Unit: I

Magnetic Field
 Magnetic Flux and Magnetic Flux Density

The magnetic flux density vector is related to the

magnetic field intensity H by the following equation

B =  H, T (tesla) or Wb/m2
where  is the permeability of the medium. Except for
ferromagnetic materials ( such as cobalt, nickel, and iron),
most materials have values of  very nearly equal to that
for vacuum,
o = 4H/m
  10−7 (Henry per meter)

The magnetic flux through a given surface S is given by

 =  B  d s, Wb (weber)
S
 Law of conservation of magnetic flux
Magnetic flux through a closed surface is null, as the field lines
entering the surface is equal to the field lines leaving the surface.


s
B • d s = 0

Law of conservation of
magnetic flux or Gauss’s
law for magnetostatic field
 Biot – Savart’s Law

The magnetic field intensity dH

produced at a point P by the
differential current element Idl is
proportional to the product of Idl
and the sine of the angle 
between the element and the line
joining P to the element and is
Idl sin 
dH = k inversely proportional to the
R2
square of the distance R between
IN SI units, k = 1 , so P and the element.
4

Idl sin 
dH = k
4R 2
 Magnetostatics

Using the definition of cross product ( A  B = AB sin  AB an )

we can represent the previous equation in vector form as
I dl  ar I dl  R R=R ar = R
dH = = R
4R 2 4R 3
The direction of d H can be determined by the right-hand
thumb rule or by the right-handed screw rule.

If the position of the field point is specified by r and the

position of the source point by r 

I ( dl  ar ) I [ dl  ( r − r )]
dH = =
4 r − r  4 r − r 
2 3

where 𝑎lj 𝑟 is the unit vector directed from the source point to

the field point, and r − r  is the distance between these two
points.
 Ampere’s Circuital Law

• Ampere’s Circuit Law states that the line

integral of H around a closed path
proportional to the total current through the
surface bounding the path


C
H  d l = I enc
Ampere’s Circuital Law in Integral Form
(Cont’d)
dl By convention, dS is
taken to be in the
dS direction defined by the
S
right-hand rule applied
to dl.
Since volume current
density is the most
I encl =  J  d s general, we can write
Iencl in this way.
S
Applying Stokes’s Theorem to Ampere’s
Law

 H  dl =   H  d s
C S

= I encl =  J d s
S
 Because the above must hold for any
surface S, we must have
Differential form
H = J
of Ampere’s Law
 Magnetic Scalar Potential
In Electrostatics,
electric field E is derivable from the electric potential V.

V is a scalar quantity and easier to handle than

E which is a vector quantity.

In Magnetostatics,
the quantity Magnetic scalar potential can be obtained
using analogues relation
 Magnetic Scalar Potential
In regions of space in the absence of currents, the current
density j =0

=0
B is derivable from the gradient of a potential

Therefore B can be expressed as the gradient of a

scalar quantity φm

B = - ∇φm

φm is called as the Magnetic scalar potential.

 Magnetic Scalar Potential
The presence of a magnetic moment m creates a magnetic
field B
which is the gradient of some scalar field φm.

The divergence of the magnetic field B is zero,

∇.B = 0

By definition, the divergence of the gradient of the scalar field

is also zero,

- ∇.∇φm = 0 or
∇2 φm = 0.

The operator ∇2 is called the Laplacian and

∇2 φm = 0 is the Laplace’s equation.
 Magnetic Vector Potential
The magnetic scalar potential is useful only in the region of space
away from free currents.

If J=0, then only magnetic flux density can be computed from the
magnetic scalar potential

The potential function which overcomes this limitation and is

useful to compute B in region where J is present in Magnetic
Vector Potential
 Magnetic Vector Potential
Magnetic fields are generated by steady (time-independent)
currents & satisfy Gauss’ Law

Since the divergence of a curl is zero, B can be written as the

curl of a vector A as
 Magnetic Vector Potential

• Any solenoidal vector field (e.g. B) in physics can always be

written as the curl of some other vector field (A).

