Experiment - 1

Demonstration of Different Generation of Relays available in the Power

System Laboratory
Fig. 1.1 depicts different generations of relays that has been introduced in the field of
power system protection. The earliest protective devices were fuses that were, and are,
used in many situations to isolate the faulted equipment. This development was followed
by the evolution of circuit breakers equipped with series trip coils. Later, first generation
electromechanical relays came in the industrial market in 1901. These relays operate on
the regulation of a mechanical force generated through the flow of current in windings
wounded on a magnetic core and hence, the name electromechanical relay.

1st Generation:
Electromechanical Relays

2nd Generation: Static

Relays

3rd Generation:
Microprocessor based Relays

4th Generation:
Numerical/Digital Relays

5th Generation: Intelligent

Electronics Devices

Fig. 1.1. Different Generations of Relays

With the advent of ICs (Integrated Circuits) and chips, the second generation static
protective relays have replaced the electromechanical relays in 1950s. A static relay
has a comparator circuit, which compares two or more voltages and currents and
gives an output which is applied to an output relay which finally closes the contact.
By 1970, advances in the very large scale integration (VLSI) technology and software
techniques led to the development of third generation microprocessor-based relays.
1
During this period, digital computers gradually provided alternatives for DC boards
and network analysers that had been in use. Following the development of digital
signal processor (DSP) in 1990s, which has many inbuilt features useful for relaying
algorithm applications, the fourth generation relays came to be referred to as
digital/numerical relays. With the introduction of field-programmable gate array
(FPGA) technology, the fifth generation devices were introduced known as Intelligent
Electronic Devices (IEDs).

1.1. Electromechanical Relays

Electromechanical relays work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. These
relays operate on the regulation of a mechanical force generated through the flow of
current in windings wounded on a magnetic core. Various types of
electromechanical/electromagnetic relays include Thermal Relays (Overload Relays),
Overcurrent Relays, Induction Relays, Differential Relays, Directional Relays,
Distance Relays, etc. A pictorial view of an electromechanical relay is shown in Fig.
1.2.

Fig. 1.2. Pictorial view of an electromechanical Relay

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of electromechanical relays:

2
Advantages:
1. They are reliable in nature and still used by the utilities.
2. This relay provides isolation between the input’s and output’s quantities.
3. They are rugged in nature as they can withstand voltage spike due to surges and
can carry substantial currents.
Disadvantages:
1. They consist of moving parts and suffer from the problem of friction.
2. They produce low torque.
3. They suffer from the problems of high burden and high power consumption for
auxiliary mechanisms.

1.2. Static Relays

The term static means the relay has no moving parts, and semiconductor devices such
as diode, transistors, and ICs are used for data processing and also to create the relay
characteristic. Static relay, in simple terms, can be viewed as an analog electronic
replacement for electromechanical relay with some additional flexibility in settings
and some saving in space requirements. In static relay, protective function is
performed by static devices, and output signal may be controlled by
electromechanical auxiliary relays. However, to operate all assembled electronic
devices, static relays require separate DC power supply. The static relay senses the
magnitude of voltage, current, and their phase angle to detect the fault. In static relays,
amplitude or phase angle of any electrical quantity is compared with the set value of
threshold to issue trip signal. Hence, the static relay has either amplitude comparator
or phase comparator or both in its deriving circuit. A pictorial view of a static relay
available in the power system laboratory is shown in Fig. 1.3. Following are the
advantages and disadvantages of static relays:

Advantages:
1. Static relays pose a reduced burden on protective CTs and PTs because of lower
VA requirements of static circuits.
2. Solid-state devices have no moving elements. Hence, in static relays there are no
problems of contact bounce, arcing, contact erosion, dry contact, spring restraint,
etc.
3. Very small operating time of the order of one cycle or even less can be achieved
with static relays.
4. High resistance to vibration and shocks as there are no moving parts.

Disadvantages:
1. Static relays are prone to voltage spikes Such voltage spikes can easily override
the signal and cause serious malfunctions of the static relay or can even damage
the semiconductor components.

3
2. The characteristics of semiconductors are affected due to variations in the
surrounding temperature.
3. The static relays have lower short time overload capacity compared with
electromagnetic relays.
4. Electromechanical relays have high reliability due to the fact that they have
smaller number of components and that each component possesses good
reliability due to long experience gained in manufacturing practices.

Fig. 1.3. Pictorial view of a static relay

1.3. Microprocessor-based Relays
One of the issues with electromechanical or static relays is that the relays are not in an
operated condition during normal behavior of the power system. This may not
happen very frequently. Hence, the integrity of a relay operation can be confirmed
only by frequently testing of the relays. There is no continuous check on their
operational integrity. By using a digital computer for power system protection and
microprocessor-based relays, one can address this issue. An important advantage of
microprocessor-based relays is that they can perform the functions of protection,
measurement and control simultaneously. Fig. 1.4 shows an example of a
microprocessor-based relay. Following are the advantages and disadvantages of
microprocessor based relays:

4
Advantages:
1. Microprocessor-based relays have self-checking facility of its underlying
components.
2. These relays are reliable and dependable due to the proven digital technology
used.
3. These relays have flexibility and compactness as in case to provide magnitude
scaling and phase-shift to a voltage signal, extracting line-to-line voltage from
phase to neutral voltage is much simpler with computer relaying because
equations can be implemented by programming.

