Information Technology Notes

Information Technology
Definition – It is an organized combination and use of hardware, software,
telecommunications, database management and other information processing
technologies used in a computer-based information system.

Information technology transforms data into a variety of useful information products

specifically by the use of a computer.

Computer
 It is a device that has ability to accept data, internally store and execute a
program of instructions, perform mathematical, logical and manipulative
operations on the data and reports on the results.
 Put simply, it is a machine that accepts data (input) and processes it into useful
information (output).

Computer System
 It is an interrelated system of input, processing, output, storage and control
components
 Thus a computer system consists input and output devices, primary and storage
devices, the central processing unit, the control unit within the CPU and other
peripherals

Data and Information concepts

The terms data and information are loosely used interchangeably in ordinary
discussions. The terms, however, are different in their usage in the field of
information systems.

Data – it is the complete range of facts, events, transactions, opinions, judgments

that exist both within and outside the organization. Data are raw facts from which
information is produced.

Information – it is part of the total data available which is appropriate to the

requirements of a particular user or group of users. It is processed data upon which
a user may rely for decision.

A computer performs the following basic functions:

(a) Input – computer accepts and captures data from outside for processing
(b) Processing – a computer performs operations on data it holds
(c) Storage – a computer holds data before, during and after processing
(d) Output – a computer produces data for use (information)

COMPONENTS AND CONFIGURATION OF A

COMPUTER
Computer Hardware- refers to the physical components of a computer both
mechanical and electronic.

A computer is made up of the following components.

Input devices

1 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Central Processing Unit
Memory
Secondary Storage unit
Output devices

The configuration of a basic computer system

Processor
CONTROL UNIT
Interprets stored
instructions in
sequence. Issues
commands to all
elements of the
computer

ARITHMETI
C & LOGIC
UNIT
Performs
Arithmetic &
logic
functions
INPUT OUTPUT
Data and Information
instructions -the results of
processing
MAIN MEMORY
(MAIN
AUXILLARY)
Holds data,
instructions and
results of
processing

AUXILLARY STORAGE
(BACKING/SECONDARY STORAGE)
To supplement main memory

2 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Key

Data Instruction flow

Command/Signal flow

These facilitate communication between the user and the computer. They facilitate
the insertion of data into the computer for processing.

(a) Keyboard
 A keyboard is laid out like a typewriter
 It allows data to be typed in by the pressing of the relevant keys
 The pressed key or instruction is displayed or executed
 This is the most commonly used input device
(Study Key-to-disk systems, Key-to-diskette systems –Refer to Clifton)

(b) Mouse
 It is a hand held pointing device electronically connected to the
computer which is used to control the cursor or a pointer on the
screen through the rolling motion of a ball on a flat surface.
 The cursor or pointer on the video screen moves in the same
direction as the movement of the mouse.
 When the pointer is on the required menu item (icon) a button is
clicked to select that item.
(c) Light Pen
 It is a pen-shaped device that uses photoelectric circuitry to enter
data into the computer through a special video screen
 A user can write on the video display
 The high sensitive pen enables the computer to calculate the
coordinates of the points on the screen touched by the light pen
 The handwriting or graphic is digitalized, accepted as input and
displayed on the VDU
 Input therefore is directly onto the screen
(d) Touch Screens
 Use an inlaid screen to accept input through the act of physically
touching the screen
 The computer senses the selected position and execute the
instruction accordingly
 This device works more suitably with menu driven applications

(e) Optical Character Readers

 These use photoelectric cells to measure the amount of light
reflected from a particular set of characters in a particular font

3 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

  It then transfers the details to a computer
 The reader incorporates a light beam which follows the outline of
the characters being read
 It compares these with stored reference characters
 The most common fonts are OCR-A (American)and OCR-B
(European)

(f) Optical Mark Readers (OMRs)

 These are similar to OCRs but can detect marks, lines,
perforations rather than characters
 They work with specific programs to read and interpret a
particular document (so are less flexible than OCRs)
 OMRs are used to extract data from surveys, questionnaire forms
or mark multiple choice exams
 OMRs are also used in the processing of orders, processing of time
sheets for workers, inputing diagrams into the computer.

(g) Magnetic Ink Character Readers (MICR)

 They use pre-printed human readable characters
 The characters are printed in a special ink mixed with iron oxide
 Before reading the document passes through a magnetic field and
the characters get magnetized
 The machine reader recognizes the character by its magnetic field
pattern, codes it and provides input into the computer.
 This method is not in general use because the print has got to be
made in a special way to be readable
 This method of input is widely used in the banking sector to
process documents like cheques.
(h) Page Scanners
 These devices read documents, digitalise them and sent them for
processing by the computer
 These are like photocopying machines that can read a wide variety
of text and graphics including photographs.

(i) Bar Code Readers

 Bar coding is the representation of code numbers or other data in
the form of optical or magnetic bars on a data carrier (badge)
which may be tag, label, ticket, plastic card
 A bar code reader reads the bar coding and allows the processing
of information relating to the data
 The bar code reader is usually hand held and uses a laser beam to
read.
 When a bar code is read and recognized, the scanner emits a short
sound.

 These are widely used on bank credit cards and in libraries to

identify books and users

(j) Point of Sale (POS)/Electronic Point of Sale (EPOS)

 These are used in supermarkets
 A POS or EPOS incorporates a scanner (bar code reader), a printer
and a keyboard built into a service point
 An item is passed through a window through which the scanner
can see the bar code and thereby identifies the item; alternatively
a hand held scanner is used to do the same thing.

4 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

  When a bar code is read and recognized, the scanner emits a short
sound.
 The linked central computer then automatically looks up details
relating to the item.
 The details are then printed on the customer’s receipt

(k) Voice Data Entry (VDE)

 Can also be called voice input or speech recognition
 A voice recognizing device analyses and classifies speech or vocal
tract patterns
 The device converts the speech into digital codes for entry into the
computer
 These are suitable where users do not wish to use their hands to
input data e.g. sorting of luggage at an airport, recording of
weight in a slaughterhouse or butchery.
 However, their use is limited by the limited nature of recognizable
vocabulary
 The computer needs to be “trained” to recognize an individual’s
voice.
 There are bound to be in accuracies in the data input so there is
need for a careful proof reading by the user.

(l) Video Input

 Video images can be entered into the computer from sources such
as a TV receiver, VCR or camcorder.
 The data is digitalized and compressed for storage on the
computer’s memory sites.
 This method is used to input and store information for a
broadcaster of producer of optical disks

Selection of the data collection method (Input device & method)

The following are the main factors to be considered when deciding on the data
capture systems:
(a) Costs of the system – costs must be kept low
(b) Accuracy – should have detection and correction procedures for errors
(c) Time – turnaround time in capturing data should be short
(d) Reliability – The system of capture should be free from breakdown
(e) Flexibility – the system must cater for different types of data
(f) Volume – a system should suit the volume of data to be captured
(g) Existing equipment – a system that uses existing equipment would be most
preferred.
(h) User friendliness – a system should render itself easily to the user

OUTPUT DEVICES

There are two forms of output devices, those that produce hardcopy (permanent)
and those that produce softcopy.
Printers are hardcopy devices while the VDU is a softcopy device.

The Visual Display Unit (VDU)

 This is sometimes referred to as the monitor
 Most VDUs use a cathode ray tube (CRT) or a liquid crystal display (LCD)
 The screen allows the user to view and monitor data while input is being made
from another source such as the keyboard, mouse etc.
 It allows the user to position the data

5 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 It allows the user to view a screen
 It allows the user to scroll up and down on the screen
 It is also regarded as an output device since it displays processed data too.

Hardcopies are needed when copies are to be taken away from the computer to be
sent to a user of the information thereon, or to be filed away or even as legal
documentation.

Computers, therefore can produce a number of different documents e.g. reports,

sales invoices, payrolls, or graphics.

Types of Printers

Printers can be classified in a number of ways.

(1) By print operation (a) Character printers
(b) Line printers
(c) Page printers

(2) By method of producing print: (a) Impact printers

(b) Non-Impact printers

(3) By speed of printing (a) Low speed printers (10cps to 300lpm)

(b) High speed printers (over 300lpm)

The following is an illustration showing the types of printers and their sub types and
examples of these.

Computer Printers

Line Printers Character Printers

Page Printers

6 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Drum Chain Electrostatic Laser Electrostatic
Magnetic Ion Deposition
(barrel) (Train Band)

Impact Non-Impact

Dot Matrix Daisy Wheel (Petal) Thimble Thermal

Ink jet
(a) Line Printers

These produce a complete line of text in a single printing operation. These are
suitable for bulk printing.
i. Drum Printers.
 They employ columns of complete characters embossed around the
circumference of a rapidly rotating drum.
 Every print position is capable of being occupied by any character
 A print hammer situated at each print position forces the paper against the
drum through the ribbon (interposed between the paper and the ribbon)
when the appropriate character is in position.
 These are expensive to buy and maintain
 The print quality is poor (especially if there are mistiming of print hammers)
 They do not allow for change of fonts.
 They are also very noisy

ii. Chain (Train) Printers

 They consist of a chain of characters mounted on a chain that rotates in a
horizontal plane.
 There is a hammer at each print position that strikes the appropriate
character once it is in position.
 Character sets can be easily changed by replacing the chain.
 The principle of operation is similar to that of drum printers
 They are cheaper and faster that drum printers
 They produce better print quality than drum printers.

(b) Character printers

These are also known as serial printers. These print one character at a time across.
The method of printing necessitates one (or two) print head(s).

There are two categories of character printers: impact and non-impact printers.
Impact printers – they form characters and graphics on the paper by pressing a
printing element (such as print wheel or cylinder) and an inked ribbon against paper

7 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

e.g. a dot matrix printer. Multiple copies can be used through the use of a
carbonized paper.

Non-impact printers - do not use force and are quieter than impact printers. They
use specially treated paper and can form characters by laser, thermal (heat) or
electrochemical processes. They produce higher quality of print than impact
printers. They, however, cannot produce multiple copies.

Types of Impact printers

(i) Dot Matrix – it consists of a matrix tiny tubes containing needles in the print
head. Each character in formed from the square or rectangle array of dots.
The needles are fired onto the printer ribbon in a pattern corresponding to
the shape of the character required. Each character is printed by the
repeated horizontal movement of the print head. The quality of the print
depends on the dots in the matrix (most common are the 7 rows by 9 columns
matrices). These printers are cheap to purchase and maintain but do not
produce good print quality.

(ii) Daisy Wheel – Uses a rotatable wheel consisting a number of flexible

metal or plastic spokes (usually 96) at the end of which is a mirror image of a
character. During printing the wheel is rotated until the required character
comes into line with the print hammer which then hits the character and the
ribbon onto the paper and the paper is printed. They are cheap and offer
better print quality than Dot Matrix Printers. However, they are slower and
much noisier.

Types of Non-Impact Printers

(i) Thermal printer

The print head of a thermal printer contains an array of heating elements that
have electric currents switched through them so as to form the required
character. When the print head comes into contact with a special paper, it burns
away an aluminum coating to reveal a black core. They can produce colour
printing and can produce high quality prints. However, they use only a special
type of paper.
(ii) Ink – Jet Printers
These spray dots of ink to form characters under electronic control. These are
quieter and produce higher print quality even graphics; they can print in colour
and can print many font types and sizes. However they are more expensive to
purchase and maintain.

(c) Page Printers

They print one complete page at any given time. Although they appear to
produce a complete page, they actually produce the document by printing a
line at a time but their speed of operation is such that the full effect is that of
creating the whole page.

Types of page printers

Laser Printers
They form characters by flashing a low-powered beam onto a rotating drum. A
special ink (toner) is then attracted to the laser-exposed areas of the drum.
The document's outline are created by flashing a photographic negative of the
document onto the photo-conductive drum. The complete photo-conductive

8 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 drum surface stores the resulting image. When the paper comes into contact
with the drum the image is then transferred and then fused permanently onto
it. The photo conductive drum is erased before receiving the next image -
these operation occur while printing is in progress.

They can print an infinite number of fonts and can even mix different fonts in
the same line. They can produce high quality print, and can be used to print
logos, illustrations and graphics. They are very quiet during printing.
However, they are very expensive to purchase and maintain.

(ii) Magnetic Printers

They use a rotating drum or belt onto which tiny magnetic dots are recorded.
The image formed is coated with toner against which heated paper is pressed
to form the required image on paper.

Typical printer speeds

Printer Type Fonts Speed

Daisy Wheel Impact Many 2000cpm

Dot matrix Impact Many 15000cpm
Ink jet Non-impact Any 15000cpm
Drum Impact Fixed 2500lpm
Chain Impact Many 2000lpm
Magnetic Non-impact Any 5000lpm
Laser (small) Non-Impact Any 10ppm
Laser (large) Non-impact Any 500ppm

Factors influencing the choice of a printer

 The cost of the printer
 The volume of work to be printed
 The environment in which the printer will work
 Nature and desired quality of the document(s) to be produced

Other Forms Of Computer Output

Speech Output (Sound Output)

Some computers are capable of producing speech. The computer can actually speak
out from a stored digital representation of either words or other sounds. A person's
voice can be stored and reproduced later.

