Introduction

A transducer is a device which converts the energy from one form to another form. This
energy may be mechanical, electrical, optical or thermal.

Electrical Transducer:

The transducer that gives electrical energy as output is known as electrical transducers.

In other words, The Electrical transducers are the devices that convert energy in the form of
sound, light, heat, etc., into an equivalent electrical signal, or vice versa.

The output electrical signal may be voltage, current or frequency. Production of these
electrical signals is based upon resistive, inductive, capacitive effects.

For measuring non electrical quantities, a detector is used which usually converts the physical
quantity into a displacement, that activates the electrical transducers.

Classification:

The transducers may be classified according to their application, method of energy

conversion, nature of the output signal and so on. All these classifications generally result in
overlapping areas.

In one way, the electrical transducers are classified as;

 Active Transducers
 Passive Transducers

Active Transducers:

 It is also known as self-generating type transducers.

 They develop their own voltage or current as the output signal.

 The energy required for production of this output signal is obtained from the physical
phenomenon being measured.

 Examples of active transducers: Thermocouple, Piezoelectric transducers,

Photovoltaic cell, Moving coil generator, Photoelectric cell.
Passive Transducers:

 It is also called as externally powered transducers.

 They derive the power required for energy conversion from an external power source.

 The passive transducers are further classified into Resistive type, Inductive type and
capacitive type.

Resistance:
Thermistor, Photoconductive cell, Resistance strain gauge
Inductance:
LVDT- Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Capacitance:
Photo emissive cell, Hall effect based devices.

 Apart from these classifications, some kinds of transducers are known as opto-
electronic transducers.

 They use the principle of converting light energy into electrical energy.

 Some of the examples of opto-electronic transducers are photoconductive cell,

photovoltaic cell, solar cell, photomultiplier tube and photomultiplier.

Characteristics of Transducer

1. Accuracy: It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches an accepted
standard value or ideal value or true value, of the variable being measured.

2. Ruggedness: The transducer should be mechanically rugged to withstand overloads. It

should have overload protection.

3. Linearity: The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to the input
quantity under measurement. It should have linear input - output characteristic. -

4. Repeatability: The output of the transducer must be exactly the same, under same
environmental conditions, when the same quantity is applied at the input repeatedly.

5. High output: The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so that it can be
easily processed and measured. The output must be much larger than noise. Now-a-days,
digital output is preferred in many applications;
6. High Stability and Reliability: The output of the transducer should be highly stable and
reliable so that there will be minimum error in measurement. The output must remain
unaffected by environmental conditions such as change in temperature, pressure, etc.

7. Sensitivity: The sensitivity of the electrical transducer is defined as the electrical

output obtained per unit change in the physical parameter of the input quantity. For example,
for a transducer used for temperature measurement, sensitivity will be expressed in mV/’ C.
A high sensitivity is always desirable for a given transducer.

8. Dynamic Range: For a transducer, the operating range should be wide, so that it can be
used over a wide range of measurement conditions.

9. Size: The transducer should have smallest possible size and shape with minimal weight
and volume. This will make the measurement system very compact.

10. Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the transducer responds to changes in
the measured quantity. The speed of response of the transducer should be as high as
practicable.

Factors that Influence the Choice of a Transducer:

Some of the factors to be taken into consideration in the selection of transducer for a
particular application are,

Operating Principle:

The first important factor for selecting a transducer is the operating principle. There are
various transducers that use different operating principles like resistive, capacitive,
piezoelectric, inductive, optoelectronic principle, etc.

Operating Range:

The operating range is also one of the important factors to be considered because every
instrument has its operating rating for satisfactory operation. The input applied must lie
within this operating range, so that the transducer can function with good resolution without
any breakdown. The operating range of a transducer can be determined with its capabilities
and error in the measurement.
Accuracy:

It is one of the most desirable characteristics of any transducer. The accuracy of a transducer
is the degree of closeness of the output obtained to the true or ideal value. A transducer with
high sensitivity can produce errors easily to other stimuli. The errors can be reduced using in-
place system calibration and monitoring so that corrections are made accordingly to have a
high degree of accuracy and repeatability.

Sensitivity:

It is also a desirable selection factor of a transducer. Every transducer should be sufficiently

sensitive to the input applied to produce an output. The sensitivity of a transducer is the
output obtained per unit change in the input quantity. Also, the sensitivity should not be
either very high or low that leads to errors.