Disadvantages:
1. Initially, the microprocessor-based relays are expensive than its predecessors.
Gradually, the prices reduced and are now comparable to static relays.
2. Microprocessor-based relays need reliable sources of operating current.
3. The problems of cyber threats is also associated with these relays.

Fig. 1.4. Pictorial view of a microprocessor-based relay

1.4. Numerical/Digital Relays

With further advancement of microprocessor technologies and with the use of Digital
Signal Processors (DSPs) as protective relays, the next generation of relays were used
known as Numerical/Digital relays. The CPU is a device which is updated or replaced
with technological developments. These relays inherit all the advantages of
microprocessor-based relays. In addition, they can perform floating point
calculations, i.e. FPU is inbuilt in it, adaptive relaying compatibility, compatible with
standard communication protocols (IEEE C37.118) as well as SCADA compatible (IEC
61850 for wide area monitoring). Fig. 1.5 shows an example of a digital/numerical
relay. Following are the advantages and disadvantages of digital/numerical relays:

5
 Fig. 1.5. Pictorial view of a digital/numerical relay
Advantages:
1. They provide many functions such as multiple setting groups, programmable
logic, adaptive logic, sequence-of-events recording, and oscillography.
2. Digital relays have the ability of self-monitoring and self-testing, which were not
available in electromechanical/static relays.
3. Digital relays have the ability to communicate with other relays and control
computers.
4. The cost per function of digital/numerical relays is lower as compared to the cost
of their electromechanical and solid-state counterparts. The digital relays include
all the relay characteristics in one group. For example, in IDMT relay, digital relay
includes normal inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse, and many more
characteristics in one group. On the other hand, in case of electromechanical/static
relays, one has to purchase a separate unit for each characteristic.
5. A major feature of digital/numerical relays, which was not available in previous
technologies, is the ability to allow users to develop their own logic schemes,
including dynamic changes in that logic.

Disadvantages:
1. Rapid changes in processors technology increases functionality but make the
previous generation numerical systems out of date.
2. This type of relay can perform many functions, therefore it has countless settings
and the relay is tested using special testing techniques. So, a proper procedure is a
must to follow to ensure appropriate settings.
3. Numerical-based relays are more susceptible to incorrect operations due to
transients.

6
1.5. Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs)
With the advancement of DSPs and the introduction of FPGA technology for parallel
execution have led us to the next generation of relays called Intelligent Electronic
Devices (IEDs). Many substations are equipped with these devices. These devices
consist of Human Machine Interface (HMI) through touchscreen display (displays
pre/post fault current/voltage etc.). Fig. 1.6 shows a SEL-751 IED having touch screen
for both input as well as showing output. Fig. 1.6 shows a pictorial view of an IED.
Following are the advantages and disadvantages of IEDs:

Fig. 1.6. Pictorial view of an IED

Advantages:
1. These relays inherit all the advantages of Numerical/Digital relays. In addition,
they are capable of performing metering, monitoring, control and protection
simultaneously.

7
 2. These relays can also be synchronized with GPS system (time synchronization) for
real-time monitoring of the system.
3. These devices give more precision in performance as compared to the previous
generations of relays.

Disadvantages:
1. These relays are susceptible to cyber-attacks.

Questions:
1. The operating time of definite minimum time relay
(a) varies with reference to current
(b) is independent of current magnitude
(c) is dependent of current magnitude
(d) none of the above
2. The characteristic of an overcurrent relay having very inverse characteristic is more
(a) steeper than normal inverse overcurrent relay
(b) steeper than extremely inverse overcurrent relay
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of the above
3. Which is the closest relay characteristic to the characteristic of fuse/MCCB?
(a) Normal inverse
(b) Extremely inverse
(c) Very inverse
(d) All of the above
4. The characteristic in which separate directional unit is not required is
(a) Impedance relay
(b) Reactance relay
(c) Mho relay
(d) All of the above
5. As compared to an electromagnetic overcurrent relay, the following is not a feature of
a static overcurrent relay.

8
 (a) Low burden
(b) No moving parts
(c) Fast response
(d) More transient over-reach
6. As compared to the numerical relays, static relays do not have the feature of
(a) low burden
(b) no moving parts
(c) flexibility due to programming approach
(d) miniaturization
7. Numerical relays are useful for
(a) protection
(b) measurement and storing
(c) control
(d) all of the above
8. GPS stands for
(a) Group Protection Services
(b) General Protection Services
(c) Geographical Positioning System
(d) none of the above
9. The IEC 61850 is an international standard related to
(a) substation automation and integration
(b) structure of protection and control
(c) ethernet standard and TCP/IP
(d) all of the above
10. Which of the following generation of relays are prone to cyber attacks?
(a) Numerical Relays
(b) Intelligent Electronic Devices
(c) Microprocessor based Relays
(d) All of the above

9
 Experiment - 2

MCB/ELCB Operation
2.1. Aim:
To plot the characteristics of Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) and to observe the
operation of Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB).
2.2. Circuit Diagram:
Fig. 2.1 and 2.2 shows basic circuit diagram in terms of experimental set-up to check the
performance of the MCB characteristics and ELCB operation, respectively. The ELCB is
also known as Residual Current Circuit Breaker (RCCB). In both experimental setup, 2-
pole MCB and RCCB with Over Current Protection (RCBO) is used.