These method of output is of great use to the blind, or in poor light. Advanced forms
of speech output are being used to answer telephones, answer some inquiries from
an organization's callers etc.

Computer Output on Microforms (COM)

It is the recording of computer output onto microfilm or microfiche (microforms).

Recording onto the microfilms and microfiches can be done on-line or via a magnetic
tape in order to convert the computer's digital representation of data into
microforms. The recording is a way of data storage in which the computer stores the
data in a reduced (compacted) way on the film or fiche. The stored data can be
retrieved later through the use of a reader and editing can be done. Microforms are

9 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

much easier to store than ordinary hardcopies and last much longer. Accessing and
finding the required information can be made easier by indexing the film or fiches.

COM is most suitable where large amounts of data are processed but are to be used
much later e.g. in a government registry department (birth registrations, important
national statistics for example population censuses.

Graph Plotters
These are used to plot graphs, maps and other forms of graphic onto a medium
usually larger than the size of a normal paper. They can print in different colours.

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

It is the unit of the computer system that includes the circuits that control the
interpretation and execution of instructions. It is the most important component of a
computer system.
Functions of the processor
 To control the use of the memory to store data and instructions
 To control the sequence of operations
 To give instructions to all parts of the computer to carry out processing

The CPU can be subdivided into two major subunits; the control unit (CU) and the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The primary (main) memory is an extension of the CPU
and assists the CPU in its operations.

The Control Unit (CU)

 It is the nerve center of the computer which controls and co-ordinates all
hardware operations i.e. those of peripheral units, main memory and the
processor itself.
 It also controls the sequence of the operations.
 The unit fetches (obtains) the instruction from the main memory
 It then interprets it
 It then executes the instruction by sending a command signal to the
appropriate hardware device in the computer system, ordering it to perform
required operations.
 The control unit is driven by a 'clock pulse'; the rate of the clock is called the
speed.

The Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU)

This has two major functions
 Carries out arithmetic tasks e.g. division, addition etc
 Performs logical operations e.g. comparing data items

How the ALU operates:

Data items to be processed are fetched from the main memory as directed by the
CU into registers or accumulators where they are stored. The ALU then performs
the operations as directed by the CU. The ALU leaves the result in a data register
from where they are placed into the main memory again under the direction of the
CU.

The Main Memory

It is an extension of the CPU which gives immediate access to data and programs.
It is also called Immediate Access Memory (IAS). The main memory holds three
types of contents which are:
-program instructions to be executed or being executed

10 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

-Data to be processed
-Results of processing

Operational features
 The memory has uniquely addressable storage locations that are easily
accessible to the CU.
 Random Access - it is possible to fetch data from the locations in main
storage in any order and time taken to access the location does not depend
on the position of the location.
 Volatility - the main memory can be volatile or non-volatile depending on the
its physical characteristics
 Details of single location - Each location consists of tiny devices that can take
two states (on/off). The two states of each device are used to represent
binary (0 - off, 1 - on). Each location in the main memory holds a unit of data
called a word. Some computers had locations holding 8 binary digits and
were therefore said to have an 8-bit word. Other computers have 16 bit
storage locations, while others tend to have 32 bit locations.
The Random Access Memory (RAM)
This forms the largest part of the Main Memory and is often used to measure the
power of a computer. It is used for temporary storage of data and programs during
processing. RAM contains user data and application programs being processed.
Data may be read from RAM and data can also be written onto and stored on RAM.
RAM contents are volatile i.e. stored data is lost and the contents disappear if the
power is interrupted or when computer is switched off.
Storage capacity on RAM
The number of storage locations in RAM dictates the storage capacity or size of the
computer. Storage on computer is quoted in kilobytes (Kb) or megabytes (Mb)

8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1024 X 1024 bytes = 1 megabyte
1024 X 1024 X 1024 bytes = 1 gigabyte

The Read Only Memory (ROM)

It is used for permanent storage it holds the software programs such as operating
systems, interpreters and compilers. The programs are written as part of the
manufacturing process and the user cannot alter them. ROM cannot be written on,
it only allows its contents to be read. ROM contains data and instructions that the
computer needs all the time from the moment it is switched on. ROM contents are
said to be non-volatile i.e. they do not disappear or get lost when the computer is
switched off or when power to the computer has been interrupted.

Other Types of ROM

 PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory - can be programmed by the user,

the data and instructions are held permanently once the PROM is
programmed.
 EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory - Ii is like PROM but
can be erased and reprogrammed. The EPROM must be removed from the
computer in order to be erased thus the complete program has to be
reinserted.
 EAROM - Electrically Alterable Read Only Memory - It can be read, erased
and written on by electrical methods without removing it from the computer.

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

11 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

This is also called backing storage or auxiliary storage. It is used to supplement the
computer's main memory. Main memory is volatile and expensive, therefore backing
storage is used to hold programs and data files when they are not required in the
main memory. The speed of accessing backing store is much slower than that for
accessing in IAS.
Backing Store Devices

Floppy Disk Drive - These work in conjunction with floppy or magnetic diskettes.
They have a narrow slot where the diskette is inserted. The slot has a push button or
lever which must be closed when the diskette has been inserted. The process of
closing engages a turn table which rotates the disk and so brings the read/write
head into contact with the disk.

Features of floppy diskettes

 Consist of a polyester film with iron oxide compound
 The disk is mounted and rotates freely inside a protective plastic jacket
 The jacket has access openings to allow reading and writing to occur
from the read/write head on the disk drive unit.
 The disk is divided into sectors and data is stored on the tracks as
magnetized bits (0,1)
 Most disks are 3.5inch and capacities of 1.44Mb

Caring for diskettes

 Use write protect security tag to prevent accidental erasure of data
 Protect the disk from dust, rain, humidity, store in an envelop
 Do not bend the disk
 Do not touch the recording surface
 Store diskette in a temperature of 10 C to 52 C
 Do not place the diskette in a magnetic field
Winchester or Hard Disk
 They are permanent fixed hard disks with lubricated surfaces to allow
read/write heads to move close to the disk as it rotates.
 They are built into the personal computer (PC) in an air tight enclosure
 They are non-removable
 They have greater storage capacity (from 20Mb to 1Gb)
 They have faster data transfer rate and are reliable.
 However, they need very careful security procedures
 Modern computers (note books) have removable disk cartridge versions.

Magnetic Tape
 This is similar to the kind found for audio or video tapes
 It is a film coated with iron oxide
 Portions of the tape are magnetized to represent bits
 It uses separate read write heads to transfer data from the tape to the main
memory and to record.
 Vacuum columns in the unit absorb the force of sudden starts and stops to
prevent tape snatches.
 They store data in a sequence so data has to be moved over sequentially in
order to read the required, this means access is slower.

Features of the Magnetic Tape

- Common width of 1.27cm and length of 100m to 1100m
- Data is stored on tracks which run along the tape
- The beginning and end of the tape are marked by an aluminum strip
- Recording densities range from 200 to 6000 bytes per inch (bpi)

12 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 - Has storage capacity of 20Mb to 160Mb
- The tape is reusable - to prevent accidental erasure, a write permit
ring is attached when writing is required.

Supply Reel Take up Reel

Read/Write heads

Vacuum column to absorb

force of sudden starts/stops

The Exchangeable Disk Unit (Magnetic Disk)

 They are coated with iron oxide
 They can be steel platters (hard disks) or plastic (Floppy)
 Each disk is divided into 200 concentric tracks or rings
 Data is recorded on the track by moving a read/write head until it is over the
required track.
 Data is recorded in bits represented by magnetized areas
 Disks are mounted into a unit in the form of an exchangeable pack of 6 to 11
disks that are inseparable.
 The disk pack is fitted into a unit or drive which has a comb-type assembly
containing one read/write head for each recording surface.
 When reading or writing, the R/W head goes directly to the required piece of
data, are also called a direct access storage medium.
 Disk storage can also be operated in sequential mode.
 Storage is costly and they are less portable
 They have greater storage capacity (60Mb to 5Gb)
 They have much quicker access time

Read/Write Heads

13 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Disks
Comp-type Access Assembly

Access Arms

Optical Disk Drives

 These are similar the audio compact discs (CDs)
 It is rigid plastic disk onto which data is recorded by special lasers that
physically create micro crevices in the disk.
 Data is directly accessed from the disk by the use of a laser beam
 The laser beam measures the difference in reflected light caused by the
crevice (or lack therefore) on disk.
 Each crevice represents binary digit 0, representing the lack of a crevice, or
binary digit 1, representing the presence of a crevice.
 So the presence or lack of a crevice determines the bit.
 The disk cannot be erased or overwritten, this feature is known as WORM
(write once read many times)
 Thus the disk is called CD-ROM (Compact disk read only Memory).
 They have great storage capacities of 50Mb to 10Gb.
 Access to stored data is very fast
 They can be used to store text, graphical, audio or video data
 They are suitable for storing large amounts of data.
 However, they can not be edited

USB Flash Drive/Memory stick

A USB flash drive is a device used for data storage that includes a flash
memory and an integrated Universal Serial Bus (USB) interface. Most USB
flash drives are removable and rewritable. Physically, they are small,
durable and reliable. The larger their storage space, the faster they tend to
operate. USB flash drives are mechanically very robust because there are no
moving parts. They derive the power to operate from the device to which
they are connected (typically a computer) via the USB port.

A USB flash drive may also be known as a flash drive or USB drive.
Based on the Universal Serial Bus mass storage standard, USB flash drives
are supported by all operating systems and BIOS. Compared to optical disk
drives and floppy disks, USB flash drives can store more data and also
transfer it at a faster rate.

A typical USB flash drive consists of a USB connector, which is well

protected and electrically insulated inside a plastic or rubber case. A small
printed circuit board with surface-mounted integrated circuits are found
within the device's casing.

14 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

The main components of the USB flash drive are:

 Standard USB plug. This provides connects the flash drive to a device.
 USB mass storage controller. This is a microcontroller for the USB. It
has a small amount of RAM and ROM.
 NAND flash memory chip. The data is stored in the this component
 Crystal oscillator. The data output is controlled by this component.

COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Computers can be classified as general purpose or special purpose. General-purpose

computers are used to perform a variety of applications and the most common in
business while special purpose computers are used for specific or limited
applications e.g. military or scientific research.

Computers can be classified by size or by use

Categories of Computer Systems (by size)

(i) Microcomputers
(ii) Minicomputers
(iii) Mainframe computers
(iv) Super computers

Microcomputers
 They are also called Personal Computers (PCs) or Desktop Computers.
 These are relatively small and inexpensive.
 They consist of a single processor or a chip
 The system is normally made up of the microprocessor, keyboard, VDU one
or two floppy disk drives, a printer and a hard disk drive.
 It has a hard disk capacity of 20Mb to 520Mb
 May use a colour or monochrome cathode ray tube (CRT)
 Have capabilities for networking.
 They are single user.
 They occupy little space.
 They are capable of multiprogramming.
 They are compatible with a wide range of software.
 PCs come in a variety of sizes: notebooks (handheld), laptops, desktops and
floor standing.

Minicomputer System (Mid-range Computers)

 They are systems the size of a small table that can accommodate a number of
users at a time.
 They have storage capability larger than personal computers.
 They can support a variety of transaction processing activities

Hardware features
- Support magnetic tape storage
- They are multi-user more than 100 users at time for super minis
- Have multiple hard disks, both fixed and exchangeable
- Can be upgraded when necessary
- They do not require a special environment to work so can allow for
decentralisation.
- They are less expensive than the mainframe systems

15 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 - They have bigger capacities than microprocessors, some have 32 bit
microprocessors.

Mainframe computers
 These are large, powerful computers with a lot of processing capabilities.
 They are suitable for medium-size to large corporations.
 They can also be linked together to form a powerful and flexible system.

Hardware Features
- Similar to minicomputers but have several large processors and high
processing speeds of up to 200 million instructions per second (mips)
- They have massive amounts of storage power.
- They can use high speed line printers
- They have a large number of magnetic disks and tape units with large
capabilities
- They are multi-user and multi processing
- They have improved reliability
- Their performance may be enhanced by slotting a smaller system, like a
minicomputer between the terminal and the main processor - the front
end processor (FEP)
- Both processors run concurrently with the FEP passing on partially
processed data to the main frame for further processing.
- They, however, are expensive to buy and maintain, they need special and
very expensive software and they also require a special environment.
- They can be used for large corporations (such as large international
banks) and government departments

Supercomputer Systems
These are extremely powerful mainframe computer systems. They are specifically
designed for high-speed numeric calculations. These an process hundreds of
millions instructions per second (mips)

They can be used by government research agencies, national weather forecasting,

spacecraft construction and navigation.

Considerations on classifications based on size

The classification of computers based on the physical size of the computer has
become blurred and a bit misleading. Some seemingly small systems can perform
more powerfully than the larger ones. The power of the computer system depends
on the microprocessor.

A microprocessor is a type of an integrated circuit (ic). It has two distinct

characteristics - word size and speed of operation.

Word size - the number of bits dealt with at the same time, some processors are 8
bit, others even 32 bit. The larger the word size the more powerful a computer
system is. So some physically bigger systems may have smaller word sizes and
hence less power.

