UNIT : Instrumentation

UNIT CODE : EEE2407

CLASS : Electrical and Electronic Engineering

YEAR : 4. 1

TITLE : Mechanical linear transducer (Detection of movement using the linear

, Variable differential transformer LVDT)

GROUP : TWO LC

DATE :

NAME REG NO

Edwin Wachira ENE211-0208/2021

Bravine Amani ENE211-0048/2021

Thomas Njuki ENE211-0204/2021

Alvin Sarisar ENE211-0271/2019

Andy Ochieng ENE211-0053/2021

Objective
 To investigate the behavior of a mutual inductance type transducer with two
secondary windings connected in various configurations as the reluctance of the
magnetic path is varied.

Theory
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is a widely used inductive
transducer designed to convert linear displacement into an electrical signal with high
precision and reliability. The LVDT operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction,
providing a continuous analogue output that reflects the position of a movable core within
its structure.

Construction of the LVDT

An LVDT consists of a primary winding and two secondary windings wound on a hollow
cylindrical former, allowing a movable soft iron core to slide along the length of the former.
Key components include:

 Primary Winding (P): Connected to an AC source, the primary winding creates an

alternating magnetic flux that links with the secondary windings.
 Secondary Windings (S1 and S2): These are wound symmetrically on either side
of the primary winding, with equal numbers of turns. The secondary windings are
connected in opposition to generate a differential output.
 Movable Iron Core: The core, usually made of high-permeability material to
increase sensitivity and reduce harmonic distortion, moves longitudinally within the
former, altering the magnetic flux in the secondary windings.
 Stainless Steel Housing: The device is enclosed in a stainless-steel housing,
providing electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.
Principle of Operation

The LVDT works by measuring the differential voltage generated in the secondary windings
based on the position of the core. When an AC voltage is applied to the primary winding, it
generates an alternating magnetic field that induces voltages in each secondary winding,
labelled ES1 and ES2.

The output voltage of the LVDT, Eout, is the difference between the induced voltages in the
two secondary windings:

Eout = ES1−ES2
Working of the LVDT

The operation of the LVDT can be divided into three cases based on the core position:

1. Null Position (No Displacement):

When the core is cantered, the magnetic flux linkage with both secondary windings
is equal, producing equal and opposite voltages, resulting in a net output of zero.
This is known as the null or reference position.
2. Core Displaced Upwards from Null Position:
If the core is displaced upwards, more flux links with secondary winding S1 than
with S2, making ES1 greater than ES2. This results in a positive differential output
voltage, indicating upward displacement.
3. Core Displaced Downwards from Null Position:
When the core moves downward, more flux links with S2 than S1, making ES2
greater than ES1. The differential output voltage Eout becomes negative, indicating
downward displacement.
Output Characteristics

The output voltage of an LVDT is linearly proportional to the displacement of the core over
a limited range, typically within ±5mm from the null position. Key points about the LVDT
output include:

 Linearity: Within the specified range, the output voltage exhibits a linear
relationship with core displacement, providing an accurate indication of position.
 Phase Relation: When the core moves in one direction from the null position, the
differential voltage increases while remaining in phase with the primary source
voltage. In the opposite direction, the differential voltage also increases but shifts
180° out of phase with the primary source, allowing the direction of displacement to
be determined.
This combination of high sensitivity, linearity, and phase-dependent directionality makes
the LVDT an ideal sensor for precise linear position measurements.