• The quantity A is known as the Magnetic Vector Potential.

 Magnetic Vector Potential
From Ampere’s law

Therefore the equation

can be written as

This equation is similar to Poisson's equation, the only difference

is that A is a vector.
Magnetic Field Lines
Magnetic Field
This is a region of space where a test magnet experiences a turning force

Field Lines
They point from the North Pole to the South Pole.
Magnetic Field Sources
Magnetic Poles
Every magnet has two poles (North & South) and is therefore called a Dipole
Unlike Electric Fields it is impossible to have a Monopole.
If you cut a magnet in half you end up with another dipole.

N S

N S N S

Unlike poles attract, Like poles repel.

N S N S
N S
S N

These magnets will turn so that UNLIKE poles come together.

Magnetic Dipole

• A magnetic dipole is a magnetic north pole and

a magnetic south pole separated by a small
distance.

• Magnetic dipole moments have dimensions of

current times area or energy divided by
magnetic flux density.

• The unit for dipole moment is ampere-square

metre
Force in a Magnetic Field equation

As you have just seen the size of the force depends on:
B – Magnetic Flux Density
I – current in the wire 𝐹 = 𝐵 × 𝐼𝑙
l – length of wire
If the field is not at Right Angles to the wire then the perpendicular component
of the field is used and the equation is:
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Force in a Magnetic Field alternative equation

𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙
B – Magnetic Flux Density
I – current in the wire
l – length of wire

1. 2. 3. 4.

𝑞
𝐼= 𝑞 𝑙
𝑡 𝐹=𝐵 𝑙 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑞 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑞𝑣
𝑡 𝑡 This is often used
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 for electrons and
becomes 𝑭 = 𝑩𝒆𝒗
 Magnetic Materials
• The materials which strongly attract a piece of iron are
known as magnetic materials or magnets.

• The magnetic property of a material arises due to the

magnetic moment or magnetic dipole of materials.

• Materials which are magnetised by the application of

an external magnetic field are known as magnetic
materials.

22
 Classification of Magnetic Materials

• Diamagnetic materials- No permanent magnetic

moment

• Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic, Antiferromagnetic

and Ferrimagnetic materials- Possess permanent
magnetic moment

23
 Diamagnetic Materials
In the presence of a field, dipoles are induced and aligned opposite to the
field direction Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

24
 Properties of Diamagnetic Materials
• They do not have a permanent dipoles moment.

• Magnetic effects are very weak and hence, often masked by

other kind of magnetism.

• The megnetisation becomes zero on removal of the external

field.

• The susceptibility of a diamagnetic material is negative.

• The susceptibility is independent of temperature and external

field.

25
 Properties of Diamagnetic Materials

⟵Normal conductor
𝐵ത ≠ 0 𝐵ത = 0
Diamagnetic Materials⟶

Fig. 2.

• They repel the magnetic lines of force. The existence of this

behavior in a diamagnetic material is shown in Fig. 2.

Examples: Copper, Gold, Mercury, Silver and Zinc.

26
 Paramagnetic Materials
The behavior of a paramagnetic material under the
influence of an external field is shown in fig. 3.

Fig. 3.

27
 Properties of Paramagnetic Materials
• Paramagnetic material possess a permanent dipole moment.

• The attract the magnetic lines of force.

• The susceptibility is positive and depends on temperature:

𝐶
𝜒 = , Equation is known as the Curie law of
𝑇
paramagnetism.

• Paramagnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to

temperature.

Examples: Aluminum, chromium, sodium, titanium, zirconium,

etc.
28
 Ferromagnetic Materials
Mutual alignment of atomic Dipoles even in the
absence of an external magnetic field. Coupling
forces align the magnetic spins.

Fig. 4.