Speed of the microprocessor - it is the clock rate or rate of data transfer, it is the
rate at which data bits are moved around inside at bits per second (megahertz) this
is also called the baud rate. Systems with higher speeds tend to be more powerful
though they tend to be physically small.

Computer classification by use

16 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

1. The Word Processor - it is a computer used to produce office documents
usually in text. It has very limited memory and processing capabilities. They
are cheap to buy

2. Home Computer - it is a cheap computer that is used for domestic purposes

e.g. programmes for games and controlling home finances.

3. Personal Computer - it is a microcomputer that is usually for use by one

person in an office or at home.

4. Desktop - any computer designed to be used on a desk in an office

environment

5. Workstation - a computer terminal (PC or desktop) designed to support the

work of one person. It can be high-powered or have other superior
capabilities to PCs or ordinary desktops e.g. capacity to do calculations,
graphics and other advanced logical operations.

6. Lap - top - it is a small computer with a flat screen that a user can place on
his lap. It is portable and has an in-built rechargeable battery that can
support it when there is no power from the mains. It can be carried in a
briefcase.

7. Embedded Computers - These are computers in other devices that cannot

be accessed directly e.g. those in petrol pumps, ATMs, vending machines,
cellphones and elevators.

SOFTWARE

Software refers to computer programs that control the workings of the computer
hardware, along with the program documentation used to explain the programs to
the user.

Computer programs are sets of instructions or statements to the computer that

direct the circuitry within the hardware to operate in a certain fashion.

Software can be classified into Three different categories.

Systems Software
Application Software
Development Software

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE

It is a collection of programs that interact with the computer hardware and

application software programs creating a layer of insulation between the two.
Systems Software contains instructions which:
(a) Manage a computer system’s hardware components to coordinate them so
that they work efficiently
(b) Schedule the computer’s time to make the best use of that time.

Systems Software includes a variety of programmes such as:

(i) Operating Systems

17 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 (ii) Database Management Systems
(iii) Communications Control Programs
(iv) Service and Utility Programs
(v) Programming Language Translators
Operating Systems
This forms the largest component of Systems Software.
 It is a system of programs that run or control the execution of computer
programs and act as an interface with application programs.

 It is an integrated system of programs that manages the operations of the CPU,

controls the input. Output and storage resources and activities of a computer
system.

 The primary purpose of the operating system is to maximise the productivity of a

computer system. It minimises the amount of user intervention required during
data entry and processing. It helps application programs perform common
operations such as entering data, saving, retrieving files, printing and displaying
output.

Functions of an Operating System

Generally the operating system is expected to perform five basic functions

(a) User Interfacing – an Operating System allows a user to communicate with

the computer in loading programs, accessing files and accomplishing tasks
through command driven, menu driven or graphical user interfaces. In
command driven interfaces, the user uses brief end commands, in menu
driven interfaces the user selects choices from menus of options, in graphical
user interface (GUI) the user selects icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other
images to him get things done by the system.

(b) Operating Environment Management – Use of GUI enables the user to

connect to other separate application packages so that they can
communicate and work together and share data files. Operating environment
packages provide icon displays and support the use of some input devices to
allow the running and output of several programs to be displayed at the
same time. The Operating System allows for multitasking – i.e. where several
programs or tasks can be processed at the same time.

(c) Resource Management – Resource management programs of the operating

system manage the hardware resources of a computer system including the
CPU, memory, secondary storage devices and input/output peripherals. For
example a memory program keeps track of where data and programs are
stored. They subdivide memory into sections and swap parts of programs and
data between main memory and secondary storage devices. This operation
then can provide virtual memory capability i.e. the real memory capacity in
main memory is larger than the capacity of its normal memory circuits.

(d) File Management – The file management programs in the operating system
control the creation, deletion and access of data and programs. The
programs also keep track of the physical location of files on secondary
storage units. They maintain directories of information about the location
characteristics of files stored on a computer system’ s secondary storage
devices.

18 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 (e) Task Management – The task management programs of an operating
system manage the accomplishment of computing tasks as needed by the
user. They give each task a slice of the CPU’s time and interrupt the CPU
operations to substitute other tasks. Task management may involve
multitasking – where several computing tasks can occur at the same time.
Multitasking may be in the form of multiprogramming (several programs
are running at the same time). The operating system allows for time sharing
– where the computing tasks of several users can be processed at the same
time. Multitasking depends on the computing power of the CPU if too many
programs are running concurrently the system may be overloaded or
processing slowed down. Example of multitasking: printing and typing at the
same time, word processing and financial analysis, browsing the internet and
word processing.

Popular Operating Systems

MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
 It has been widely in use especially before 1995 when the new Windows 95 took
over.
 It is a single user operating system – only one user can be using the system at a
given time.
 It is a single tasking operating system – It allows for the processing of only one
task at a time
 Use of short prompt commands – the user interfaces with the computer system
through the use of commands that are fed into the computer usually after the
prompt sign (>) e.g. C:\>cls (Command to clear the screen)
 Instructions are put in only through the keyboard
 Once a file is deleted it can never be recalled
 The operating system is not user-friendly

Windows
 A widows based operating system is more advanced than the MS-DOS based
operating system.
 It features graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – User can feed commands into the
computer through the selection of relevant icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other
forms of images (mostly resembling the intended device or operation).
 True multitasking – the operating system allows for numerous tasks to be done
at the same time.
 Networking – the operating system is multi-usable – many users can use it at the
same time. It is capable of holding a number of computer systems networked
together.
 Multimedia Presentations- the operating system allows for the presentation of
information in a variety of media including text, graphic displays, voice and
other audio, photographs and video.
 Virtual Memory – It allows for the use of storage devices as extension of the
main memory thus giving the appearance of a larger main memory than actually
exists.
 Deleted file go to recycle bin
 Makes use of easier input methods e.g. mouse, joystick
 Windows operating systems has MS-DOS option
 Examples of Windows Operating Systems packages, Windows NT (new
technology) (1993) and Windows 95.
 In computer terms, a window is one section of a computer’s multiple section
display screen that can have a different display.

OS/2

19 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 It is called the Operating System /2
 It is an operating system developed by IBM and was introduced in 1994 with the
OS/2 Warp version as the latest one.
 It provides graphical user interfaces (GUIs), multitasking, virtual memory and
telecommunications.

UNIX
 It was originally developed by AT&T but now being offered by many other
vendors.
 It is a multitasking, multi-user and net-work managing operating system
 Because of its portability, it can be used on mainframes, midrange computers
and microcomputers.
 It is a popular choice for network servers.

The Macintosh System

 It is an operating system for Apple from Macintosh microcomputers
 It is a popular GUI as well as multitasking and virtual memory operating system.

It is made up of the following programs:

Language translators
Utility programs
Control programs
Communication programs

Language translators and Utility programs

Non-machine languages must be converted into machine language to be executed

by the CPU. This is done by systems software called language translators.

A language translator converts a statement from a high-level programming

language into machine language called source code whereas the machine language
code is refereed to as the object code. The translator converts the command given in
human language into the form the computer has been programmed to understand
before executing the instruction.

There are two types of language translators – Interpreter & Compiler

Interpreter

This is a language translator that converts each statement in a program into

machine language and executes the programme statement at a time

Compiler

This language translator translates a complete program into a complete machine

language program. The result is a program in machine language that can be run in
its entirety, with a compiler, program execution is a two-stage process. First, the
compiler translates the program into a machine language; second the machine
language program is executed.

Compilers run faster than interpreters so are more preferred.

Utility programs

20 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

It is a standard set of routines that assist the operation of the computer system by
performing some frequently required processes such as to sort and merge sets of
data, copy and keep track of computer jobs being run.

Control programs

These are designed to manage the general functions of the processor, memory and
terminal interface. The programs are arranged in a hierarchy at the top of which is
a kernel or executive program that controls the running of the other programs. In
microcomputers the supervisor is held in ROM while on larger computer systems it
is held on backing store. When the computer is switched on the supervisor is loaded
into main memory, the other programs are kept on disk and are transferred to main
memory when they are needed.

The kernel assists the following:

The job scheduler selects, initiates, terminates, queues and sequences the jobs
that demand the use of the processor and main memory.

The file manager has the responsibility of achieving the interleaving effect of
Multiprogramming.

The Input/Output manager has the responsibility of managing the interface with
terminals and backing store in response to the requirements of any applications
program being executed.

Communications Programs

These support network computer systems by allowing different types of hardware to

be linked and to communicate with each other. The programs may help to select the
best transmission medium for the message, coding and sending the data.

Virtual Storage Operating System

This refers to a system for extending the capacity of main memory for running large
application or utility programs. The operating system separates programs into
sections some of which are put into backing store. The locations of these sections
(addresses) and the part of the program being executed are held in main memory;
the sections are called in and processed
When required and then returned to backing storage. The sections of the programs
are called pages and are said to page in from backing store and page out when
being replaced by other pages. The execution of virtual storage is therefore called
paging.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

 Applications are programs designed to help the user carry out specific tasks for
example to manipulate figures or write texts.

 This also consists of programs written to solve particular user-oriented

problems. It applies the power of the computer to give individuals, groups and
organisations the ability to solve problems and perform specific activities or

21 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 tasks e.g. Accounts receivable, accounts payable, automatic teller machines,
inventory control, library operations and control, invoicing etc

Categories of generic applications:

Word Processing

 A word processing package is designed to enable text to be typed and

manipulated.
 It has many advantages over the type writer,
- the ability to edit parts of the text without rewriting the whole
document
- allows for spell checking form the computer's Dictionary File, if it
assumes a word is misspelt if not found in the dictionary) it highlights
it or sometimes even correct it automatically.
- allows for centering text, bold, underline and use of variety of fonts
(typefaces)
- allow for the production of multiple original copies from one softcopy.
 Popular Word-processing packages are Microsoft Word, Lotus Word,
WordPerfect, Quattro Word

Spreadsheets

- A spreadsheet package is used to perform calculations that have been entered

onto a grid.
- Formulae are entered into the grid using the figures, if the figures change; the
results of the formulae are updated automatically.
- It is also possible to filter (select only the required data), sort or perform other
forms of data manipulations.
- It is possible to produce graphs, charts and other forms of comparison using the
entered figures from the spreadsheet.
- Popular examples of spreadsheet packages are: Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3,
Quattro Pro

Databases
- A database is an organised store of information, for example an address book,
list of employees, list of students, customers or items of assets.
- A database package is used to store records.
- Data can be sorted, filtered for separate viewing.
- Calculations and comparisons between data items can be done.
- Popular database packages are: Microsoft Excel, lotus Approach, Paradox, dBase
IV, Data Ease.

Graphics
- These are applications designed solely for designing graphs and text
charts/posters.
- They are often used to produce slides for use on overhead projectors, or
presentations on computer-projectors.
- Various types of charts are also produced
- Examples of graphics packages are: Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance,
Harvard Graphics, Corel Draw

Desktop Publishing

22 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

- Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users powerful and versatile page
design capabilities.
- The user can incorporate text and graphics on very exact page layouts.
- These applications produce magazines, catalogues, invitation cards, business
cards and other sophisticated documents.
- The application links up well with other applications as the user can import text
and graphics from the other applications.
- Examples of DTP packages are: Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Ventura and
Frame maker.

Suites
- Many applications are grouped together into suites which users can purchase as
one product containing, for example, Word-Processing, a Spreadsheet, Graphics
application, Desktop Publishing, Database application.

The following is the criteria for selecting applications software:

-Accuracy - it must be free from errors

-Flexibility - must be able to adapt to changing environment.

-Compatibility - it must be compatible with available hardware

-Recency - it must be current

-Cost - it must have reasonable cost

-Originality - It must be original

-Support - consider continued support from the supplier.

-Ease of use - it must be user friendly.

-Performance - it must have efficiency in both response time and run time.

Sources of Applications Software

There are three sources of applications software;

In-house
Off-the shelf
From a contractor.
In-house Developed Software

This approach requires a development team from within the organisation. The team
is usually comprised of programmers and analysts. The team members should be
high calibre, highly trained and reliable

Advantages
 Internal professionals understand operations better and therefore can produce
an accurate solution.
 The Software usually meets user requirements.
 Management are in total control of the development process
 More flexibility - there is more flexibility in making modifications.

23 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Problem specificity - in-house developed software can give an organisation
software programs that are easily tailored to a unique problem or task.

Disadvantages

 Time and costs of developing the program may be greater than other options
 In-house staff may lack the expertise needed for the project
 Reliability of the resultant software is highly questionable.
 In some cases the developers may attempt to gain fraudulently from the system

Off-the Shelf
This is software that can be purchased, leased, or rented from a software company
that develops programs and sells them to many computer users and organisations.
Applications such as financial accounting, business graphics and pay roll may be
bought.

Advantages
 Cheaper - the software company is able to spread the software development cost
over a large number of customers, hence reducing the cost any one customer
must pay.
 Less risky - the software is existing, hence you can analyse the features and
performance of the package.
 The program is a well-tried and tested product with few errors.

 Less time - Off-the -shelf software is often installed quickly and easily.
 The package is well documented
 The packages require little maintenance
 There is continued support from the supplier through upgrades.