Equipment Used
- Teknikit Consolette TK286
- Teknikit Manifold TK287
- Amplifier Module TK 294B
- Oscillator Module TK 294C
- Discriminator Module TK 294D
- Mechanical Assembly (linear motion)
- LVDT Transducer
- Digital Meter
- Dual-Trace Oscilloscope
Procedure
 The power supply unit was connected to the mains supply line, but it was not
switched on yet
 The variable DC control knob was turned to the minimum, and the 0 to +4 V variable
DC range was selected.
 The manifold TK289 was connected to the power supply unit using the provided
connecting cable: the blue lead was connected to the 0V output, the red lead to the
+15V output, and the black lead to the negative of the 15V output of the PSU. A lead
was also connected to the variable DC output, while other leads in the connecting
cable were left unconnected.
 The modules type 294 were plugged into the sockets of the manifold.
 The circuit shown in Figure 3 was connected according to the module setup shown
in Figure 2. The transducer terminals were checked to ensure they were correctly
connected. The switch on the oscillator module was set to position C, and the
frequency control was set to maximum. The output amplitude control was set to
mid-scale, and the power was switched on.
 On the oscilloscope, a time base of 1 μs/cm and a 2V/div scale were set, and then
the setup was connected as shown in Figure 3.
 The mutual inductance transducer was attached to the linear motion rig.
 By pressing the control rod against the return spring, the ferrite core was moved
through the body of the transducer, and the output waveform was observed. The
waveform went through a maximum, reduced to zero, changed phase, and reached
another maximum, as the insertion depth of the core varied the induced EMF.
 The micrometer was set to 10 mm, and the index was slid to 3.2 cm (or another
convenient starting position). A set of readings of output (pk-pk divisions) was
taken while moving the core in 1 mm intervals through the transducer.
 Readings were recorded in a table
 The oscillator output amplitude was adjusted until the output voltage was exactly
10 V. The position where the output passed through zero (i.e., where it changed
phase) was recorded.
 The circuit shown in Figure 5 was connected, ensuring correct wiring of terminals.
 The switch on the oscillator was set to position C, with the frequency control at
maximum, and the power supply was switched on.
 The oscilloscope was set up as before, with the gain adjusted to 2V/div and the time
base set to 1 μs/cm. The circuit was observed to display the waveform.
 The 100 µF smoothing capacitor was removed, and the waveform's characteristics
were noted. A larger capacitor (1 µF) was then used, and the output voltage was
adjusted accordingly.
 Measurements of output voltage and position were recorded as the core was moved
through the transducer in 1 mm intervals. The position where the output voltage
returned to zero was identified and documented.
Diagrams
Results
Data Table:

Position (mm) Output (div pk-pk) Amplified Output (dc volts)

25 0 0.00
26 0 0.00
27 0 0.00
29 0 0.00
30 1 0.50
31 2 1.00
32 3 1.50
33 6 3.00
34 8 4.00
35 6 3.00
36 6 3.00
37 5 2.50
38 5 2.50
39 5 2.50
40 5 2.50
41 6 3.00
42 7 3.50
43 8 4.00
44 9 4.50
45 10 5.00
48 11 5.50
49 10 5.00
50 6 (phase shift) 3.00
51 2 1.00
52 10 5.00
53 15 7.50
54 16 8.00
55 14 7.00
56 12 6.00
57 10 5.00
58 10 5.00
59 9 4.50
60 8 4.00
61 7 3.50
62 7 3.50
63 6 3.00
64 6 3.00
65 6 3.00
66 6 3.00
67 6 3.00
68 10 5.00
69 14 7.00
70 10 5.00
71 6 3.00
72 2 1.00
73 1 0.50
74 0 0.00
75 0 0.00
Data Analysis

output (¿ pk− pk )
Amplified Output (dc volts) =
2

Graphical Analysis:

1. AC Output vs. Position

2. Amplified Output vs. Position

AC Output vs. Position:

 The graph shows a nonlinear trend with peaks and valleys.

 Over the central region (e.g., 33 mm to 45 mm), the AC output gradually increases,
showing relatively smooth variations. This region aligns with the movement of the
core within the LVDT where linear behaviour is most likely.

Amplified Output vs. Position:

 The amplified DC output graph is a scaled version of the AC graph, with a focus on
enhanced resolution.
 Over the central section, the amplified output shows high linearity. A best-fit line
was drawn, and deviations from this line were minimal.