Stability and Reliability:

A transducer should have high stability and reliability. It should be stable to the external
disturbances during its operation without deviating the output. The stability of the transducer
also describes storage life.

Usage and Ruggedness:

A transducer should be mechanically rugged depending upon the application where it is used.

Transient Response and Frequency Response:

The transducer should have required time domain specifications such as settling time, rise
time, peak overshoot and small dynamic error, etc.

Loading Effects:

The loading effect should be as minimum as possible so that errors in the measurement will
be low. A transducer should have high input impedance and low output impedance for
minimum loading effect.

Electrical Parameters:

The requirement for the type and length of cable signal to noise ratio when the transducer is
used with amplifiers and the drawbacks of frequency response should also be considered.

Static Characteristics:
The selected transducer should have low hysteresis, high linearity, and high resolution.

Environmental Compatibility:

The factors of selection also include the consideration of environmental conditions. An

incorrect choice of the transducer at a location to be operated where it can be subjected to
temperature variation, vibration, and electromagnetic interference can affect the output.

Advantages

The advantages of this transducer mainly include the following.

 Attenuation can be done easily.

 Mass inactivity effects can be reduced.

 Friction effects can be reduced.

 The o/p can be specified & recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing medium.

 The signal can be mixed to get any permutation with outputs of related transducers
otherwise control signals.

 Any system can be managed with a less power level.

 The output can be simply utilized to transmit as well as the process for measurement.

LVDT: Linear Variable Differential Transformer

Introduction of LVDT:

LVDT full form is Linear Variable Differential Transformer. As the name suggests, many
people get confused that it is a Transformer. But actually, it is a Transducer not a
Transformer. Because its working principle is same as Transformer (i.e. Mutual Induction
Principle) and also the output across its secondary coil is in the form of differential voltage,
that’s why it is named as Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).

It is categorized as an Inductive Transducer used to measure the speed or position of an

object. Generally most Inductive Sensors work on the principle of Transformer.
Principle of LVDT:
LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which is a non-
electrical energy is converted into an electrical energy. And the way how the energy is getting
converted is described in working of LVDT in a detailed manner.
LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by one primary winding in the
centre of the former and the two secondary windings at the sides. The number of turns in both
the secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite to each other, i.e., if the left
secondary windings is in the clockwise direction, the right secondary windings will be in the
anti-clockwise direction, hence the net output voltages will be the difference in voltages
between the two secondary coil. The two secondary coil is represented as S1 and S2. Esteem
iron core is placed in the centre of the cylindrical former which can move in to and fro
motion as shown in the figure. The AC excitation voltage is 5 to 12V and the operating
frequency is given by 50 to 400 HZ.

LVDT Construction

LVDT consists of one primary winding P and two secondary windings S1 & S2 mounted on a
cylindrical former. Both the secondary windings (S1 & S2) has an equal number of turns and
is placed identically on either side of the primary winding in such a way that the net output
will be the difference of the voltage of both secondary windings. There is a movable soft iron
core placed inside the former.
Construction of LVDT
Hydrogen annealing is done on the Iron core to reduce harmonics, residual voltage of the core
and thus provides high sensitivity. The movable core also is laminated in order to reduce the
eddy current losses. The displacement to be measured is attached to this movable soft iron
core. LVDT is placed inside the stainless steel housing because it will provide electrostatic
and electromagnetic shielding.

LVDT working principle

The working principle of LVDT is based on the mutual induction principle. When AC
excitation of 5-15 V at a frequency of 50-400Hz is applied to the primary winding, then a
magnetic field is produced. This magnetic field induces a mutual current in secondary
windings. Due to this, the induced voltages in secondary windings (S1 & S2) are E1 & E2
respectively.

Since both the secondary windings are connected in series opposition, So the net output
voltage will be the difference of both induced voltages (E1 & E2) in secondary windings.

Hence Differential Output of LVDT will be E0 = E1 – E2

Now according to the position of the core, there are three cases that arise. So Let’s discuss
these three cases one by one in detail.

Case 1: When the core moves towards S1 (Max Left).

When the core of LVDT moves toward Secondary winding S1. Then, in this case, the flux
linkage with S1 will be more as compared to S2. This means the emf induced in S1 will be
more than the induced emf in S2. Hence E1>E2 and Net differential output voltage E0 = E1 –
E2 will be positive. This means the output voltage E0 will be in phase with the primary
voltage.
Case 2: When the core is at Null position.