Fig. 2.1. Experimental setup for MCB operation

Fig. 2.2. Experimental setup for ELCB operation

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2.3. Apparatus Required:
Table 2.1 shows number of apparatuses required for performing the experiment
on MCB-ELCB test bed.

Table 2.1. Number of apparatuses required

S. No Apparatus Quantity
1 1-phase, 230 V, 50Hz AC Supply 1
2 MCB Resistance, 100 Ω/5 A 1
3 Load Resistance, 500 Ω/2 A 1
4 Fault Resistance, 1.2 kΩ/1 A 1
5 Ammeter, (0-10) A 2
6 Voltmeter, (0-230) V 1
7 MCB ABB SH202MC2 (2-pole, Type 1
C, 2 Amps)
8 ELCB L&T C25, 300 mA 1
9 Push Buttons, Stop (Red) 4
10 Timer 1

2.4. Theory:
2.4.1. Miniature Circuit Breaker:
Purpose:
Miniature circuit breakers have evolved in the latest developments of circuit breakers,
particularly for low currents, 440 V applications. For high current rating, moulded case
circuit breakers (MCCBs) are used. The MCCBs can replace fuses in any applications like
house wiring, commercial and industrial applications.
Miniature circuit breakers perform the dual functions of a switch and a fuse. They
can open a circuit for safety or maintenance reasons simply by switching their toggle
levers to the OFF position. As substitutes for fuses, they provide automatic circuit
protection and need not be replaced after a dangerous over current has passed or a short
circuit has been corrected. Fuses must be replaced; while in case of MCB, one has just to
make it when it becomes off due to overload. Also, for fuses there are chances of a person
replacing higher capacity of fuse wire which will endanger the equipment which the fuse
is protecting. MCBs are electromechanical devices which protect an electric circuit from
an over current. MCB has comparatively better defined characteristics with reference to
fuses. The over current, in an electrical circuit, may result from short circuit, overload or
faulty design. The MCB is a better alternative to a Fuse since it does not require
replacement once an overload is detected. Unlike fuse, MCB can be easily operated and
thus offers improved operational safety and greater convenience without incurring large
operating cost. Fig. 2.3 shows cross section view of MCB.

11
 Fig. 2.3. Cross section of MCB
Source: https://www.zillionsbuyer.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Miniature-
Circuit-Breaker-MCB-3.jpg

Operating Principle:

With reference to Fig. 2.3, two arrangements are used by most of the
manufacturers for operation of miniature circuit breaker. The first arrangement is due to
thermal effect of current higher than its rated value. The thermal operation of miniature
circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip. The second arrangement is because of
the electromagnetic effect due to excessive magnitude of current (almost 5 to 20 times the
rated current). Whenever a continuous over electric current flows through MCB, the
bimetallic strip is heated and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip
releases mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is attached with an operating
mechanism, it causes to open contacts of MCB. On the other hand, in case of a short circuit
condition, large magnitude of fault current causes an electro-mechanical displacement of
plunger associated with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip
lever causing immediate release of latch mechanism which in turn opens contacts of
MCB.

12
Types of MCB based on Number of Poles:

1. Single Pole (SP) MCB: A single pole MCB provides switching and protection only
for one single phase of circuit.
2. Double Pole (DP) MCB: A two Pole MCB provides switching and protection both
for phase and the neutral circuit.
3. Triple Pole (TP) MCB: A triple/three phase MCB provides switching and
protection only to three phases of the circuit and not to the neutral.
4. 3 Pole with Neutral (TPN (3P+N)) MCB: A TPN MCB has switching and protection
to all three phases of circuit including neutral as a separate pole. However, the
neutral pole is without any protection and can only be switched.
5. 4 pole (4P) MCB: A 4 pole MCB is similar to TPN but additionally it has a
protective release for the neutral pole. This MCB should be used where there is
possibility of high neutral current flow through the circuit as in case of an
unbalanced circuit.

Miniature Circuit Breakers are used to protect lower current circuits and have the
following specifications:

• Number of poles: 1, 2, 3 and 4

• Rated Voltage: 240/415 Volts
• Rated Current: The current ratings available are 0.5, 1, 2, 6, 10, 16, 25, 32, 40 and 63
A
• Rated short-circuit breaking capacity: The MCB is capable of complying with a
prescribed test-duty cycle at the prescribed voltage and power factor. The MCBs
with short circuit breaking capacity 3 kA, 9 kA and even 25 kA are available in the
market.
• Category of duty: Operating sequence shall be B – 2 – MB – 2 – MB
Where B= Break , MB= Make – Break, 2= 2 Minutes
• Tripping Factor: The ratio of minimum value of overcurrent at which the MCB will
trip to the current rating.
• Operating Characteristics - B, C or D Curves

2.4.2. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker:

Purpose:
An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) provides prevention against electric
shocks to operating personnel. In case of a current leakage from any electrical installation
(may be because of insulation failure in the electrical circuit), proper detection and
prevention is required as otherwise there may be a high chance of electrical shock. This
can be achieved by ELCB, which detects the earth leakage current and makes the power
supply off by opening the associated circuit breaker. There are two types of ELCB namely

13
(i) voltage ELCB and (ii) current ELCB. ELCB is also known as Residual Current Circuit
Breaker (RCCB). RCCB/ELCB is designed to provide protection against electrocution or
electrical fires by cutting off the flow of electric current automatically when it senses a
'leakage' of electric current from a circuit.