Disadvantages

 The organisation might need to pay for the features that are not required and
never used.
 Tie package may be for general needs and therefore not ideal for the user.
 The user has no direct control over the package,

Software from a Contractor

This involves contracting out software development to a software house - better

known as outsourcing especially where off-the-shelf packages are not available.

Advantages
 Software houses employ professionals and this may benefit the organisation
 Transfer of skills to the existing professionals in an organisation
 Organization can get support from the contractor.

Disadvantages

 There could be breach of confidentiality.

 Contractor may go bankrupt and cease trading leaving the user with no support.
 Contractor might not have sufficient experience or understanding of the problem
thus the solution might not be satisfactory.
 It takes time for the contractor to understand the user's business and operations
this makes the approach expensive.

24 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE
It allows the user to create software for various applications.

All software programs (systems and application) are written in coding schemes
called programming languages. The primary function of a programming language
is to provide instructions to the computer system so that it can perform a processing
activity to achieve an Objective or solve a problem. Program code is the set of
instructions that signal the CPU to perform circuit-switching operations,

Programming languages

There are categories of programming languages:

Low-level languages

High-level languages

Fourth generation languages

Low-level languages

1) First Generation languages - Machine language

In machine languages programmers wrote their instructions in binary code (0 and

1), telling the CPU exactly which circuits to switch on (1) and off (0). Machine
language is considered a low-level language because it is very simple to the
computer. Machine language is the language of the CPU. It is the only language
capable of directly instructing the CPU.

Example of a machine code:

00100101 00000010 00001101
Means Add contents address location 1 to address location 2

Because machine-language programming is extremely difficult, very few programs

are actually written in machine language.
The other disadvantage of machine languages is that they are machine specific.

All languages beyond the first generation are called symbolic languages- they use
symbols easily understood by humans, allowing the programmer to focus
on structuring a problem solution rather than on the complexities of coding specific
computer programs.

2) Second Generation - Assembly language

The commands are written in simple mnemonics (abbreviated form) instead of the
binary coding . For example A for ADD MV for MOVE. It is therefore easier to work
with assembly coding than machine coding. However, the instructions have to be
translated into machine code by a program called an assembler. Although it is a
step above machine language in terms of sophistication, assembly language is still
considered a low-level language,

Example : A,R 1.3 means add register 1 to register 2

3) Third Generation - High-level Languages (3GLs)

25 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

These use greater symbolic code. They are problem oriented. They specifically
instruct the computer on how to complete an operation. The instructions are
English-like and have to be translated into machine code by a compiler or
interpreter.

An example in COBOL is:

DEDUCT TAX FROM SALARY GIVING NET SALARY

It is much easier to program using high-level language because the commands
resemble their meaning in everyday human communication and understanding.

Characteristics of high-level languages:

 Each statement in the language translates into several instructions in machine
language.
 The Language is English like and uses abbreviations and words used in
everyday communication.
 Each programming language has characteristics that make it appropriate
for certain types of problems or applications. For example COBOL (Common
Business Oriented Language) for Commercial problems, PASCAL for academic,
FORTRAN (Formula Translator) for Scientific problems and BASIC (Beginners
All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) for small business systems SQL
(Structured Query Language) for databases.
 The language is relatively independent of a given computer hardware.

4) Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

 They are at a higher level than 3GLs. They demand few lines of code as
compared to 3GLs.
 They are easy to learn and their statements are close to natural language. Being
easy they are used to develop simple systems.
 It emphasises what output results are desired more than how programming
statements are to be written.
 Many managers and executives with little or no training in computers and
programming are using fourth generation languages for programming.

Features of 4GLs

 Query and database abilities

 Code-generation abilities - these are abilities to automatically produce many of
the programming statements and instructions required to gain a specific output
result.
 Graphics abilities

5) Fifth Generation Languages (5GLs)

 These are used to create programs for artificial intelligence and expert
systems.
 They are sometimes called natural languages because they use English syntax.
 They allow programmers to communicate with the computer using
normal sentences.

DATA COMMUNICATION

26 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Refers to the means and methods whereby data is transferred between processing
locations through the use of communication systems.

Communication systems are defined as systems for creating, delivering, and

receiving electronic messages. The communication system comprises of the
following: - a device to send the message
- The channel or communication medium
- A device to receive the message
- A device to send the message

Modes of Communication and Codes

There are various modes and codes of data transmission signals from the sending to
the receiving device.

Analogue transmission
Analogue signals are continuous sine waves that send a continuous 5-volt signal on
a channel but the signal will vary continuously between +5 to -5 volts. The number
of cycles per second is the frequency of the signal and is expressed in units called
hertz (Hz). The human voice forms oscillating patterns of changes in air pressure.
The vibrations act on the telephone microphone and are converted to electrical
voltage patterns that reflect the characteristics of the speech pattern. Analogue
transmission is used to transmit voice or data in analogue signals. It is used in
telephone systems and radio transmission.

Voltage
Analogue Signal

+5

-5 Time

Digital Transmission
This is the sending of data with digital symbols of 0 and 1 representing the
switching on (1) and switching off (0) pulses of electricity. Most computer systems
use this to create bits that make up bytes. One cycle is made up of two pulses. The
number of pulses per second is called the baud rate.

Digital Signal

1 1 1
0 0 0
Time

Digital Transmission Versus Analogue Transmission

Digital transmission offers less errors and noise in transmission especially over long
distances. There is little data fatigue as the data being send does not lose power
over the transmission so much that the signal is weakened by the length of the
transmission media. Digital transmission is compatible with digital computers so

27 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

there is no need to convert the data messages from analogue to digital when
computer systems are using digital transmission lines. However, the setting up of
digital transmission lines especially over long distances is considerably expensive.

Data Transmission Modes

These are ways through which organisations can communicate via the channel or
transmission media.

Simplex transmission
Transmission takes place only in one direction. These are not suitable for long
distance transmission because there is need for acknowledgement or error
messages. It is used in the computer - printer communication. This is also used in
radio and television transmission.

Sender Receiver

Half Duplex
Messages can be sent both ways but only one way at a time. The channel alternately
sends and receives data but these are not done at the same time. The same device is
used for both sending and receiving. This is used in two-way radio communication.

Sender Receiver

Full Duplex
This permits simultaneous transmission of messages in both directions. Sending and
receiving can be done at the same time using the same devices. This is the mode
used in modern telephone/cellular transmission.

Sender Receiver

Ways of Transmitting Data

a. Asynchronous Transmission - Each character is sent down the channel
separately that each transmission unit is one unit in length. The characters
are sent character by character at irregular intervals. The character is
headed by a start bit and ended by a stop bit. These bits tell the receiving
device that a character is coming and that the character has been sent.
There may be a parity bit to verify correctness of transmission. Even parity is
used where the number of bits in the character is even and an odd parity
system for the character with an odd number of bits.
This form is suitable conversational interactions and used in standard
telephone lines using low transmission rates.

b. Synchronous transmission - Prepared sets of characters are transmitted

together as blocks at fixed rates. The message is preceded by the parity bits
to verify what has been received.

28 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 The beginning and end bits represent small percentages of the total bits sent
thus reducing overhead costs of communication.

Synchronous Transmission is faster and less expensive as given in that

character are blocked and sent down as one message allowing for the
transmission of a fuller message.

Protocols - There is need for there to be a way of signalling the start and
end of the message by the use of data transmission protocols. The use of the
parity bits is one method, use of "roger", "over" are protocols in two-way
radio communication.

Switching Alternatives

Circuit Switching
When a call is made the communication channel is opened and kept open until the
communication session is complete.
Message Switching
Each message is sent to the receiver if a route is available. The messages are sent in
blocks one at a time. The message may be stored for later transmission if the route
is not available, sometimes this is called store-and-forward transmission. The
message is delivered when the route becomes available or upon demand from the
receiver.

Packet Switching
This involves sub-dividing the message into groups called packets. Each packet is
then sent to the destination separately via the fastest route. At the destination the
packets are put in sequential order and delivered to the receiver. Sometimes when
there is no route open, the packets are stored and then forwarded once the route is
open, so these are also store-and-forward systems. These fully put the network to
better utilisation.

Communication Channels Sources and Media

a. Telephone Systems - telephone lines are used with online systems. The
lines can be divided into leased and dial service lines.
(i) Leased Lines - These are telephone lines that are dedicated to the
sole use by the user to support online systems within the
organisation. The telephone service provider (e.g Tel One) then
charges a flat monthly rate for the service. In calculating the rate
the length of the line may be considered.
(ii) Dial service - With this telephone line the user is charged each
time the line is used for online processing. When all the lines
connecting the system are busy a user has to wait and an
appropriate message is given by the system. The rate charged
depends on the distance, time of use (peak or off peak), time spent
during transmission. This is usually used for long distance
communication between systems e.g. the Internet
A leased line service provides for high-level online activities. It is much
cheaper to use and provides better quality transmission. The leased lines
are much more flexible than dial service lines. Users in the system have
greater access through the many lines provided by the common carrier.
However, leased lines are suitable for use in one organisation or in one
building/locality.

29 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 The amount of data transmitted depends on the capabilities of the
communication channel. The capabilities may be classified as bandwidth.
Bandwidth is the frequency range of the channel, representing the
maximum transmission rate of the channel. The bandwidth can be
measured in bits per second (bps)
A narrow band - the channel offers the lowest transfer rate and supports
transmission through telegraph lines.
Voice band - this is a low-speed analogue (offering a rate between 300 and
9600 bps)
Wideband - these offer the highest transfer rates with data communication
through coaxial cables.

b. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) - it is an international effort

to replace the analogue technology with digital technology through a single
set of standard interfaces.
c. Microwave Satellite Transmission - These transmissions are sent through
the air. The transmission uses a line of light that must be unobscured.
Usually these transmissions are from space satellites placed in stationary
orbit and earth satellites and are communicated from and to satellite dishes.
Satellite

Destination
Source

Earth

This form of transmission can transmit large amounts of data over wider
areas. This is in much use in wide area television broadcasting. Although
transmission is of high quality, setting up the system is very expensive.
d. Radio Transmission - This form of transmission uses radio waves,
transportation and taxi companies for easier communication use it. The
police and army to communicate also use this.
e. Cellular Transmission - The local area under the transmission is divided
into cells. As the cellular transmission user moves from one cell to the other
the connection is passed from one cell to the other. The signals from
individual cells are integrated into one regular telephone system.
f. Physical Cables - Transmission uses physical cables which are connected to
the communication points. There are three types of these cables:
(i) Twisted-Pair Wire cable - this consists of a pair of twisted wires.
The wires are insulated and twisted to avoid the bleeding of
signals from or into the each other. There are shielded wires (with
a special conducting wire) and unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) that
has no insulation. It is the type used in home telephone
connections. The twisted pair wire cable is inexpensive. However,
it does not allow high rates of data transfer, and is prone to
interference and too bulky.
(ii) Coaxial cable - Consists of an inner conductor coated with insulation
called a dielectric (a layer of foil) that is covered by nonconductive
insulation called a jacket. This offers a cleaner and crisper
transmission than the twisted pair wire cable and has a higher
data transfer rate. However, it is more expensive.

30 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 (iii)Fibre optic cable - This is made up of a glass or plastic core
surrounded by a cladding material (paper, polyethylene, twine or
other sheathing). They use light which is turned on and off rapidly
creating the on off bit. The sheathing of the cable prevents loss of
reflection.
Advantages
1. High transmission capacities
2. Smaller cable size and lighter weight
3. Very little cross talk and spying
4. Little interference
5. Repeaters (to boast strength of the signal) are not required
6. Are ideal for hazardous conditions since there is no sparking.

These are however quite expensive to purchase and set up.

COMPUTER NETWORK SYSTEMS

A network is a number of computers connected through some channel so that they

may share some of the resources and allow access into them by users from other
points.

Advantages of networking
a. Resources can be shared e.g. printers, computer files and programmes.
b. More even distribution of processing and other work by the computers and
users.
c. More economic and fuller use of computers.
d. Allow for the provision of local facilities without loss of central control.
e. Mutual support and a spirit of cooperation exist.

Disadvantages of networking.
a. There could be congestion at the shared resources.
b. Control of information and confidentiality may be lost.
c. The costs of the system may be considerable.
d. Viruses and other forms of corruption to programmes spread faster

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

These are networks that are spread over large geographical areas. The telephone
system is one such WAN. It is a long distant network of interconnected computers
on separate sites, cities or even different countries.

Purposes of Implementation of WAN

-To get data from its source.
-Improve on the productivity of the system by improving the speed of processing
- Allow for instant feedback and expansion of the system.

WAN hardware

Hosts - This provides users with processing software and access. The host is usually
a mainframe computer with microcomputers connected to it.

Front end Processors (FEP) & Back End Processors (BEP) - These are
minicomputers that are placed in front of (FEP) or at the back (BEP) of the main
system CPU. These assist the main system CPU with accepting input perform the
operations on it before forwarding it to the mainframe CPU for further processing or
after the main system CPU to assist with the output activities. They generally

31 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

manage communications. The main system CPU concentrates on process work
without having to handle input and output activities.

