs/outputs)
– Provides security methods
– Allows multitasking
– Manages multiprogramming
– Enables batch processing
– Manages software installation / removal
– Allows creation of multiple accounts
– Levels of access
Errors