Specifications of RCCB:
• Sensitivity - milli Amperes (mA)
• Current Rating - Amperes (A)
• Short Circuit Rating - Kilo Amperes (kA)
• Poles - 2 Pole or 4 Pole

Residual Current Circuit Breaker with Over Current Protection (RCBO) is a

combination of MCB and RCCB. It is commonly used in applications where there is a
need to combine protection against Overcurrent (Overload and Short-circuit) and
protection against Earth Leakage currents.

2.5. Procedure:

1. Do the connections as per circuit diagram.

2. For the MCB characteristics, connect points 1-5, 2-5, 3-7 and 4-8 in Fig. 2.1.

3. Create different overloading conditions and measure the tripping time of MCB for
each case.

4. For the ELCB/RCCB operation, connect points 1-9, 2-10, 3-11 and 4-12 in Fig. 2.2.

5. For different earth fault current, observe the response of the ELCB/RCCB.

6. Plot the MCB characteristics. Current on X-axis and the Operating time on Y-axis.

Observations:
Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 shows fault current-time characteristic of MCB and ELCB,
respectively.

14
MCB Operation
Table 2.2. Observing the operating time of the MCB during different overloading
conditions

Current passing through

Total current passing
overloading path (in Operating time of MCB
through MCB (in Amps)
Amps)

ELCB Operation
Table 2.3. Observing the operating time of the ELCB during fault conditions

Total current passing Current passing through

through ELCB (in Amps) fault path (in Amps)

Plot: Plot the MCB characteristics from the observations obtained with different
overloading conditions.
2.6. Conclusion:

15
 Experiment - 3

Verification of Different Characteristics of Digital Inverse-Time

Overcurrent Relay
3.1. Aim:
To verify different characteristics of Digital Inverse-time overcurrent relay.

3.2. Circuit Diagram:

The power and control circuit diagram for verifying various characteristics of the
digital overcurrent relay is shown in Fig. 3.1 (a) and (b), respectively.
CT (10/5 A)
(0-5) A P1 P2 L2 T2
A

Control Circuit
RL= RF =
Variac

230 V V S2
150Ω (0-75)Ω
(0-230) V
S1

(a)

Ph
PB(NO)
Control Circuit
L1
2 6
Auxiliary 5
T1 Relay AUX
Contacts
10 7 Timer
PB(NC)
1 2 4 Contacts
L3
A7 SEL Relay
A9 NC Contacts
T3
 P N

230 V AC Supply
N
(b)

Fig. 3.1. (a) Power circuit (b) control circuit

16
3.3. Apparatus Required:

The number of apparatus required for performing the experiment is listed in Table
3.1.

Table 3.1. Apparatus required with rating and quantity

Sr. No. Name of Apparatus Rating Quantity
1 Single phase AC Supply 1 − 𝜙𝜙, 230 V, 50 Hz 1
1 − 𝜙𝜙, (0 – 260) V
2 Single phase auto-transformer 1
Output
3 Voltmeter (0 – 230) V 1
4 Ammeter (0 – 5) A 1
5 Current Transformer 10/5 A, 5 VA 1
SEL-751 Digital Feeder Protection
6 - 1
Relay
7 Load Resistance 150 Ω, 2 A 1
8 Fault Resistance (0 – 75) Ω, 5 A 1
9 Push buttons (PBs) - 2
10 Connecting Wires 1.5 mm2 As required

3.4. Theory:
The overcurrent relay operates and closes its contacts when the current exceeds
the predetermined threshold, called pickup value. or plug setting (PS). This pickup/PS
is defined as the threshold beyond which a relay operates. However, the
characteristic of overcurrent relays can be plotted between multiples of pickup
currents (MP) and time of operation instead of current versus time. The operating
time for inverse time–current relays differs for different current values. The
operating time is specified in seconds at 10 times the plug setting with Time Dial
Setting (TDS) at 1.0. If a lower time of operation is required, the TDS can be
changed, which is given from 0 to 1.0.
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 (3.1)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 x 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
In inverse-time overcurrent relays, the time of operation of a relay is inversely
proportional to the current passing through the relay coil. This is very important
as the more severe faults are cleared quickly. Fig. 3.2 shows various characteristics
of the inverse time overcurrent relay. These characteristics are obtained using the
corresponding equations given in Table 3.2.
Working of Control Circuit:
To create a fault, the Green Push Button is pressed in Fig. 3.1 ( b), which changes
its state from Normally Open (NO) to close. As the control circuit receives a 230 V

17
supply, pressing the Green Push Button closes the left arm of the control circuit,
energising the contactor coil (A1-A2).

The contactor has four contacts namely L1-T1, L2-T2, L3-T3, and L4-T4, which are
initially in the NO state. When the contactor coil is energised, these contacts
instantly change to the close state. Consequently, even after the Green Push Button
is released, L1-T1 comes in the close state and in parallel with the Green Push
Button, as the closed path is maintained, ensuring a continuous supply to the
contactor coil (A1-A2).

Furthermore, L2-T2 also moves to the close state simultaneously. Since it is in series
with the fault resistance, this creates a fault as the fault resistance is now in parallel
with the load resistance, increasing the overall current in the circuit.