Modems - This is short for Modulate Demodulate. Telephone lines that are common
link media between computers use the analogue signal whereas computers use
digital signals. So there is need to convert the signals. From the sending computer,
the digital signal should be modulated to analogue signal for transmission over the
telephone link. At the receiving end the analogue signal has to be demodulated
(converted back) into the digital signal.

Modulation can be done using a number of methods. Amplitude modulation (AM)

where the amplitude is modified to represent binary digits 0 and 1. Frequency
Modulation (FM) adjusts frequency to represent the bits 0 and 1. The Phase Shift
Modulation adjusts a fixed amount so that 0 and 1 can correspond to different phase
shifts.

Terminals - These are the microcomputers connected to the system on which the
users can work to sent data or access information. Terminals may be dump or
intelligent. Dump terminals have limited memory and intelligence while intelligent
terminals have processing and memory capabilities that they can process data
themselves.

Multiplexor -it is a device that can subdivide one big channel so that many people
can use it at the same time. There are two types of multiplexors: time division and
frequency division.
Time Division Multiplexors (TDM) - It slices multiple incoming signals into
small time intervals that are then transmitted over a channel and then split
by another TDM at the receiving end.

Time Slots Time

Frequency Division Multiplexor (FDM) - incoming signals on different frequency
ranges are sent across a transmission medium at the same time. At the receiving
end another FDM splits the frequencies into multiple signals again.
HOST

Multiplexor Multiplexor

32 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Terminal controllers/Concentrators- are used to connect many terminals to a
single line, they do not communicate directly with the FEP.

Protocol Converters - Because of the diversity of technology in communication,

WANs are using various devices, channels, modes and codes. To allow for
communication between and among all these protocol converters are used to
translate different signals from one system to another. Typical protocol converters
include HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) used on Internet communications,
TCP/IP.

WAN Software
In order for the WAN hardware to operate there should appropriate software which
should include telecommunications access programmes that handle messages
between the host's memory and the remote devices, this programme could be in the
FEP. There is also the network control programme that has the work of running the
network off the host by checking if terminals have messages to send, do editing of
incoming messages.

Network concerns For the Manager

1. Reliability of the network - there should be minimal breakdown and errors

in the system.
2. Response time of the Network - there should be less time spent on picking
the required signals when required.
3. Costs of the Network - costs of setting up and maintaining the system may
be considerable, so the manager should reduce these.
4. Compatibility of Software and hardware - hardware and the software
should be compatible (capable of working together) otherwise there
should at least be some conversion of either the software or the hardware
to suit the other.
5. Access and Security of the System - with WAN there is greater risk of data
being accessed by unauthorised people, there should be measures to
reduce this risk e.g. use of passwords, physical access protection or
through encryption (coding of data so that in the event that it is
intercepted it may not be understood)

WAN Topology

Modem Modem

Multiplexor Multiplexor

Host
Terminals

33 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

It is an interconnected group of minicomputers or other terminals within a small

geographical area. The area could be a room, a number of offices or a building.

LAN Hardware and Software

Network Workstations - these are usually microcomputers from where a user can
work to enter or receive data from the network. These could be dump terminals or
diskless workstations.

File Servers - These are computer systems attached to a network that control
access to and other wise manage hard disks to allow the workstations to share
disk space, programmes and data and to control the network.

Print Servers - these are computers that have the duty of managing the printer
resources, that is allocating print time, and carrying out other print routines.

Communication Servers - these manage communication devices in the network

(modems, multiplexors). A microcomputer or even the file server could do this job
provided that it is not too busy with its own functions.

Cabling - these connect the different computer systems and devices in the network.
Sometimes LANs use radio waves and thus are wireless.

Network interface Cards- these provide the necessary translation of signals

between the devices in the network. They are sometimes called adapters.

The Network operating System - These are programmes that manage the
operations of the network allowing the user to install the network, the application
software, analyse and solve network problems, manage the sending, routing and
delivery of messages and do other routine and housekeeping duties for the network.

LAN Topologies

Topologies are ways in which a network can be structured or arranged depending

on the resources, the needs and the structure of the given organisation.

1. Star Topology - there is a central node - the file server (which could be a
minicomputer or microcomputer) to which all other computers in the system
are connected. All the processing and storage are done by the host (central
computer). There is no direct interterminal communication.
The network is suitable for use in offices and homes.
Advantages
a. It is easy to trouble shoot
b. It is economic and offers intensive use of the terminals
c. Requires a single intelligent computers, terminals could be dump
there by saving on the cost of the network.
d. Each terminal has direct and quicker access to the host

Disadvantages

34 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 a. It is prone to failure - failure of the node mean loss and breakdown to the
whole system.
b. The cabling may be costly
c. Viruses can be transmitted easily within the network

Terminal

Host

2. Bus (Multidrop) Topology

All the computer are connected to a linear transmission medium called a bus
through the use of a tap. The tap is used to create a link up to the medium and to
the network.

This network handles higher traffic.

Advantages
a. Costs of setting up and maintaining the network are low.
b. Each terminal can communicate directly with any other on the network.

Disadvantages
a. Risk of network malfunction
b. Are more troublesome than the star topology.
c. Trouble shooting is more difficult.
d. There is the risk of data collision.

3. Ring Topology
It is made up of a series of nodes connected to each other to form a closed loop.
Each loop can accept data transmitted to it from an immediate neighbour and
forward data not addressed to it to the next neighbour. Messages are transmitted in

35 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

packets or frames. Each node has an address and packet is delivered to the node
bearing the address required.

Advantages
a. There is by-pass technology so that messages can be passed on from a failed
workstation - breakdown of a workstation does not affect the network much.
b. It is easy to install
c. There is less risk of packet collision
d. More accurate and reliable

Disadvantages
a. There is poor response time
b. There is risk of data interception so there should be data encyption.
c. Unwanted data may continue to circulate the network, thus reducing traffic
carrying capacity of the network.

4. Mesh Topology
This topology combines the ring and the star topologies. Bi-directional links are
established.

This offers better communication and reduces the risk of data collision because of
the existence of alternative routes. The network has quick response time and is very
accurate. However, the costs of the cabling are quite considerable.

5. Hierarchical (Tree) Topology

The nodes are connected to form a hierarchy. Messages are passed along the
branches until they reach their destinations. These networks do not need a
centralised computer that controls communications. These are also very easy to

36 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

troubleshoot and repair because the branches can be separated and serviced
separately.

6. Mixed Topologies

Various topologies are combined into one network.

LAN concerns for the Manager

Costs - of connection - cables and software

Compatibility of the hardware and software
Appointment of a network manager where necessary.

THE INTERNET

The Internet is a worldwide network of computer systems. Millions of computer

networks in different parts of the world are connected by telephone lines, cables,
radio and microwave links and modems.

Because the telephone system is not yet fully digitalized, there is need to convert
the predominantly digital computer signal to analogue and reconvert to digital. This
is done by the Modem (short for Modulator
demodulator) which sits between the computer and the telephone line. Modems may
be external or internal to the PC.

37 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

There are many organizations that offer internet services. These are called Internet
Service Providers (ISPs) and they usually charge a monthly fee for the connection.
Some ISPs do not charge a fee for the service.

If you want to explore the Internet, a web browser is required. A web browser
contains programmes that assist in the surfing of the internet. The most used web
browser is Microsoft Internet Explorer.

Web site –

Web address –

Facilities on the Internet

Electronic Mail

It is commonly referred to as the e-mail. Every user of the e-mail has a unique
address. E-mail addresses have an @, for example, [email protected] .
One can send and receive messages the same way an ordinary letter is sent and
received. E-mail messages are sent from user to user on a computer network with
message being stored in the recipient’s mailbox or inbox. The next time the user
logs on, he is told that there is a new message, these messages can be read, printed
or replied.

E-mail allows for the sending of attachments. These are files that contain greater
detail and are based on a particular application package like Microsoft Word,
Microfoft Excel. One can even send a CV, an assignment or other document using e-
mail.

E-mail makes use of an existing internet connection and software. However, there is
a misconception in the minds of many students that e-mail and internet are one and
the same thing. Internet provides many facilities and the e-mail is only one of them.

Advantages of e-mail
1. Speed - Messages are received instantly
- Provides certainty of delivery of mail
- Reading, sending replies, redirecting massages is faster.

2. Cost - Generally cheaper than ordinary mail

- Less or no paper used.

3. Time - Less time spent on the phone waiting to be put through, finding
people
unobtainable, holding the line because line is engaged and leaving
messages and having to call again.

4. Flexibility - Anyone with a PC at home can send and receive messages out of
office
hours.
- Messages can be sent and received at any computer that is linked
to the network.

Disadvantages of e-mail

38 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 1. Delay – if a recipient takes long to log on, the speed advantages is lost
- If there is a problem with the recipient’s server, one may not know
immediately if the message has been received or not.

2. Information Overload – Sometimes there may be too many messages

- Sometimes important or urgent messages are overlooked.

3. Junk mail – There may lots of unwanted messages received.

4. Breakdowns – Often log on problems may result in messages not being sent
or received.
5. Security – There is the concern about security of confidential information
that is sent and/or received.

Intranet

It is the network of computers usually within a company that uses e-mail and
browser software but is not part of the internet. Employees can use the Intranet to
access information related to the company such as training, social activities, job
opportunities and product information. It enables employees to share information.

E-commerce

It involves the internet transactions of goods and services to businesses and

consumers and can include:
- retail – you can buy virtually anything on the Internet, e.g books
- banking – there are online banking facilities that allow the
payment of bills and access of balances.
- Travel arrangements – airline and rail tickets can be bought and
sold on the internet and bookings made thereon.
Consumers connect to the online service and can then order goods and pay for these
using a credit or debit card.

DATA PROCESSING

It is the process of collecting data and converting it into information. It may be

manual (where only human effort is used), semi-manual where human effort is aided
by an electronic device or mechanical/electronic, where computers replace human
effort.

Types of Data Processing

1. Centralised data processing

This is where data is sent to and processed at a central place.
Advantages of centralised data processing
a. All required information can be got from one place
b. Little distortion of information
c. Easy to manage and control
d. Cheaper to implement
e. Easier to enforce standards
f. Is not complicated

Disadvantages
a. The whole system is disturbed when the computer is down.
b. Users of the system have little control over the data even their own.

39 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 c. Loss of data by the processing computer may mean loss of data at other
points.
d. Needs specialists to set up and maintain the system and its environment.
e. Processing of data may be slow due to congestion at the central computer.

2. Distributed processing
Data is processed at different points in the organisation. Branch or department may
have a microcomputer or minicomputer that processes the information. The
minicomputer in the branch then sends to a host computer after processing.

HOST COMPUTER

1 2 3 4 5 6

Advantages
a. Data lost at any point may be recovered from the host
b. Faster processing of data
c. Processing may occur even if the host computer is down
d. User have some control over their data
e. Problem can be solved at the different points

Disadvantages
a. The system needs expensive equipment and has high maintenance costs.
b. Management and control difficult
c. There is dada duplication at the different points
d. No uniformity of data
e. There is no overall control time

3. Batch processing
A central computer system normally processes all transactions against a central
data base and produces reports at intervals. In batch processing transactions are
accumulated over a period of time and processed periodically. A batch system
handles the inputing, processing, job queuing and transmission of the data from the
remote sites with little or no user intervention. Batch processing involves.
a. Data gathering from source documents at the remote site through the remote
job entry (RJE)
b. recording the transaction data onto some medium e.g. magnetic tape or disk.
c. Sorting the transactions into transaction files
d. Processing of the data
e. Updating the master file.

Advantages
a. It is economical when large amounts of data are being processed
b. Suitable where reports and information is needed periodically.
c. Reduced risk of error due to the time involved in validation and verification.
Disadvantages
a. Master files are often out of date
b. Immediate updated responses cannot be made.

40 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 c. Unsuitable where decisions and follow up transactions depend on the results
of earlier transactions e.g. in bank withdrawals and deposits.
d. Once the system fails all output is delayed.

4. On-line Processing
It is the input of transactions while the input device is connected directly to the
main CPU of the system. There is no necessity of a batch.

Advantages
a. Items can be input much easier and quicker.
b. Many errors are dealt with by the operator at entry
c. Time is saved because a batch does not have to be produced first.
d. User can recognise anomalies in the data being entered

Disadvantages
a. The system may be more expensive than batch processing.
b. Sometimes accuracy of data depends on the operator who might fail to detect
or prevent some errors.
c. Sometimes source document are not used e.g. in the case of telephone
orders.

5. On line Real time processing

It is the continual receiving and rapid processing of data as to be able to feedback
the result of that input to the source of that data. There is no delay between the
input of a transaction and the updating of the master files for the transaction. The
only delay is for the necessary validation and verification of the data. This allows for
immediate processing of data and results generated to provide immediate output to
users. Data does not have to wait, as is the case under batch processing.

Data is fed directly into the computer system from on-line terminals without the
storing, sorting (these are done on-line)

Advantages
 Processing is instantaneous
 Files and databases are always up to date

Disadvantages
 The systems are expensive to and complex to develop and put up.
 Data with errors may be processed with damaging effect.
 Hardware costs are high, there is need for on-line terminals, more CPU
power, large on-line storage and back up facilities.