When the core is at the null position then the flux linkage with both the secondary windings
will be the same. So the induced emf (E1 & E2) in both the windings will be the same.
Hence the Net differential output voltage E0 = E1 – E2 will be zero (E0 = E1 – E2 = 0). It
shows that no displacement of the core.

Case 3: When the core moves towards S2 (Max Right).

When the core of LVDT moves toward Secondary winding S2. Then, in this case, the flux
linkage with S2 will be more as compared to S1. This means the emf induced in S2 will be
more than the induced emf in S1. Hence E2>E1 and Net differential output voltage E0 = E1
– E2 will be negative. This means the output voltage E0 will be in phase opposition
(180 degrees out of phase) with the primary voltage.

Advantages of LVDT:

1. Smooth and Wide Range of Operation: - LVDT has a very wide range of
measurement of displacement. It can measure displacement ranging from 1.25mm to
250 mm.
2. High Sensitivity: - LVDT gives high output value so that there is no need for any
Amplifier circuit for the amplification process. Typically the sensitivity of LVDT is
recorded as 40V/mm.
3. Low Hysteresis Losses: - LVDT gives low hysteresis losses hence repeatability is
excellent under all the conditions.
4. Low Friction Losses: - As the core moves in a hollow Former, So there is no concept
of friction losses. Hence it gives an accurate output value.
5. Rugged Operation: - It can tolerate a high degree of shock and variation, especially
when the core is loaded with spring.
6. Low Power consumption: - LVDT consumes very low power of approx 1W during
its operation.
7. Direct conversion to Electrical Signal: - They convert linear displacement directly
to the corresponding electrical voltage signal which are easy to process further.
8. Fast dynamic Response: - Due to the absence of Friction, Its dynamic response
becomes very fast to change in a core.
Disadvantages of LVDT

1. Since LVDT is Inductive Transducer, so it is sensitive to Stray Magnetic Field. Hence

an extra setup is required to protect it from Stray Magnetic Field.
2. Since it is an electromagnetic device, so it also gets affected by the vibrations and
temperature variation.

Applications of LVDT:

 LVDT is used to measure the physical quantities such as Force, Tension, Pressure,
Weight, etc. These quantities are first converted into displacement by the use of primary
transducers and then it is used to convert the displacement to the corresponding Electrical
voltage signal.

 It is mostly used in industries as well as a servomechanism.

 It is also used in Industrial Automation, Aircraft. Turbine, Satellite, hydraulics, etc.

Capacitive Transducers

Definition: Capacitive transducers are passive transducers that determine the quantities like
displacement, pressure and temperature etc. by measuring the variation in the capacitance of
a capacitor. As we know that a transducer changes a form of energy into another form. So, in
the capacitive transducer, the change in the capacitance is used to measure the physical
quantities.

Principle of Capacitive Transducer

The operating principle of a capacitive transducer is variable capacitance.

Now, the question arises that how the change in the capacitance of the capacitor occurs?

Assume a parallel plate capacitor, whose capacitance is given by:

A denotes the area of the plates,

ε0 is the permittivity of free space,

εr is the relative permittivity and

d is the distance between the two plates in metre.

From the above equation is it clear that the capacitance of the capacitor is dependent on
the area of the two plates, the distance between two plates and the permittivity of the
material.

Hence, by varying area, distance or permittivity, the non-electrical quantities can be

determined.

So basically, it can be concluded that there exist 3 methods by which the capacitance of
the capacitive transducer can be varied. The methods are:

1. By the change in the area of overlapping of the two plates i.e., A

2. By the change in the distance, d between the two plates

3. By the change in relative permittivity of dielectric material present between the two
plates.

Working of Capacitive Transducer

1. By changing the overlapping area of the two capacitive plates:

The figure below shows the parallel plate capacitor, whose 2 plates have width b and are
overlapped up to a length l as shown below:
It operates in such a way that capacitance of the capacitor is proportional to the area of
overlapping of the two plates.

This overlapping length is changed according to the displacement that is to be measured.

Hence displacement variation allows the change in the capacitance.

We know the capacitance for a parallel plate capacitor is given as

: l denotes the overlapping length and b denotes the width of the plates

The sensitivity is given as

So we can have
Hence by observing the above equation we can say that the sensitivity is constant. Thus, a
linear curve is plotted between the capacitance and displacement except for the beginning
part.