Additionally, the transition of L3-T3 to the Normally Close (NC) state completes
the right arm of the control circuit, energising the coil of the Auxiliary Relay. The
NO contacts (5 and 7) of the auxiliary relay also change to NC, initiating the timer.

If the fault current exceeds the pickup value of the SEL 751a relay, the relay detects
the fault and, based on its type of characteristics, sends a trip command after a
certain time instant. Following this, the NC contacts (A7-A9) of the SEL 751a change
to NO upon relay tripping. This opens the left arm of the control circuit, causing
the contactor coil (A1-A2) to de-energise.

As a result, L2-T2 opens, removing the fault resistance from the circuit.
Additionally, L3-T3 also opens, de-energising the Auxiliary Relay coil and
stopping the timer. Consequently, the timer reading displays the relay's operation
time.

NOTE: The Red Push Button's NC contacts are connected in series with the left
arm of the control circuit. In the event of a contingency, pressing the Red Push
Button changes its state from NC to NO, thereby opening the circuit and de-
energising the contactor coil.

Table 3.2. Equations associated with various characteristic of inverse time

overcurrent relay
Curve Type Operating Time
0.14
C1 (Standard Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. � 0.02 �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 −1
13.5
C2 (Very Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. � �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 1
80
C3 (Extremely Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. � 2 �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 1
0.14
C4 (Long-Time Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. � 0.02 �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 −1

18
 Extremely
Inverse

Time of operation, top (s)

Long-Time
Inverse
Very
Standard Inverse
Inverse

Multiples of Pickup (MP)

Fig. 3.2. Various characteristics of inverse time overcurrent relay

3.5. Procedure:
a) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.1. (a).
b) In the SEL 751a relay, set the value of PS = 0.5A and TDS = 0.9 with the type of
curve as C1.
c) Increase the supply voltage using auto-transformer so that the primary current
exceeds 0.5A (say Ip = 0.6A) with a fixed load resistance, RL = 150Ω.
d) Set the fault resistance, RF = 75Ω (maximum). Now, when RF comes in parallel
with RL, the primary current (now fault current) gets increased and if the CT
secondary current exceeds the PS value, the relay will trip.
e) Press the Green push button (Fault switch) to create a fault. The relay senses
the fault and the timer starts.
NOTE: Red push button is only provided to remove fault manually.
f) Once the relay trips, the timer stops, and that time is the operating time of the
relay for that MP and TDS. Compare this time with the equation of C1 given in
Table 3.2.
g) After one reading, press “TARGET RESET” in the relay and long press the RST
button on the timer.
h) Now, lower the fault resistance and repeat the procedure mentioned in e) to
g). Take at least 8 readings by varying the fault resistance till the fault current
reaches 5A (rating of fault resistance).
i) Repeat procedures c) to g) for curve types C2 and C3 and verify the operating
times obtained experimentally and by calculation.
j) Plot the time of operations (top) v/s MP for C1, C2 and C3 in a single plot.

19
 Observations:
Sr. Curve 𝑰𝑰𝑭𝑭 Experiment Calculated Error
𝑴𝑴𝑃𝑃 =
No. Type 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 × 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 al top (in s) top (in s) (%)

C1
1 (Standard
Inverse)

C2
2 (Very
Inverse)

C3
3 (Extremely
Inverse)

Plot: Time of operations (top) v/s MP for C1, C2 and C3 in a single plot
3.6. Conclusion:

20
 Experiment-4

Radial Feeder Protection

4.1. Aim:
To carry out radial feeder protection by using electromechanical (CDG21) and
Digital/Numerical (SEL-751) feeder protection relays.
4.2. Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 4.1 shows single line diagram of a radial feeder network in the form of power circuit.
Two electromechanical relays and two digital/numerical relays are connected on
distribution feeder network. The control circuit of the same radial feeder network is
shown in Fig. 4.2. As observed from Fig. 4.1, both electromechanical and digital relays
are connected in parallel and only one of them can be operated at a time. When the push
button ‘PB1’ is pressed, the contactor C1 is energized and normally open (NO) contacts of
C1 i.e. C1-3 C1-4 are closed. Similarly, when the push button ‘PB4’ is pressed, the
contactor C2 is energized, and NO contacts of C2 i.e. C2-3 C2-4 are closed and the circuit
is completed. When a fault occurs between bus A and bus B (anywhere between F1 and
F1’), the relay (either electromechanical or digital) sends a trip signal due to which NO
contacts of R1 or DR1 i.e. R1-3 and R1-4 or DR1-3 and DR1-4 are closed, which energizes
auxiliary relay A1 . Hence, NO contacts of A1 i.e. A1-11 and A1-9 are closed. The auxiliary
relay provides the supply to the contactor and it opens the contact (isolating the fault).
Similar is the case when fault occurs between bus B and bus C (anywhere between F2 and
F2’).
6.5 Ω MCB 500 Ω
A B 6.5 Ω C
(0-10) A C1-3 C1-4 C2-3 C2-4 9 A F2’
0.5A 1A
A
P1 P2 F1 9 A F1’ P1 P2 F2 FL FL’