6. Time Sharing Processing

Processor time is shared between users to provide multi-access (many users
accessing data at the same time). This can be done by minicomputers and
mainframe computer systems.

Advantages
a. Each user is given a chance
b. More than one person can use the computer at the same time.

Disadvantages
The user may not require a service at the time his slice is given - this results in too
much excess capacity at some periods.

41 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Data Acquisition
(From source Documents)

Output Communication Input/ Capture

Storage Processing

Stage 1
Data acquisition - this is the collection of data from source documents for input into
the computer system.

Stage 2
Input/Capture - This is the putting of the acquired data into the system e.g. through
typing, scanning, or other forms of input.
Validation - the quality of the data is checked before it is entered or processed and
errors detected and eliminated.
Verification - data is checked for mistakes in copying so that it is correct.
There may be gabbage in and gabbage out (GIGO) meaning that information
systems will produce erroneous output if provided with erroneous input data or
instructions. To avoid GIGO common validation is done:
a. Checking data reasonableness, e.g. pregnancy for a three year old would be
unreasonable.
b. Checking data consistency - e.g. it would be inconsistent to record a
pregnant male.
c. Checking range units e.g. it would be impossible to have 30hours worked by
one worker in a day.
d. Timeliness - that data is not out of date.

Stage 3
Processing - this is the key part of the cycle where data is converted into
information. This is where calculations and other logical and manipulative
operations on the data are done. Specific applications are used to process the data
e.g. word processing, spreadsheet, payroll packages etc

Stage 4
Storage - information is stored on various storage media including hard disks, floppy
disks, magnetic tapes etc.

Stage 5
Output - The processed information is eventually displayed for use by the user
through the various output systems - printers, VDUs, sound cards & speakers.

DATA PROCESSING PERSONNEL

The job involving the capture, processing and output of data and information
involves a number of people. Sometimes there may be one person to do this and

42 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

often there may be a department solely responsible for data processing or for
Information technology.

The data processing department interacts with all other departments from where it
gets data and for whom it processes and eventually provides the information to.
The main functions of a DP department are:
a. Design and install a custom built system of data capture and processing.
b. Provision of advice to the organisation on matters regarding the processing
of information e.g. the selection of the correct devices for input, process,
storage and output.
c. Provides advice on the installation of a package or information system
d. Manage the organisation's data processing resources.
A typical DP/IT department

Data Processing Manager

Systems Manager Programming Manager Operations

Manager

DBA BA SA TA AP SP DPS SL
DPL

CO CO CO CO CO CO

Key: DBA -Database Administrator

BA - Business Analyst
SA - System Analyst
TA -Technical Analyst
AP -Application analyst
SP -System Programmer
DPS -Data control Supervisor
SL -Shift Leader
DPL -Data Processing Librarian
CO -Computer Operator

1. Data processing Manager

He is the head of the IT or DP department covering the three main areas of system
development, programming, and operations management.

The Main Duties of the DPM

a. Development and assisting in producing data processing policy for the
organisation.
b. Execution of the defined data processing policy
c. Management of the data processing function
d. Liaising with data user departments
e. Working with management to identify problem areas and areas of
improvement.
f. Ensuring proper systems development, system maintenance and computer
operating standards exist, are kept up to date.
g. Ensuring proper security and back-up arrangements are in existence and are
tested regularly.
h. Ensuring that the systems are adequately documented.

43 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 i. Ensure proper evaluation of the implemented systems.
j. Providing suitable training for the data personnel.
k. Coordination of all activities in the department
l. Resolution of conflict within the department and between the department
and other departments.
m. Provide guidance on issues of data processing
n. Recommends on staffing issues.

2. System Analyst
The title and function of this person may vary from organisation to organisation or
as an organisation develops from stage to the other. As the computer is applied to
the different organisational problems, the duties of the analyst may change.
A business analyst would require less skill than the system designer or the technical
analyst. These personnel deal with more or less the same task but with differing
depth.
Main Duties
a. Examine the feasibility of potential computer applications and to consider all
the various approaches to computerisation that are available.
b. To perform the proper analysis of user systems and requirements.
c. Develop a cost benefit analysis in conjunction with the users.
d. Design system, which take into account not only the computer procedures
but the clerical and other procedures around the computer system.
e. To specify the check and controls to be incorporated into the system in
conjunction with the audit staff.
f. To specify the most appropriate processing techniques to be used e.g. micro,
mini or mainframe, batch or real time processing.
g. To ensure that there is proper communication and clear instructions at each
stage of the project e.g. programme specification, file set up, operating
instructions, print out volumes.
h. To ensure the system is properly set up and documented.
i. To ensure a proper environment for system testing and pilot running and
parallel running of the system as may be appropriate.

3. Programmer
After design the programmer comes in. He uses the program specifications
produced by the analyst/system designer to develop the programme. The
programme specifications may consist of file and records layouts, field
description, report and screen layouts.
A flow chart or diagram indicating the main logical steps in the proposed
program may be made.
The programmer converts specifications from the system analyst into a working
programme.

Duties
a. To reach an understanding of what each programme is expected to do and to
clarify any problems with the analyst or systems designer.
b. To design the structure of the programme in accordance with installations
standards.
c. To provide a working of an efficient programme using the installations
standards within the budgeted time and funds.
d. To test programmes thoroughly both as a unit and in relation to other
programmes.
e. To provide the required programme documentation.

44 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Once the programme is in place, the maintenance programmer would take the
responsibility of correcting any subsequent problems and recommend any
improvements.

4. Systems Programmer
He specializes in non-application programmes e.g. operating systems, data
communications
Duties
a. Liaising with computer supplier to keep abreast with operating system
changes.
b. Support systems analyst and programmer regards queries on the system
software performance and features.
c. Assisting the programmer to interpret and resolve problems which appear to
be caused by the system software rather than application software.

5. Application programmer
He writes programmes or adapts software packages to carry out specific task or
operations for the computer users e.g. a sales analysis programme for the marketing
department.
Duties
a. discuss the programme specification with the analyst.
b. To write the sources program module.
c. To test the programme and debug it.
d. To maintain programmes correcting errors, making improvements &
modifications to allow for changing business methods, circumstances or
equipment.
e. Encode the procedure detailed by the analyst in a language suitable for the
specified computer.
f. Liase with the analyst and other users on the logical correctness of the
programme.

6. Computer Operator
S/he operates the mainframe or mini computer. He is responsible for the efficient
running of the computer equipment, which if not ensured efficient running time of
the computer may be lost.
Duties
a. Collecting files and programs required for a computer run from the library.
b. Loading magnetic tapes and disks into drives.
c. Putting stationery into the printer.
d. Carrying out routine maintenance such as cleaning the tapes and read write
heads.
e. Ensure the equipment is running efficiently and reporting any faults to the
technicians.
f. Replacement of computer accessories e.g. toner catridges, ribbons, ink.
g. Switching the computer on/off.
h. Handles and operates the computer hardware.
i. Handles computer input and output.
j. Responds to messages on the operator's console prompted by the operating
system that monitors the user's requests and the status of the peripherals.
k. Watching the process of individual jobs and of the computer in general.
l. Keeping a log of what happens to supplement the log that the computer
produces.

7. Data Preparation/Entry Clerk

45 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

This is the keystation operator who transcribes source data into computer sensible
form.
Duties
a. Prepares data for input into the computer
b. Enters the data into the computer for processing.
c. Monitors the processing and output.
d. Does some operations of the computer operator.

8. Database Administrator
This is a person responsible for planning, designing and maintaining the
organisation's database. This person relates to the management, system
analysts, programmers and other stakeholders in the organisation. He needs to
have adequate managerial and technical abilities to suit the job. He therefore
must have a sound knowledge of the structure of the database and the DBMS.

Duties
a. Ensure that the database meets the needs of the organisation.
b. Ensure facilities for the recovery of data
c. Ensure the functioning of report generation systems form the DBMS
d. The DBA is also responsible for the documentation of the DBMS through the
designing and availing of the data dictionary and manuals for the users
giving such direction as the general use of the database, access to
information, deletion of records from the system and the general validation
and verification of data.

Duties of the personnel overlap and depending on the size of the organisation or the
IT department some duties are done by one person.

FILE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

File Concepts

The purpose of a computer file is to hold data required for providing information. A
computer file is a collection of related records. Records consist of fields and the
fields are made up of characters. A character is the smallest element of a file. A
character may be a letter of the alphabet, a digit or of a special form (symbols).

Logical files show what data items are contained and what processing may be done
while physical files are viewed in terms of how data is stored on storage media.

Types of Files

1. Master Files – They hold permanent data for use in applications such as
stock control, credit control. Usually much of the data items in these files do
not change frequently or with each transaction e.g name, address or date of
birth.
2. Transaction files – These are also called movement files. They hold
temporary records of values. They are used to update the master file and are
overwritten after the updating of the master file.
3. Look up files – they are reference files from which such information as
prices list and mailing list can be obtained.
4. Archive files – these are files that are used to store information that has not
been in use in the recent past and would not be in use in the near future – so
are used to store historical data.

46 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

File Structures

This is the way a records are stored on the storage device or medium. This is how
the files are arranged. The arrangement also affects the way these files will be
accessed.

1. Sequential Files – the files are stored and accessed in sequence i.e. one
after another. Access the file is dependent on the position of the file on the
storage medium. Accessing the files is by moving usually through spooling to
the relevant file. This is the structure of filing on magnetic tapes. It is most
suitable where all the records on the file are being considered e.g. in the
preparation of a payroll but would be inefficient where the selection of one
record is necessary e.g. access to one employee on the payroll.
2. The Direct File Structure – The files are randomly stored. Access and
storage of the records not depend on the physical position of the record on
the file. This is the form of file structure on magnetic disks, floppy disks, or
on optical disks. Each record is given a specific disk address by which it is
recognized and accessed. This is the structure used to store and access
records and files on the Automatic Teller Machine (ATMs) systems. Access to
records is much faster. However, there could be conflict resolution where
several records generate the same address – this problem has been dealt
with the use of conflict resolution mechanisms on the computer and filing
systems.
3. Indexed Sequential File Structure – This combines the features of
sequential and direct file structures. Records are stored sequentially on a
direct access medium like the hard disk and each record occupies an
addressable location identifiable by the unique disk address. An index is
developed to keep track of the records and their physical locations on the
storage medium. The records can be stored and accessed sequentially
starting from the beginning moving through the records one at a time or can
be stored and accessed directly e.g. the way the cell phone’s phone book is
structured.

On all the types and structures discussed above a user may add or remove a file
or record, modify contents of the file or record, view the contents of the data and
create reports as may be necessary. These operations on the data can be done
on-line i.e. files and records updated as the transactions are being entered from
a device connected onto the main CPU of the system.

DATABASE CONCEPTS

A database is a single oranised collection of structured data. It is a collection of

related files that are stored in a uniform way for ease of access. It can also be
defined as a collection of logically related records or files previously stored
separately so that a common pool of data records is formed.

A database has a number of advantages over the keeping of separate files:

Data Independence - data can be defined and described separately from the
application programme. Where there is no data independence a change in any
record would then necessitate the changing of the programme to access the file.
Data Redundancy - The same data element appears in a number of files but
serving the same purpose and usually thus staying unused.

47 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Data Inconsistency - this is when redundant data is not updated accurately so
much that there are differences in the data elements on the different files.

Advantages of the Database

a. Easier data sharing leading to economies of scale
b. Reduced data redundancy
c. Improved data consistency
d. Improved data independence
e. Increased application programmer productivity
f. Improved data administration and control
g. Increased emphasis on data as a resource

Disadvantages of Databases
a. Concurrence problems - where more than one user access and attempt to
update the same record at the same time - there is file edit locking to prevent
this.
b. Ownership problems - sometimes some individuals tend to own the data and
thus refuse access by other individuals or departments in the organisation.
c. Resources problem - with database extra resources are needed e.g. more
workstations and other devices.
d. Security problems - there is increased exposure to unauthorized entry into
the data this could be reduced by the use of regularly changed passwords
and by physically denying access to unauthorized users.

The Database Management System (DBMS)

It is a complex system of software that constructs, expands and maintains the

database. It provides a controlled interface between the database and the user.

Application
Programme DBMS DB
Application

Components of a DBMS
Data Dictionary - this is a database management tool that has names and
descriptions of all data elements within a database.

Data repositories - these are an extension of the data dictionary which provide a
directory of component parts of the dB and other information resources in the
organisation.

Data languages - a definition language is needed to place the data in the data
dictionary through the use of commands such as sort, get, find etc.

Teleprocessing Monitor - This is a software that controls and manages the

communication between remote terminals e.g. from and to sales points in a large
departmental store.

Applications Development Software - this is a set of development software used

to help the user programmer to develop database software.

48 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Security Software - this is a set of software used to minimize unauthorized
access to the database.

Archiving and Recovery Systems - these systems are used to store backups of
the original record so that if the original database is damaged the information
can still be recovered.

Report Writers - these allow the user to obtain reports from the data quicker and
easier.