The curve between capacitance and displacement is shown below:

So, by varying the area of overlapping of the two plates, linear displacement can be
measured accurately between the range 5 mm to 10 mm.

2. By changing the distance between the capacitive two plates:

The operation of these capacitors is such that the capacitance of the capacitor is inversely
proportional to the distance i.e., d between the plates. Hence used to determine the linear
displacement.

In such transducers, among the two capacitive plates, one is stationary (fixed) while the
other is mobile (movable). So, with the motion of the movable plate, the capacitance
increases or decreases depending on the displacement which is to be measured.
An AC circuit is used to determine the variation in the capacitance, thereby determining
the displacement of the plate.

The figure below represents the non-linear curve between displacement and capacitance:

It is clearly shown here that the curve is non-linear. Hence by observing the above curve,
we can say that the capacitor is highly sensitive initially. Thus we can say that these
transducers are used for determining very small displacement.

Thus the sensitivity of the capacitor for change in distance is given as

Hence we can say that the sensitivity of the transducer varies over a certain range.

3. By changing the permittivity of the dielectric material:

This type of transducer operates by the variation in the relative permittivity of the
dielectric material placed between the plates.

The motion of dielectric material between the plates determines the capacitance in order
to determine the displacement.

The figure below represents a capacitive transducer with the variation of relative
permittivity:

Here, the distance between the plates is d while b is the width of each plate. x denotes the
displacement of dielectric material; l denotes the overlapped region of the two plates.

The equation for the capacitance of the transducer is given as

With the movement of dielectric material over a distance x, then capacitance shows
change from C to C – ∆C

Thus we can say that the variation in capacitance shows proportionality with the
displacement that is to be measured. Generally using this method displacement ranging
from 1 μm to 10 mm can be measured.
Advantages of Capacitive Transducer

These transducers exhibit least loading effects as it offers extremely high input impedance.

 The frequency response of these transducers is excellent.

 Highly sensitive.

 Low power consuming transducers.

 It provides high resolution.

  Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducer

 Due to high output impedance, a complicated measuring circuit at the output is

needed.

 To reduce the chances of the pickup, electrostatic screening must be given to these
transducers.

 The change in external factors like temperature, humidity etc. hinders the
capacitance of the transducers.

Applications of Capacitive Transducer

 As these transducers are able to measure both linear and angular displacements
with great sensitivity. Hence used to determine distances up to around 30 m.

 Not only the displacement but also force and pressure can be detected. These first
changes the force into displacement and with the change in displacement, the
capacitance is allowed to vary.

 Also, humidity can be measured by a capacitive transducer. As with the variation

in humidity, the permittivity also varies and this resultantly changes the
capacitance of the capacitor.

 With the help of mechanical modifiers density, volume, weight etc. can also be
measured.

Working Principle of Piezoelectric Transducer:

The piezo-electric transducer work on the principle of the piezo-electric effect. The materials
used for the construction of piezoelectric crystal are quartz, Rochelle salt, di-potassium
tartrate, potassium di-hydrogen phosphate, ammonium di-hydrogen phosphate. etc., these
materials are called piezoelectric materials.

When a piezoelectric crystal is subjected to force or mechanical stress an electric potential is

developed on the surface of the crystal. This is due to the displacement of charges in the
crystal. Conversely, if an electrical voltage is given, there will be deformation in the shape of
the crystal by changing its dimensions. This process of conversion of force or pressure or
mechanical stress into electrical energy or vice versa is refer as the piezoelectric effect

Derivation:
Let “F” be the force applied on the surface of the crystal due to which a charge “Q” is
developed , which is given by Q=dF

Where d is charge sensitivity of a crystal

The voltage developed across the crystal is given by E=Q/Cv , where Cv is the capacitance

A
C=ε = ε 0 ε r A /d
d
ε0 εr A
E=dF/ = rdF/ε 0 ε r A
r
E=rdp/ε 0 ε r r where “p”= F/A
E=g*r *p
Where g is called voltage sensitivity which is expressed in voltmeter per newton

ε =E/rp ( ε =E/r )

, ε ⟶ electric field intensity

ε
E=
p
The charge sensitivity “d” is given d=ε 0 ε r g

Thermistor
A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose electrical
resistance varies with changes in temperature. Although all resistors’ resistance will fluctuate
slightly with temperature, a thermistor is particularly sensitive to temperature changes.

Thermistors act as a passive component in a circuit. They are an accurate, cheap, and robust
way to measure temperature.