S1 S2 S1 S2

R1 DR1 R2 DR2

230 V, 1- Ø AC
Supply

25 Ω Fault circuit
9A

Fig. 4.1. Power circuit of radial feeder network

21
 Ph
A1-5 A2-5

PB3(Reset) PB4(Reset)
A1-6 A2-6

DR1-3 R2-3 DR2-3

A1-11 R1-3 A2-11
LOAD
C1-3 C2-3 500 Ω
A1-9 R1-4 A2-9 R2-4
DR1-4 DR2-4
230 V C1-4 C2-4
AC
PB1(Start) PB4(Start)

C1 A1 C2 A2

Fig. 4.2. Control circuit of radial feeder network

4.3. Apparatus Required:

Table 4.1 shows the list of apparatus required for experimenting on a radial feeder
network.
Table 4.1. List of apparatus required
S. No Apparatus Quantity
1 1-phase, 230 V, 50Hz AC Supply 1
2 MCB,0.5A 1
3 Feeder Resistance, 6.5 Ω/9 A 2
4 Load Resistance, 500 Ω/1 A 1
5 Fault Resistance, 25 Ω/9 A 1
6 Ammeter, (0-20) A 1
7 Electromechanical relays (CDG21) 2
8 Digital/Numerical (SEL-751) relays 2
9 Current Transformers, 10/5 A, 15 VA 2
10 Contactors, 240 V, 18 A 2
11 Push Buttons, Start (Green) 2
12 Push Buttons, Stop (Red) 2

22
4.4. Theory:
In radial feeders, non-directional relays are used as they operate when the CT secondary
current exceeds the pickup setting of the relays. This type of relay operates irrespective
of the direction of the current flow.
4.5. Analytical calculations of relay settings:
During normal condition (no fault/pre-fault condition), the load current (IL) is given by,
230
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = = 0.45 A (4.1)
6.5 + 6.5 + 500
Hence, the rating of the MCB is selected as 0.5A.
4.5.1. Calculation of Plug Setting (PS) for relays 𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐 :
Here, the rated current of both relays 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 is 1A. Conversely, the current
transformer (CT) ratio is 10/5 A. Usually, the relay rated current and CT secondary
current are same. However, due to practical limitations, the relay rated current is 1 A
whereas CT secondary current is 5 A.
The secondary current of CT (where relay is connected) is 0.45/2 = 0.225A. Assuming the
normal plug setting range of both relays 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 are 50% to 200% in steps of 25%, the
plug setting of 𝑅𝑅2 comes out to be 22.5%. Hence, the selected value of plug setting of the
relay R2 is 50%.
Now, coordinating relay 𝑅𝑅2 with relay 𝑅𝑅1 , the plug setting of relay 𝑅𝑅1 is greater than or
equal to 1.3/1.05 times of the relay 𝑅𝑅2.
Therefore, the selected value of plug setting of 𝑅𝑅1 will be next higher value available in
the relay setting i.e. 75%.
1.3
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 ≥ × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 (4.2)
1.05
1.3
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 ≥ × 50% (4.3)
1.05
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 ≥ 61.9%
(4.4)

4.5.2. Calculation of time Dial Setting (TDS) for relays 𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐 :

Case 1: Coordination between MCB and the relay 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐

To coordinate between MCB and relay 𝑅𝑅2 , it is required to consider the fault at bus C at
the location FL . However, there is no provision to simulate the fault at the above location
in the laboratory. The fault current value (IFL) at this location can be given by,

23
 230
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = = 6.24 A (4.5)
6.5 + 6.5 + (25||500)
According to the standard time-current characteristics of MCB, as shown in Fig. 4.3. time
of operation of MCB for the above fault current is 1.3s approximately.
Considering 1.0 s as the Coordination Time Interval (CTI) between MCB and relay 𝑅𝑅2 , the
required time of operation (Top) of R2 comes out to be 1.3 + 1.0 = 2.3 s.
The Top of the relay 𝑅𝑅2 is given by,
0.14
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)0.02 −1 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 (4.6)

where, PSM is known as Plug Setting Multiplier and defined as the ratio of fault
current referred to CT secondary to the plug setting (PS) of the relay.

Further, TDS is the time dial setting of the relay and its usual range is 0-1 s in steps of 0.05
s. Hence, the TDS of the relay R2 is obtained by,
5
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) 6.24 × 10
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = = 6.24
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 0.5 (4.7)
0.14
2.3 = × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2
(6.24)0.02 −1

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 = 0.612. Hence, the selected value of TDS of R2 is 0.6.

Case 2: Coordination between the relay 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 and the relay 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 :

To coordinate relay 𝑅𝑅2 with relay 𝑅𝑅1 , it is necessary to consider the fault at bus B at the
location 𝐹𝐹2 . The fault current (IF2) at this location is given by,
230
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹2 = = 7.58 A (4.8)
6.5 + (25||(500 + 6.5))
The PSM is given by,

5
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) 7.58 × 10 (4.9)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = = 7.58
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 0.5
The Top of the relay 𝑅𝑅2 for the above fault location (𝐹𝐹2 ) is given by,
0.14 0.14
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)0.02 −1 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 = (7.58)0.02 −1 × 0.6 =2.03 s (4.10)

For a fault at 𝐹𝐹2 , the relay 𝑅𝑅2 should operate as the primary relay and the relay 𝑅𝑅1 should
act as a back-up relay if the relay R 2 fails for the same fault location.