Functions of the DBMS

a. Allocates storage space to data
b. It maintains indices to allow for easy access too data items.
c. It allows for the addition, editing and deletion of files in the database.
d. Provides an interface with user programmes which may be written in
different programming languages.
e. Provides for the processing of files in different ways:
(i) processing of a complete file (sequentially or serially)
(ii) process required records (selective, sequential or random)
(iii) retrieve individual records
f. Provides security for the data in the database through:
(i) denying unauthorized access to data
(ii) preventing data corruption
(iii) providing data recovery in the case of failure
g. Keeps a record of statistics of the use of data in the database, this assists in
the removal of redundant (duplicated) data, it also keeps frequently used
data more accessible.

The Database Administrator

This is a person responsible for planning, designing and maintaining the
organisation's database. This person relates to the management, system
analysts, programmers and other stakeholders in the organisation. He needs to
have adequate managerial and technical abilities to suit the job. He therefore
must have a sound knowledge of the structure of the database and the DBMS.

Responsibilities of the DBA

e. Ensure that the database meets the needs of the organisation.
f. Ensure facilities for the recovery of data
g. Ensure the functioning of report generation systems form the DBMS
h. The DBA is also responsible for the documentation of the DBMS through the
designing and availing of the data dictionary and manuals for the users
giving such direction as the general use of the database, access to
information, deletion of records from the system and the general validation
and verification of data.

Database structures (Entity relationship Models)

Records in the database may be set in different ways depending on the

relationships between the records themselves.

1. One to One relationship - this is where one record is related to one other
record e.g. single parent record to one child record

49 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 Rec

This can be represented in a relational entity model, in E-R diagrams

1 Represents 1
Record Record

This could be where one sales representative deals with one customer for example.

2. One to many relationships - one parent to many children

Recor
d

Recor Recor Recor

In the form of an E-R diagram
d

1 Represents N
Record Record
s

E.g. one sales representative for relating to many customers.

3. Many to one - where there are many parents to one child

Recor Recor Recor

d d

Recor
In E-R diagram d

M Represents N
Record Record
s
e.g. many sales representatives relating with on customer, many lecturers relating
to one student.

4. Many to many - with two or more parents relating to two or more children

Recor Record Record

d
50 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Recor Record Record

In E-R diagram:

M Represents N Records
Recor

This could be the many sales reps relate to many customers.

Distributed Versus Centralized Database

A distributed database is when the databases are scattered whereas a centralized
dB is where the databases are located in one area and usually under management of
a group of people. A dB may be distributed in two ways: Replicated or partitioned.

A replicated dB is one that has been copied and is kept at different geographical
locations. This allows for easier recovery if one fails and reduces data transmission
costs, as there would be little long distance transmission thus is also faster. This,
however, it is expensive in terms of computer resources.

A partitioned dB is one that is split into segments and each segment distributed to
the relevant location. This reduces transmission costs and provides a faster
turnaround time in input, processing and output. There is reduced data
inconsistency and redundancy. However, there is need for more computer resources
that are costly.

An Online dB - this is a dB that is allows for the immediate updating of files from
remote terminals since input will be directly intyo the system e.g. stock market
information.

DATA SECURITY

This refers to measures to reduce unauthorized access to, use and destruction of an
organisation’s data and data resources.

Data is a valuable resource like any other asset of an organization. Data like money
can be stolen and exchanged for some value. Organisations have some pieces of
data that are confidential and these need to be secure. Every organization needs to
take security of hardware, software and data seriously because the consequences of
breaches of security can be extremely damaging to a business. This may lead to loss
of production, cashflow problems, loss of customers and reputation.

Threats to security come from outside (external) and inside (internal) the
organisation

Securing data entails making sure that the computers are in the right environment,
there are right software measures to reduce loss or theft of data.

51 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Security of Equipment

There is need to look after the computer hardware well to avoid loss of data or the
computers themselves.

Requirements for a Computer Environment (Computer Room)

1. Ventilation – a good room has to be adequately ventilated. If ventilation is

poor the computer may over heat and thus fail to operate properly.
2. Power supply – power supply should of the right voltage and supplied from
safe socket outlet. Power cables should not cross the room to avaid
interfering with free movements.
3. Use of Uninterupted Power Supplies (UPS) – in the event of unanticipated
power loss or power surge there should be some standby power alternative
so that the users’s information is not lost.
4. Carpet – Carpets are good dust absorbers, this thus reduces dust in the
room, dust interferes with the operation of electronic equipment.
5. Curtains – Curtains reduce the amount of light getting to the screens and
other computer equipment. Light damages screens.
6. Lockable doors – doors should be lockable to avoid unauthorized access to
the computers or theft or vandalism of the computer systems. The key should
be kept with some responsible person.
7. Metal Bars and Shutters – Fit room with metal bars and shutter.
8. An alarm system – an alarm system may be installed to warn of an intrision.
9. ID badges – all users to use ID badges for access to the room or building.
10. Security guards – have a twenty-four hour guard to the room.
11. Attach computers permanently to desks using clamps to avoid theft of the
computer(s).
12. Have all equipment serial numbers for use if equipment is stolen.
13. Have fire fighting systems in place to deal with ant risks of fire to the
equipment.
14. Reduce levels of moisture – moisture damages electronic equipment.

Security of Data

Data itself is at risk of accidental or deliberate loss and theft.

Accidental Loss

Accidental loss may be caused by:

- document is accidentally deleted
- computer breaks down or power fails
- file or disk becomes corrupted
- file is destroyed by fire or flood.

To reduce the risk of loss to accidental loss there is the use of back up of data –
there should be a saved copy of the original file that is kept on a different medium
and place.

\
Deliberate Damage

This is loss of data by viruses or hackers

52 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Viruses
A computer virus is a harmful program that copies itself onto other programmes and
destroys them or interferes with their proper functioning.

Presence of viruses can be noticed by:

(a) Displaying of messages
(b) Deleting data and programme files
(c) Failure of computer to detect peripherals
(d) Display of irritating messages or images
(e) Exaggerated file and document sizes.
(f) Unwanted formatting of hard disk
(g) Playing music
(h) Computer fails to boot up

Viruses are transmitted from computer to computer. They copy themselves quickly.
Effects of viruses may be mild to severe. Some viruses are harmless and computers
may operate normally.

Characteristics of viruses

(a) Copies itself

(b) Hides
(c)

To reduce the risk of viral infection:

(a) Use anti-virus software
(b) Use genuine software
(c) Write protect all software programs
(d) Make regular

COMPUTERS AND HEALTH AND SAFETY

Computer and computer equipment have negative health effects on the users.
Research is still being carried out to determine the extent of the effects on the
health of users.

The main effects are:

(a) Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
(b) Eye strain from VDU use
(c) Bad posture
(d) Risk of an accident
(e) Exposure to radiation

(a) Repetitive Strain Injury

This refers to disorders that affect the hands, wrists, arms, shoulders or neck
of computer operators. It is inflammation of the joints and is caused by
making the same small movements over and over again. This can cause pain,
numbness, swelling and the inability to lift or grip objects. In some cases,
operators have become permanently disabled.

53 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

 To reduce RSI
- make sure the desk and chair are at suitable heights
- sit at a comfortable distance fro the keyboard
- make sure that lower arms are horizontal and wrists straight when
using a keyboard or mouse.
- Use a wrist rest if necessary so that you do not rest you wrists on the
edge of the table or keyboard.
- Take frequent breaks to stretch your arms and fingers

(b) Eye Strain From VDU

Using the VDU for long periods at a time may affect a user’s eyes and in
some instances cause headaches.

To reduce eye strain:

- desks and VDUs area arranged to avoid glare or bright reflections on
the screen.
- Arrange desks so that user is not looking at windows or lights
- Use curtains and window blinds
- Sharply focus VDU so that characters do not move and flicker
- Have regular eye tests
- Adjust screen brightness and contrast to suit lighting conditions
- Adjust the angle of the screen to your sitting height
- Keep the screen clean
- Use a document holder so that you do not lean over to read
documents.
- Take a break every 20 to 30 minutes.

(c) Posture

Sitting incorrectly or without right support at a computer terminal for long

periods may result in back, neck and upper arm pains.

To reduce posture related problems:

- Use adjustable chairs to adjust height
- Use adjustable backrests
- Use swivel chairs
- Use footrest
- Always sit well
- Change sitting positions regularly
- Take frequent short breaks

(d) Risk of Accident

If it may be necessary to shift a computer, if not done properly may result in

injury to the worker. There may also be problems relating to power and
falling over of computer equipment that is not put up properly.

(e) Risk of Exposure Radiation

Some computer equipment produces radiation that has long-term effects on

users or on unborn babies.

54 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

The systems development life cycle is a project management technique that divides
complex projects into smaller, more easily managed segments or phases.
Segmenting projects allows managers to verify the successful completion of project
phases before allocating resources to subsequent phases.

Software development projects typically include initiation, planning, design,

development, testing, implementation, and maintenance phases. However, the
phases may be divided differently depending on the organization involved. For
example, initial project activities might be designated as request, requirements-
definition, and planning phases, or initiation, concept-development, and planning
phases. End users of the system under development should be involved in reviewing
the output of each phase to ensure the system is being built to deliver the needed
functionality.

Note: Examiners should focus their assessments of development, acquisition, and

maintenance activities on the effectiveness of an organization’s project management
techniques. Reviews should be centered on ensuring the depth, quality, and
sophistication of a project management technique are commensurate with the
characteristics and risks of the project under review.

INITIATION PHASE
Careful oversight is required to ensure projects support strategic business
objectives and resources are effectively implemented into an organization's
enterprise architecture. The initiation phase begins when an opportunity to add,
improve, or correct a system is identified and formally requested through the
presentation of a business case. The business case should, at a minimum, describe a
proposal’s purpose, identify expected benefits, and explain how the proposed system
supports one of the organization’s business strategies. The business case should
also identify alternative solutions and detail as many informational, functional, and
network requirements as possible.

The presentation of a business case provides a point for managers to reject a

proposal before they allocate resources to a formal feasibility study. When
evaluating software development requests (and during subsequent feasibility and
design analysis), management should consider input from all affected parties.
Management should also closely evaluate the necessity of each requested functional
requirement. A single software feature approved during the initiation phase can
require several design documents and hundreds of lines of code. It can also increase
testing, documentation, and support requirements. Therefore, the initial rejection of
unnecessary features can significantly reduce the resources required to complete a
project.

If provisional approval to initiate a project is obtained, the request documentation

serves as a starting point to conduct a more thorough feasibility study. Completing a
feasibility study requires management to verify the accuracy of the preliminary
assumptions and identify resource requirements in greater detail.

The feasibility support documentation should be compiled and submitted for senior
management or board study. The feasibility study document should provide an
overview of the proposed project and identify expected costs and benefits in terms
of economic, technical, and operational feasibility. The document should also

55 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

describe alternative solutions and include a recommendation for approval or
rejection. The document should be reviewed and signed off on by all affected
parties. If approved, management should use the feasibility study and support
documentation to begin the planning phase.

PLANNING PHASE
The planning phase is the most critical step in completing development, acquisition,
and maintenance projects. Careful planning, particularly in the early stages of a
project, is necessary to coordinate activities and manage project risks effectively.
The depth and formality of project plans should be commensurate with the
characteristics and risks of a given project.

Project plans refine the information gathered during the initiation phase by further
identifying the specific activities and resources required to complete a project. A
critical part of a project manager’s job is to coordinate discussions between user,
audit, security, design, development, and network personnel to identify and
document as many functional, security, and network requirements as possible.

DESIGN PHASE
The design phase involves converting the informational, functional, and network
requirements identified during the initiation and planning phases into unified design
specifications that developers use to script programs during the development phase.
Program designs are constructed in various ways. Using a top-down approach,
designers first identify and link major program components and interfaces, then
expand design layouts as they identify and link smaller subsystems and connections.
Using a bottom-up approach, designers first identify and link minor program
components and interfaces, then expand design layouts as they identify and link
larger systems and connections.

Contemporary design techniques often use prototyping tools that build mock-up
designs of items such as application screens, database layouts, and system
architectures. End users, designers, developers, database managers, and network
administrators should review and refine the prototyped designs in an iterative
process until they agree on an acceptable design. Audit, security, and quality
assurance personnel should be involved in the review and approval process.

Management should be particularly diligent when using prototyping tools to develop

automated controls. Prototyping can enhance an organization’s ability to design,
test, and establish controls. However, employees may be inclined to resist adding
additional controls, even though they are needed, after the initial designs are
established.
Designers should carefully document completed designs. Detailed documentation
enhances a programmer’s ability to develop programs and modify them after they
are placed in production. The documentation also helps management ensure final
programs are consistent with original goals and specifications.

Organizations should create initial testing, conversion, implementation, and training

plans during the design phase. Additionally, they should draft user, operator, and
maintenance manuals.

Application Control Standards

Application controls include policies and procedures associated with user activities
and the automated controls designed into applications. Controls should be in place
to address both batch and on-line environments. Standards should address
procedures to ensure management appropriately approves and control overrides.

56 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

Refer to the IT Handbook’s "Operations Booklet" for details relating to operational
controls.