While thermistors do not work well in extremely hot or cold temperatures, they are the sensor
of choice for many different applications.

The working principle of a thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on its temperature.
We can measure the resistance of a thermistor using an ohmmeter.

If we know the exact relationship between how changes in the temperature will affect the
resistance of the thermistor – then by measuring the thermistor’s resistance we can derive its
temperature.

How much the resistance change depends on the type of material used in the thermistor. The
relationship between a thermistor’s temperature and resistance is non-linear. A typical
thermistor graph is shown below:

If we had a thermistor with the above temperature graph, we could simply line up the
resistance measured by the ohmmeter with the temperature indicated on the graph.

By drawing a horizontal line across from the resistance on the y-axis, and drawing a vertical
line down from where this horizontal line intersects with the graph, we can hence derive the
temperature of the thermistor.

Working of thermistor.

The working principle of a thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on its temperature.
We can measure the resistance of a thermistor using an ohmmeter. If we know the exact
relationship between how changes in the temperature will affect the resistance of the
thermistor – then by measuring the thermistor’s resistance we can derive its temperature.

How much the resistance change depends on the type of material used in the thermistor? The
relationship between a thermistor’s temperature and resistance is non-linear. A typical
thermistor graph is shown below:
If we had a thermistor with the above temperature graph, we could simply line up the
resistance measured by the ohmmeter with the temperature indicated on the graph.

By drawing a horizontal line across from the resistance on the y-axis, and drawing a vertical
line down from where this horizontal line intersects with the graph, we can hence derive the
temperature of the thermistor.

There are two types of thermistors:

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor

Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor

Uses of Thermistors

Thermistors have a variety of applications. They are widely used as a way to measure
temperature as a thermistor thermometer in many different liquid and ambient air
environments. Some of the most common uses of thermistors include:

 Digital thermometers (thermostats)

 Automotive applications (to measure oil and coolant temperatures in cars & trucks)
 Household appliances (like microwaves, fridges, and ovens)
 Circuit protection (i.e. surge protection)
 Rechargeable batteries (ensure the correct battery temperature is maintained)
  To measure the thermal conductivity of electrical materials
 Useful in many basic electronic circuits (e.g. as part of a beginner Arduino starter kit)
 Temperature compensation (i.e. maintain resistance to compensate for effects caused
by changes in temperature in another part of the circuit)
 Used in wheat stone bridge circuits

Thermocouple

A thermocouple is defined as a thermal junction that functions based on the phenomenon of

the thermoelectric effect, i.e. the direct conversion of temperature differences to an electric
voltage. It is an electrical device or sensor used to measure temperature.

A thermocouple can measure a wide range of temperatures. It is a simple, robust, and cost-
effective temperature sensor used in various industrial applications, home, office, and
commercial applications.

A thermocouple consists of two plates of different metals. Both plates are connected at one
end and make a junction.

The junction is placed on the element or surface where we want to measure the temperature.
This junction is known as a hot junction. And the second end of the plate is kept at a lower
temperature (room temperature). This junction is known as a cold junction or reference
junction.

Working of Thermocouple

According to the Seebeck effect, the temperature difference between the two different metals
induces the potential differences between two points of the thermocouple plates.
If the circuit is closed, a very small amount of current will flow through the circuit. A
voltmeter is connected to the circuit. The voltage measured by the voltmeter is a function of a
temperature difference between two junctions. Hence, by measuring the voltage, we can
calculate the temperature of the hot junction.

Photo voltaic cell

A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is
a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to
light. Individual solar cell devices are often the electrical building blocks of photovoltaic
modules, known colloquially as solar panels. The common single junction silicon solar cell
can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 volts to 0.6 volts.

Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source
is sunlight or an artificial light. In addition to producing energy, they can be used as a photo
detector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic
radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity.

The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic attributes:

  The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons.
 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in a photovoltaic
cell when it is exposed to sunlight. These solar cells are composed of two different types
of semiconductors—a p-type and an n-type—that are joined together to create a p-n junction.
By joining these two types of semiconductors, an electric field is formed in the region of the
junction as electrons move to the positive p-side and holes move to the negative n-side. This
field causes negatively charged particles to move in one direction and positively charged
particles in the other direction. Light is composed of photons, which are simply small bundles
of electromagnetic radiation or energy. When light of a suitable wavelength is incident on
these cells, energy from the photon is transferred to an electron of the semiconducting
material, causing it to jump to a higher energy state known as the conduction band. In their
excited state in the conduction band, these electrons are free to move through the material,
and it is this motion of the electron that creates an electric current in the cell.