29
 Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials
• The magnetic dipoles are arranged parallel to each other.
The spin arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Ferromagnetic materials-spin arrangement

30
 Properties of Ferromagnetic Materials
• They have characteristic temperature, namely, ferromagnetic
Curie temperature(𝜃𝑓 ). Materials below 𝜃𝑓 behave as
ferromagnetic materials and obey hysteretic curve. A material
behave as a paramagnetic when it is above 𝜃𝑓 .

• They possess permanent dipole moment.

• The susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material is

𝑐
𝜒 = 𝑇−𝜃 , shown as Curie-Weiss law.

Examples: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel.

31
 Antiferromagnetic Materials
The antiparallel alignment exists in material below a critical
temperature known as Neel temperature.

Fig. 6.

32
 Properties of Antiferromagnetic Materials
• The dipoles are aligned anti-parallel as shown
in Fig. 7.

• When the temperature increases, susceptibility

increase and reaches a maximum at a
temperature known as Neel temperature
beyond which it decreases.

• The value of susceptibility is positive and is

very small when T is greater then the Neel Fig. 7.

temperature, 𝑇𝑁 .
𝐶
𝜒 = 𝑇+𝜃
Examples: ferrous oxide, manganese oxide,
manganese sulphite, chromium oxide, etc.
33
 Ferrimagnetic Materials
• A special case of antiferromagnetic materials.

• The magnetic dipoles are antiparallel.

• However, their magnitudes are not equal.

• Hence, they produce a large magnetisation even

for a small applied external field.

34
Properties of Ferrimagnetic Materials
• The dipoles are antiparallel as
shown in Fig. 8. However, the
dipoles are not equal in
magnitude.

• Net magnetization is larger Fig. 8.

even for a small external field.
• The susceptibility is positive and vary large when the
temperature is higher than 𝑇𝑁 ,
𝐶
𝜒 = 𝑇±𝜃

• They behave as paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials

respectively above and below Curie temperature.

35
Magnetic Energy
Magnetic Energy
Magnetic Energy
Electromagnetic Boundary Conditions

(i) Electric Boundary condition

(ii) Magnetic Boundary condition

 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS

In homogeneous media, electromagnetic quantities vary smoothly and

continuously. At a boundary between dissimilar media, however, it is possible for
electromagnetic quantities to be discontinuous.
Continuities and discontinuities in fields can be described
mathematically by boundary conditions and used to constrain solutions for fields
away from these boundaries.
Boundary conditions are derived by applying the integral form of
Maxwell’s equations to a small region at an interface of two media
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTRIC FIELDS
Consider the E field existing in a region that consists of two different dielectrics
characterized by 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 . The fields E1 and E2 in media 1 and media 2 can be
decomposed as
E1 = Et1 + En1
E2 = Et2 + En2
Consider the closed path abcda shown in the below figure . By conservative
property
ഥ =𝟎
ය 𝑬 ⋅ 𝒅𝑳
When magnetic field enter from one medium to another medium,
there may be discontinuity in the magnetic field, which can be
explained by magnetic boundary condition
To study the conditions of H and B at the boundary, both the
vectors are resolved into two components

(i) Tangential to the boundary (Parallel to boundary)

(ii) Normal to the boundary (Perpendicular to
boundary)

These two components are resolved or derived using Ampere’s

law and Gauss’s law
Consider two isotropic and homogeneous linear materials at the
boundary with different permeabilities 𝜇1 and 𝜇2