24
Therefore, the time of operation of relay 𝑅𝑅1 for a fault at 𝐹𝐹2 should be greater than that of
the relay 𝑅𝑅2 . Considering 2.0 s as the CTI between the relay R2 and the relay R1, the
required time of operation of the relay R1 for the above fault is 2.03 + 2.0 = 4.03 s. It is to
be noted that the CTI between two successive relays is usually taken as 0.25 to 0.4 s.
However, due to limitations of the equipment used in the practical setup, it is taken as
2.0 s.
The time of operation of relay 𝑅𝑅1 at the above fault current is given by,
0.14
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 = (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)0.02 −1 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 (4.11)
5
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) 7.58×
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅1 = = 10
= 5.05 (4.12)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 0.75

Inserting values of PSM =5.05 and required Top of R1 as 4.03 s in (4.11),

0.14
4.03 = (5.05)0.02 −1
× 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 (4.13)

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 = 0.95. Hence, the selected value of TDS of R1 is 0.95.
The calculated value of relay settings are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2. Calculated relay settings

Relay setting Relay R1 Relay R2

PS 75% 50%
TDS 0.95 0.6

4.6. Procedure:
1. Do the connections as per the circuit diagram (Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.2).
2. Carryout the relay settings according to the analytical calculations.
3. Create faults at various location i.e. 𝐹𝐹1 ,𝐹𝐹1′ , 𝐹𝐹2 ,𝐹𝐹2′ and observe the operation of relays.
4. Observe the backup protection by blocking operation of contactors C2-3 and C2-4.

Observations:
Observations in terms of primary are shown in Table 4.3 and Table 4.4, respectively.
And backup protection is shown in Table 4.5.

25
 Table 4.3. Observing the primary protection with the Fault between F1 and F1’

Fault %
Fault Current (If) Observed Calculated 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) −𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
location seen by the top top Error=
𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
relay
Near-
end
Mid-
point
Far-end

Table 4.4. Observing the primary protection with the Fault between F2 and F2’

Fault
Fault Current (If) Observed Calculated 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) −𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
%Error=
location seen by the top top 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
relay
Near-end
Mid-
point
Far-end

Table 4.5 Observing the backup protection with the Fault between F2 and F2’

Fault
Fault Current (If) Observed Calculated 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) −𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
%Error=
location seen by the top top 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
relay
Near-end
Mid-
point
Far-end

26
4.7. Calculations:

27
 4.8. Conclusion:

4.8. Appendix:
(a) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Overcurrent Relay
This type of relay is widely used by the utilities in the field. Initially, the characteristic
of the relay follows inverse law, and thereafter, when the current becomes very high, it
follows definite minimum operating time pattern. This is because of the constant
operating torque due to the saturation of flux at a high value of current in the
electromechanical relay. Its characteristic is given in (4.6). Time- current characteristics
available in the SEL-751 are given in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5. Time- current characteristics available in SEL-751 relay

Curve Type Operating Time

0.14
C1 (IDMT) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0.02 × TDS
𝐼𝐼 −1
13.5
C2 (Very Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝐼𝐼 − 1

80
C3 (Extremely Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝐼𝐼 2 − 1

120
C4 (Long-Time Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝑀𝑀 − 1

0.05
C5 (Short-Time Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝐼𝐼 0.04 − 1

28
(b) Time current characteristics of MCB

Fig. 4.3. Time current characteristics of MCB

29
 Experiment - 5

Magnetization Curve of a Current Transformer

5.1. Aim:
To study the magnetization curve of a Current Transformer by plotting its
characteristics.
5.2. Theory:
Magnetization characteristics or Saturation characteristic is a plot of open-circuit
voltage v/s excitation current of a CT. This curve is a very important tool for
deciding whether a CT is suitable for a given application. The ratio error can also be
checked using this curve. The curve can be experimentally obtained using a test set-
up as shown in Fig. 5.1.

Fig. 5.1. Test Setup for obtaining CT magnetization curve

The voltage should be gradually increased and ample number of readings for the
excitation current Ie and the corresponding value of the open-circuit voltage Es
should be taken. Care should be taken to see that Ie times Es should not exceed the
rated burden of the CT. The plot of Es v/s Ie is shown in Fig. 5.2. The initial non-linear
region OA is due to the fact that small ampere-turns supplied is used for exciting the
core (for producing flux). Hence, the CT does not reproduce the primary current on
the secondary side faithfully when it operates in the region OA. Thus, at a very small
percentage of the primary rated current, the CT ratio error is large. Region AB of the
curve is linear in which the CT should be operated. In the further knee region, the
CT again behaves non-linearly. Point K is known as the ‘knee-point’ and is defined
as the point at which an increase of 10% in the open-circuit voltage results in an
increase of 50% in the exciting current.