The linearity percentage is given by formula

Dmax
Linearity (%) = ×100
V range

Dmax = 1.9 volts (max deviation observed in the graph)

Vrange = 12 volts (difference between peak and through of amplified output in the central
region)

1.9
Therefore, Linearity (%) = ×100 = 15.83%
12

Discussion
Advantages of LVDT:

- High linearity within a limited range ensures precise displacement measurement.

- Amplifies even small displacements into measurable signals.
- Continuous analog output provides fine positional resolution.
- Rugged construction enhances durability.
- Low power consumption.

Disadvantages of LVDT:

- Susceptible to phase shifts and noise in high-frequency operations.

- Performance can degrade in the presence of external magnetic fields.
- Limited by mechanical inertia of the core.
- Variations in temperature can affect linearity.
APPLICATIONS OF LVDT
1. Industrial Automation

LVDTs are extensively used in industrial automation for measuring linear displacement in
machine tools, hydraulic cylinders, and actuators. Their high accuracy and durability make
them suitable for quality control and process monitoring in manufacturing plants.

2. Aerospace Applications

In aerospace, LVDTs measure critical parameters such as the position of flight control
surfaces, landing gear deployment, and thrust reversers. Their ability to withstand extreme
environments and deliver reliable measurements ensures safety and performance in
aircraft systems.

3. Structural Monitoring

LVDTs are used to monitor structural displacements in bridges, buildings, and other
infrastructure. They detect subtle movements caused by stress, vibration, or environmental
conditions, aiding in preventive maintenance and safety assurance.

4. Robotics

In robotics, LVDTs play a crucial role in providing feedback for precision control of robotic
arms and end-effectors. Their high resolution ensures accurate positioning, enabling robots
to perform complex tasks like assembly, welding, or surgical procedures.

5. Medical Devices

LVDTs are applied in medical devices for non-contact measurement of displacement in

applications such as prosthetics, patient positioning systems, and surgical equipment. Their
non-intrusive nature and precision make them ideal for sensitive healthcare environments.

6. Automotive Testing

In the automotive industry, LVDTs are utilized to measure suspension travel, engine valve
displacement, and brake pedal position during performance testing. These sensors
contribute to the development of safer and more efficient vehicles.

7. Geotechnical Engineering

In geotechnical applications, LVDTs measure soil displacement, settlement, and

deformation in earth structures like dams, tunnels, and embankments. Their long-term
stability ensures reliable data for critical infrastructure projects.
Conclusion
The LVDT proved to be a reliable transducer for measuring linear displacement, with high
precision and accuracy in the central linear region. The calculated linearity of 15.87% is
within acceptable limits, demonstrating good agreement between theory and experimental
data. Improvements can focus on reducing external influences and enhancing performance
across broader ranges.

Recommendations
 Improved Calibration: Perform thorough calibration of the LVDT and amplifier
circuit to ensure accurate and reliable readings, especially in the linear region.
 Enhanced Measurement Setup: Use a stable and precise linear motion rig to
minimize mechanical vibrations and misalignments.
 Signal Filtering: Introduce low-pass filters to reduce noise and enhance the clarity of
output signals.
 Extended Range Analysis: Experiment with a wider range of core movements to
better understand behavior near mechanical and electrical limits.
 Phase Shift Investigation: Investigate the cause of the phase shift at 50 mm by
varying input signal frequency or core material.
 Comparative Study: Conduct a study comparing the LVDT with other displacement
sensors to evaluate its performance.
 Digital Data Acquisition: Implement a digital data acquisition system for automated
recording and analysis, reducing human error and improving precision.

References
 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/lvdt/
 lecture notes
 https://theinstrumentguru.com/what-is-lvdt-types-applications/
 https://www.sentechsensors.com/news/what-is-a-lvdt-and-what-are-the-
applications
 https://electrical-technology.com/lvdt-construction-working-application-
advantages-and-disadvantages.html