Designing appropriate security, audit, and automated controls into applications is a

challenging task. Often, because of the complexity of data flows, program logic,
client/server connections, and network interfaces, organizations cannot identify the
exact type and placement of the features until interrelated functions are identified
in the design and development phases. However, the security, integrity, and
reliability of an application is enhanced if management considers security, audit,
and automated control features at the onset of a project and includes them as soon
as possible in application and system designs. Adding controls late in the
development process or when applications are in production is more expensive, time
consuming, and usually results in less effective controls.

Standards should be in place to ensure end users, network administrators, auditors,

and security personnel are appropriately involved during initial project phases.
Their involvement enhances a project manager's ability to define and incorporate
security, audit, and control requirements. The same groups should be involved
throughout a project’s life cycle to assist in refining and testing the features as
projects progress.

Application control standards enhance the security, integrity, and reliability of

automated systems by ensuring input, processed, and output information is
authorized, accurate, complete, and secure. Controls are usually categorized as
preventative, detective, or corrective. Preventative controls are designed to prevent
unauthorized or invalid data entries. Detective controls help identify unauthorized
or invalid entries. Corrective controls assist in recovering from unwanted
occurrences.

Input Controls
Automated input controls help ensure employees accurately input information,
systems properly record input, and systems either reject, or accept and record,
input errors for later review and correction.

Processing Controls
Automated processing controls help ensure systems accurately process and record
information and either reject, or process and record, errors for later review and
correction. Processing includes merging files, modifying data, updating master files,
and performing file maintenance.

Output Controls
Automated output controls help ensure systems securely maintain and properly
distribute processed information.

DEVELOPMENT PHASE
The development phase involves converting design specifications into executable
programs. Effective development standards include requirements that programmers
and other project participants discuss design specifications before programming
begins. The procedures help ensure programmers clearly understand program
designs and functional requirements.

Programmers use various techniques to develop computer programs. The large

transaction-oriented programs associated with financial institutions have
traditionally been developed using procedural programming techniques. Procedural

57 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

programming involves the line-by-line scripting of logical instructions that are
combined to form a program.

Primary procedural programming activities include the creation and testing of

source code and the refinement and finalization of test plans. Typically, individual
programmers write and review (desk test) program modules or components, which
are small routines that perform a particular task within an application. Completed
components are integrated with other components and reviewed, often by a group
of programmers, to ensure the components properly interact. The process continues
as component groups are progressively integrated and as interfaces between
component groups and other systems are tested.

Advancements in programming techniques include the concept of "object-oriented

programming." Object-oriented programming centers on the development of
reusable program routines (modules) and the classification of data types (numbers,
letters, dollars, etc.) and data structures (records, files, tables, etc.). Linking pre-
scripted module objects to predefined data-class objects reduces development times
and makes programs easier to modify. Refer to the "Software Development
Techniques" section for additional information on object-oriented programming.

Organizations should complete testing plans during the development phase.

Additionally, they should update conversion, implementation, and training plans and
user, operator, and maintenance manuals.

Development Standards
Development standards should be in place to address the responsibilities of
application and system programmers. Application programmers are responsible for
developing and maintaining end-user applications. System programmers are
responsible for developing and maintaining internal and open-source operating
system programs that link application programs to system software and
subsequently to hardware. Managers should thoroughly understand development
and production environments to ensure they appropriately assign programmer
responsibilities.

Development standards should prohibit a programmer's access to data, programs,

utilities, and systems outside their individual responsibilities. Library controls can
be used to manage access to, and the movement of programs between,
development, testing, and production environments. Management should also
establish standards requiring programmers to document completed programs and
test results thoroughly. Appropriate documentation enhances a programmer's
ability to correct programming errors and modify production programs.

Coding standards, which address issues such as the selection of programming

languages and tools, the layout or format of scripted code, and the naming
conventions of code routines and program libraries, are outside the scope of this
document. However, standardized, yet flexible, coding standards enhance an
organization’s ability to decrease coding defects and increase the security,
reliability, and maintainability of application programs. Examiners should evaluate
an organization’s coding standards and related code review procedures.

Library Controls
Libraries are collections of stored documentation, programs, and data. Program
libraries include reusable program routines or modules stored in source or object
code formats. Program libraries allow programmers to access frequently used
routines and add them to programs without having to rewrite the code. Dynamic

58 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

link libraries include executable code programs can automatically run as part of
larger applications.
Library controls should include:

Version Controls
Library controls facilitate software version controls. Version controls provide a
means to systematically retain chronological copies of revised programs and
program documentation.

Development version control systems, sometimes referred to as concurrent version

systems, assist organizations in tracking different versions of source code during
development. The systems do not simply identify and store multiple versions of
source code files. They maintain one file and identify and store only changed code.
When a user requests a particular version, the system recreates that version.
Concurrent version systems facilitate the quick identification of programming
errors. For example, if programmers install a revised program on a test server and
discover programming errors, they only have to review the changed code to identify
the error.

Software Documentation
Organizations should maintain detailed documentation for each application and
application system in production. Thorough documentation enhances an
organization’s ability to understand functional, security, and control features and
improves its ability to use and maintain the software. The documentation should
contain detailed application descriptions, programming documentation, and
operating instructions. Standards should be in place that identify the type and
format of required documentation such as system narratives, flowcharts, and any
special system coding, internal controls, or file layouts not identified within
individual application documentation.

Management should maintain documentation for internally developed programs and

externally acquired products. In the case of acquired software, management should
ensure (either through an internal review or third-party certification) prior to
purchase, that an acquired product’s documentation meets their organization's
minimum documentation standards. For additional information regarding acquired
software distinctions (open/closed code) refer to the "Escrowed Documentation"
discussion in the "Acquisition" section.

Examiners should consider access and change controls when assessing

documentation activities. Change controls help ensure organizations appropriately
approve, test, and record software modifications. Access controls help ensure
individuals only have access to sections of documentation directly related to their
job functions.

System documentation should include:

TESTING PHASE
The testing phase requires organizations to complete various tests to ensure the
accuracy of programmed code, the inclusion of expected functionality, and the
interoperability of applications and other network components. Thorough testing is
critical to ensuring systems meet organizational and end-user requirements.

59 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

If organizations use effective project management techniques, they will complete
test plans while developing applications, prior to entering the testing phase. Weak
project management techniques or demands to complete projects quickly may
pressure organizations to develop test plans at the start of the testing phase. Test
plans created during initial project phases enhance an organization’s ability to
create detailed tests. The use of detailed test plans significantly increases the
likelihood that testers will identify weaknesses before products are implemented.

Testing groups are comprised of technicians and end users who are responsible for
assembling and loading representative test data into a testing environment. The
groups typically perform tests in stages, either from a top-down or bottom-up
approach. A bottom-up approach tests smaller components first and progressively
adds and tests additional components and systems. A top-down approach first tests
major components and connections and progressively tests smaller components and
connections. The progression and definitions of completed tests vary between
organizations.

Bottom-up tests often begin with functional (requirements based) testing.

Functional tests should ensure that expected functional, security, and internal
control features are present and operating properly. Testers then complete
integration and end-to-end testing to ensure application and system components
interact properly. Users then conduct acceptance tests to ensure systems meet
defined acceptance criteria.

Testers often identify program defects or weaknesses during the testing process.
Procedures should be in place to ensure programmers correct defects quickly and
document all corrections or modifications. Correcting problems quickly increases
testing efficiencies by decreasing testers’ downtime. It also ensures a programmer
does not waste time trying to debug a portion of a program without defects that is
not working because another programmer has not debugged a defective linked
routine. Documenting corrections and modifications is necessary to maintain the
integrity of the overall program documentation.

Organizations should review and complete user, operator, and maintenance manuals
during the testing phase. Additionally, they should finalize conversion,
implementation, and training plans.

IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
The implementation phase involves installing approved applications into production
environments. Primary tasks include announcing the implementation schedule,
training end users, and installing the product. Additionally, organizations should
input and verify data, configure and test system and security parameters, and
conduct post-implementation reviews. Management should circulate implementation
schedules to all affected parties and should notify users of any implementation
responsibilities.

After organizations install a product, pre-existing data is manually input or

electronically transferred to a new system. Verifying the accuracy of the input data
and security configurations is a critical part of the implementation process.
Organizations often run a new system in parallel with an old system until they verify
the accuracy and reliability of the new system. Employees should document any
programming, procedural, or configuration changes made during the verification
process.

60 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

PROJECT EVALUATION PHASE

Management should conduct post-implementation reviews at the end of a project to

validate the completion of project objectives and assess project management
activities. Management should interview all personnel actively involved in the
operational use of a product and document and address any identified problems.

Management should analyze the effectiveness of project management activities by

comparing, among other things, planned and actual costs, benefits, and
development times. They should document the results and present them to senior
management. Senior management should be informed of any operational or project
management deficiencies.

MAINTENANCE PHASE
The maintenance phase involves making changes to hardware, software, and
documentation to support its operational effectiveness. It includes making changes
to improve a system’s performance, correct problems, enhance security, or address
user requirements. To ensure modifications do not disrupt operations or degrade a
system’s performance or security, organizations should establish appropriate
change management standards and procedures.

Change management (sometimes referred to as configuration management) involves

establishing baseline versions of products, services, and procedures and ensuring all
changes are approved, documented, and disseminated. Change controls should
address all aspects of an organization’s technology environment including software
programs, hardware and software configurations, operational standards and
procedures, and project management activities. Management should establish
change controls that address major, routine, and emergency software modifications
and software patches.

Major modifications involve significant changes to a system’s functionality.

Management should implement major modifications using a well-structured process,
such as an SDLC methodology.
Routine changes are not as complex as major modifications and can usually be
implemented in the normal course of business. Routine change controls should
include procedures for requesting, evaluating, approving, testing, installing, and
documenting software modifications.

Emergency changes may address an issue that would normally be considered

routine, however, because of security concerns or processing problems, the changes
must be made quickly. Emergency change controls should include the same
procedures as routine change controls. Management should establish abbreviated
request, evaluation, and approval procedures to ensure they can implement changes
quickly. Detailed evaluations and documentation of emergency changes should be
completed as soon as possible after changes are implemented. Management should
test routine and, whenever possible, emergency changes prior to implementation
and quickly notify affected parties of all changes. If management is unable to
thoroughly test emergency modifications before installation, it is critical that they
appropriately backup files and programs and have established back-out procedures
in place.

Software patches are similar in complexity to routine modifications. This document

uses the term "patch" to describe program modifications involving externally
developed software packages. However, organizations with in-house programming

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may also refer to routine software modifications as patches. Patch management
programs should address procedures for evaluating, approving, testing, installing,
and documenting software modifications. However, a critical part of the patch
management process involves maintaining an awareness of external vulnerabilities
and available patches.

Maintaining accurate, up-to-date hardware and software inventories is a critical

part of all change management processes. Management should carefully document
all modifications to ensure accurate system inventories. (If material software
patches are identified but not implemented, management should document the
reason why the patch was not installed.)

Management should coordinate all technology related changes through an oversight

committee and assign an appropriate party responsibility for administering software
patch management programs. Quality assurance, security, audit, regulatory
compliance, network, and end-user personnel should be appropriately included in
change management processes. Risk and security review should be done whenever
a system modification is implemented to ensure controls remain in place.

DISPOSAL PHASE

The disposal phase involves the orderly removal of surplus or obsolete hardware,
software, or data. Primary tasks include the transfer, archiving, or destruction of
data records. Management should transfer data from production systems in a
planned and controlled manner that includes appropriate backup and testing
procedures. Organizations should maintain archived data in accordance with
applicable record retention requirements. It should also archive system
documentation in case it becomes necessary to reinstall a system into production.
Management should destroy data by overwriting old information or degaussing
(demagnetizing) disks and tapes. Refer to the IT Handbook’s “Information Security
Booklet” for more information on disposal of media.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

1. The Internet
Definition
Facilities
 Bulletin Boards – Magazines, newspapers * Web Television
 Music * Software downloading
(shareware)
 Discussion Groups * Shopping Malls
 Libraries * Research
 Tuition and Virtual Learning (e-learning) * Job Opportunities
 E-commerce * E-mail
 Weather reports * Date line

2. Telecommuting
This involves working from home while connected to the office through computer
networks. This means the workers do not need to travel to workplaces. This has the

62 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes

advantage of saving time to the worker in terms of travel especially in highly
congested cities. It also saves costs of fuel to the worker. However, traditional
supervision methods do not apply.

3. Teleconferencing
This is also know as confra-vision. It is a facility through which people in distant
places can hold a conference like discussion while seeing each other on computer
screens. The biggest advantage of this form of technology is in the saving of
conference costs like venue hire, travel and subsistence. There is also the benefit of
body language that the people using this technology have.

4. Decision Support Systems

 Expert Systems – Artificial Intelligence

5. Connectivity
 Increased use of networks
 Use of shared databases

6. End User Computing

 Definition
 Appropriateness

7. Data Security Concerns

 Security Issues – e.g passwords, encryption, physical access controls, viruses
 Computer Crime – Types (e.g Hacking, computer espionage, data theft)
8. Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE)
 Definition
 Appropriateness

9. Globalization
 Role of IT in Globalisation

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64 Introduction To Information Technology & Computer Applications Notes