30
 Fig. 5.2. Saturation characteristic of a CT
The excitation characteristic of a CT depends upon the cross-sectional area and
length of the magnetic path of the core, the number of turns in the windings and the
magnetic characteristics of the core material. Fig. 5.3. shows typical magnetization
curves for three core materials commonly employed in current transformers, viz., (a)
Hot-rolled non-oriented silicon steel, (b) Cold-rolled oriented silicon steel, and (c)
Nickel-iron core. It will be seen that at low densities (a) has the lowest permeability
and (c) has the highest permeability, whereas (b) has extraordinarily high flux
densities. If a core of cold-rolled silicon steel is used, the accuracy would be
reasonably good, up to 10 to 15 times the rated current. However, it does not produce
accuracy as good as the CT with nickel-iron core for currents equal to and below five
times the rated current.
2.0
(b)

1.5
Flux density Bmax in Tesla

(a)

1.0
(c)

0.5

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Exciting force in AT/cm

(a): Hot-rolled non-oriented silicon steel (for protection)

(b): Cold-rolled oriented silicon steel (for protection)
(c): Nickel-iron (80% nickel) (for measurement)

Fig. 5.3. Typical Magnetization curves

31
 5.3. Procedure:

1. Do the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 5.1.

2. Increase the voltage from the variac gradually and take a sufficient number of
readings for the excitation current Ie and the corresponding value of the open-
circuit voltage Es. (NOTE: Ie times Es should not exceed the rated burden of the
CT).
3. Plot Es v/s Ie.
4. Obtain the ‘knee-point’ of the magnetization characteristics.

5.4. Observations:

Table 5.1. Observation Table

S. No. Voltage at CT Secondary (Es in V) Excitation current (Ie in A)

Plot: Plot the Saturation characteristics of CT from the observations obtained.

32
5.5. Calculations: Calculate and verify the knee point voltage.

5.6. Conclusion:

33
 Experiment-6
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
6.1. Aim:
To observe the operation of the vacuum circuit breaker with the help of an overcurrent
relay.
6.2. Apparatus Required:
The apparatus required is shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1. Number of apparatuses required
Sr. No Apparatus Quantity
1 3-phase, 440 V, 50Hz AC Supply 1
2 Vacuum circuit Breaker panel 1
3 Resistive load/ Induction motor 1

6.3. Theory:

Fig. 6.1 shows a panel connection diagram of the Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB). It
contains various blocks namely 3-phase variac, VCB, 3-phase AC motor as a load, current
relay, voltage relay and multi-function relay.

Fig. 6.1. Panel connection diagram of VCB

A VCB panel is used to check the relay operation. The trip command from the relay is
sent to the vacuum circuit breaker. The connection for overcurrent, overvoltage, multi-

34
function, timing and resistance measurement should be made individually for each
function. All the required terminals for the connections are taken out on the panel board.
Fig. 6. 2 shows the connection of the VCB with an overcurrent relay. As shown in Fig.
6.2., Current Transformer (CT) terminals from the panel are connected with overcurrent
relay CT terminals. The overcurrent relay setting is done as per the requirement and the
trip command is sent to VCB from the overcurrent relay.

Fig. 6.2.

Connection of VCB with an overcurrent relay

Fig. 6.3. VCB and relay’s auxiliary contact details

35
Fig. 6.3 shows the contact details of the VCB and trip/close coil and spring charge
mechanism. The terminals of the trip coil, close coil and spring charge mechanism from
the panel are connected to the VCB input terminals. The spring charge mechanism can be
on auto or manual mode. The overcurrent/ Overvoltage / Multi-function auxiliary
Normally Open (NO)/Normally Close (NC) contacts are connected to the input of the
control circuit. Further, the operating mechanism of a VCB is shown in Fig. 6.4. The
auxiliary contacts, main contacts, spring charging and discharging mechanism are also
shown in Fig. 6.4.

A-Open/closed auxiliary contacts

B-Geared motor for closing spring
charging
C-Built-in closing spring charging
lever
D-Mechanical signalling device for
circuit-breaker open/closed
E-Mechanical operation counter
F-Plug-socket connectors of electrical
accessories in the truck
G-Signalling device for closing
springs charged/discharged
H-Service releases
I-Closing pushbutton
L-Opening pushbutton
M-Operating mechanism locking
electromagnet
N -Additional shunt opening release
O-Transient contact
P-Contacts for signalling spring
charged/discharged

Fig. 6.4. Operating mechanism of VCB

The vacuum circuit breaker does not require an interrupting and insulating medium. In
fact, the interrupters do not contain ionisable material. In any case, on separation of the
contacts, an electric arc is generated made up exclusively of melted and vaporised contact
material. The electric arc remains supported by the external energy until the current is
cancelled in the vicinity of natural zero. At that instant, the rapid reduction in the load
density carried and the rapid condensation of the metallic vapour leads to extremely
rapid recovery of the dielectric characteristics. Therefore, the vacuum interrupter
recovers the insulating capacity and the capacity to withstand the transient recovery
voltage, definitively extinguishing the arc. Since high dielectric strength can be reached
in the vacuum, even with minimum distances, interruption of the circuit is also

36
guaranteed when separation of the contacts takes place a few milliseconds before the
passage of the current through natural zero.
6.4 Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 6.2. and Fig. 6.3.
2. Set the overcurrent relay settings according to ratings of the load and select the required
time-overcurrent curve.
3. Create various faults and observe whether a circuit breaker is operating in the desired
manner.
4. Repeat the procedure for other time-over-current curve settings and note down the
operating time.
Curve Type Operating Time
0.14
C1 (Normal Inverse 3.0) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀0.02 − 1
13.5
C2 (Very Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 1

Observation Table:
Table 6.2. Measured and calculated value of circuit breaker operating time

Selected time Fault Current Measured Calculated

overcurrent Load (If) seen by value of value of % Error
characteristics the relay VCB top VCB top

Definite

Normal Inverse

Very Inverse

6.5. Conclusion:

37