Consider a rectangular path and gaussian surface to determine the

boundary conditions
According to Ampere’s Law,
‫𝑬 ׬‬. 𝒅𝑳 = 0
 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
‫𝐸 𝑎׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 = ‫𝐸 𝑎׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 + ‫𝐸 𝑏׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 + ‫𝐸 𝑐׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 + ‫𝐸 𝑑׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 = 0
∆𝑤
Here rectangular path height = ∆ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = ∆𝑤
∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
Etan1(∆𝑤) + EN1( ) + EN2( ) – Etan2(∆𝑤) – EN1( ) – EN2( ) = 0
2 2 2 2
At the boundary , ∆ℎ = 0 (∆ℎ/2- ∆ℎ/2)
Etan1(∆𝑤) – Etan2(∆𝑤) = 0
Etan1(∆𝑤) = Etan2(∆𝑤)
Etan1 = Etan2
The tangential components of Electric field intensity are continuous
across the boundary.
In vector form,
ഥ tan1 - 𝑬
(𝑬 ഥ tan2 ) X 𝐚ത N12 = 0
Since D = 𝜖E, the above equation can be written as
D tan1 D tan𝟐
= ,
𝜖𝟏 𝜖2
Dtan1 𝜖1
=
Dtan2 𝜖2
 Consider a cylindrical Gaussian Surface (Pill box) shown in the Figure ,
with height ∆h and with top and bottom surface areas as ∆s

Boundary Conditions for Normal Component

Closed Gaussian surface in the form of circular cylinder is consider to
find the normal component of 𝐵ത
According to Gauss’s law
‫𝐷 𝑆ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑠 = Q
 ഥ 𝑑𝑠 + ‫𝐷 ׯ‬
‫𝐷 𝑆ׯ‬. ഥ . 𝑑𝑠 + ‫𝐷 ׯ‬ഥ . 𝑑𝑠 = Q = 𝝆𝒔∆𝒔
𝑆 𝑆
Top Bottom Lateral
At the boundary, ∆ℎ = 0, So only top and
bottom surfaces contribute in the surface integral

ഥ is DN1 and DN2

The magnitude of normal component of 𝐷
For top surface ഥ . 𝑑𝑠 = ‫ ׯ‬DN1 𝑑𝑠
‫𝐷 𝑃𝑂𝑇ׯ‬ 𝑇𝑂𝑃

= DN1 ‫𝑠𝑑 𝑃𝑂𝑇ׯ‬

= DN1 ∆𝑠
For bottom surface ഥ 𝑑𝑠 = ‫ׯ‬
‫𝐷 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝐵ׯ‬. D 𝑑𝑠
𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 N2

= DN2 ‫𝑠𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝐵ׯ‬

= DN2 −∆𝑠 = − DN2 ∆𝑠
For Lateral surface ഥ‫ׯ‬
‫𝐷 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝐿ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐷 𝑑𝑠
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
=𝐷ഥ . ∆ℎ = 0

∴ DN1 ∆𝒔 − DN2 ∆𝒔 = Q = 𝝆𝒔∆𝒔

DN1 − DN2 = Q = 𝝆𝒔
In vector form,
ഥ N1 - 𝑫
(𝑫 ഥ N2 ) . 𝐚ത N12 = 𝝆𝒔

For perfect dielectric, 𝝆𝒔 = 0

ഥ N1 - 𝑫
𝑫 ഥ N2 = 0

ഥ N1 = 𝑫
𝑫 ഥ N2

The normal components of the electric flux density are continuous across the
boundary if there is no free surface charge density.
Since D = 𝜀 𝐸
𝜀 1En1 = 𝜀 2 En2

𝐄𝐧𝟏 𝜺2
=
En2 𝜺𝟏
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR MAGNETIC FIELDS

Consider a magnetic boundary formed by two isotropic homogenous linear

materials with permeability 𝜇1 and 𝜇 2
 (i) Boundary conditions for Tangential Component
ҧ =𝐼
According to Ampere’s Circuital law ය 𝐻 ⋅ 𝑑𝐿
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
‫𝐻 𝑎׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 = ‫𝐻 𝑎׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 + ‫𝐻 𝑏׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 + ‫𝐻 𝑐׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 +‫𝐻 𝑑׬‬. 𝑑𝐿 = I= Iencl

= J ∆𝑤 ; K=Surface current density normal to the Path (∆𝑤)

Here rectangular path height = ∆ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = ∆𝑤

∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
J ∆𝑤 = Htan1(∆𝑤) + HN1( ) + HN2( ) – Htan2(∆𝑤) – HN1( ) – HN2( )
2 2 2 2
At the boundary , ∆ℎ = 0 (∆ℎ/2- ∆ℎ/2)
J ∆𝑤 = Htan1(∆𝑤) – Htan2(∆𝑤)
∆𝑤
J = Htan1– Htan2

In vector form, ∆ℎ
ഥ tan1 - 𝐇
𝐇 ഥ tan2 = 𝑱ҧ X 𝐚ത N12
 ഥ the tangential component can be related with Permeabilities of two
For 𝐵,
media
B = 𝜇 H, B tan1 = 𝜇1Htan1 & B tan2 = 𝜇2 H tan2

B tan1 B tan2
∴ = Htan1 and = Htan2
𝜇1 𝜇2
B tan1 B tan𝟐
- = J
𝝁𝟏 𝝁2
Special Case :
The boundary is of free of current then media is not a conductor,
So K = 0
Htan1 = Htan2
For tangential component of 𝐵ത = 𝜇 𝐻
ഥ ,𝐻
ഥ = 𝐵/
ത 𝜇
B tan1 B tan2
- = 0
𝜇1 𝜇2
B tan1 𝜇1 𝜇𝑟1
= =
B tan2 𝜇2 𝜇𝑟2
 (ii) Boundary Conditions for Normal Component
Closed Gaussian surface in the form of circular cylinder is consider to find
the normal component of 𝐵ത
According to Gauss’s law for magnetic field
‫𝐵 ׯ‬.ത 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑆
The surface integral must be evaluated over 3 surfaces (Top, bottom and
Lateral)
ത 𝑑𝑠 + ‫𝐵 ׯ‬.
‫𝐵 𝑆ׯ‬. ത 𝑑𝑠 + ‫𝐵 ׯ‬. ത 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑆 𝑆
Top Bottom Lateral
At the boundary, ∆ℎ = 0,so only top and bottom surfaces contribute in the
surface integral

The magnitude of normal component of 𝐵ത is BN1 and BN2

For top surface ‫𝐵 ׯ‬. ത 𝑑𝑠 = ‫ ׯ‬BN1 𝑑𝑠
𝑇𝑂𝑃 𝑇𝑂𝑃
= BN1 ‫𝑠𝑑 𝑃𝑂𝑇ׯ‬
= BN1 ∆𝑠
For bottom surface ത 𝑑𝑠 = ‫ׯ‬
‫𝐵 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝐵ׯ‬. B 𝑑𝑠
𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 N2

= BN2 ‫𝑠𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝐵ׯ‬

= BN2 −∆𝑠 = − BN2 ∆𝑠

For Lateral surface ത 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐵ത ‫ׯ‬

‫𝐵 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝐿ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑠
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
= 𝐵ത . ∆ℎ = 0

∴ BN1 ∆𝑠 − BN2 ∆𝑠 = 0
BN1 ∆𝑠 = BN2 ∆𝑠

BN1 = BN2
 ഥ is continuous at the boundary
Thus the normal component of 𝑩
we know that 𝐵ത = 𝜇 𝐻ഥ
For medium 1and 2
𝜇1 𝐻ഥ 1N1 = 𝜇2 𝐻
ഥ 2N2
𝐻ഥ 1N1 𝜇2 𝜇r2
ഥ 2N2
= =
𝐻 𝜇1 𝜇 r1
Hence the normal component of 𝑯 ഥ is not continuous at the
boundary.
The field strength in two medias are inversely proportional to their
relative permeabilities
 ഥ 1N1
𝐻 𝜇2 𝜇r2
ഥ 2N2
= =
𝐻 𝜇1 𝜇 r1
Hence the normal component of 𝐻 ഥ is not
continuous at the boundary.
The field strength in two medias are inversely
proportional to their relative permeabilities
The Electromagnetic boundary conditions are concluded as