Photo Conductive cell

The photoconductive cell is a two terminal semiconductor device whose

terminal resistance will vary (linearly) with the intensity of the incident light. For obvious
reasons, it is frequently called a photo resistive device.

The photoconductive materials most frequently used include cadmium sulphide (CdS) and
cadmium selenide (CdSe). Both materials respond rather slowly to changes in light intensity.
The peak spectral response time of CdS units is about 100 ms and 10 ms for CdSe cells.
Another important difference between the two materials is their temperature sensitivity.
There is large change in the resistance of a cadmium selenide cell with changes in ambient
temperature, but the resistance of cadmium sulphide remains relatively stable. The spectral
response of a cadmium sulphide cell closely matches thatof the human eye, and the cell is
therefore often used in applications where human vision is a factor, such as street light
control or automatic iris control for cameras.

The essential elements of a photoconductive cell are the ceramic substrate, a layer of photo-
conductive material, metallic electrodes to connect the device into a circuit and a moisture re -
sistant enclosure.

The circuit symbol and construction of a typical photoconductive cell are shown.

photo-conductive-cell-circuit-symbol

photo-conductive-cell-construction

Light sensitive material is arranged in the form of a long strip, zigzagged across a disc shaped
base with protective sides. For added protection, a glass or plastic cover may be included.
The two ends of the strip are brought out to connecting pins below the base.
Photoconductive cell circuit:

photo-conductive-cell-circuit

Characteristics of a Photoconductive cell:

photo-conductive-cell-characteristics

The illumination characteristics of a typical photoconductive cell are shown from which it is
obvious that when the cell is not illuminated its resistance may be more than 1 00 kilo ohms.
This resistance is called the dark resistance. When the cell is illuminated, the resistance may
fall to a few hundred ohms. Note that the scales on the illumination characteristic are
logarithmic to cover wide ranges of resistance and illumination that are possible. Cell
sensitivity may be expressed in terms of the cell current for a given voltage and given level of
illumination.

The major drawback of the photoconductive cells is that temperature variations cause
substantial variations in resistance for substantial variations in resistance for a particular light
intensity. Therefore such a cell is unsuitable for analog applications.
The photoconductive cell used for relay control is shown as circuit above when the cell is il-
luminated, its resistance is low and the relay current is at its maximum. When the cell is dark,
its high resistance reduces the current down to a level too low to energize the relay.
Resistance R is included to limit the relay current to the desired level when the resistance of
the cell is low. Photoconductive cells are used to switch transistors on and off, as illustrated
in figure. When the cell shown in figure is dark, the transistor base is biased above its emitter
level, and the device is turned on. When the cell is illuminated, the lower resistance of the
cell in series with R biases the transistor base voltage below its emitter level. Thus, the device
is turned off.

Photo Diode

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric

current. Sometimes it is also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor. These
diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse bias conditions, it means that the P-side of
the photodiode is associated with the negative terminal of the battery, and the n-side is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery. This diode is very sensitive to light so when
light falls on the diode it easily changes light into an electric current. The solar cell is also
branded as a large-area photodiode because it converts solar energy into electric energy.
Though, solar cell works only in bright light.

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or voltage
based on the mode of operation of the device. It comprises optical filters, built-in lenses, and
also surface areas. These diodes have a slow response time when the surface area of the
photodiode increases. Photodiodes are alike to regular semiconductor diodes, but that they
may be either visible to let light reach the delicate part of the device. Several diodes intended
for use exactly as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction somewhat than the usual PN
junction.

Some photodiodes will look like a light-emitting diode. They have two terminals coming
from the end. The smaller end of the diode is the cathode terminal, while the longer end of
the diode is the anode terminal. See the following schematic diagram for the anode and
cathode sides. Under the forward bias condition, the conventional current will flow from the
anode to the cathode, following the arrow in the diode symbol. Photocurrent flows in the
reverse direction.

Types of Photodiode

Although there are numerous types of photodiode available in the market and they all work
on the same basic principles, though some are improved by other effects. The working of
different types of photodiodes works in a slightly different way, but the basic operation of
these diodes remains the same. The types of photodiodes can be classified based on their
construction and functions as follows.

 PN Photodiode

 Schottky Photo Diode

 PIN Photodiode

 Avalanche Photodiode

Digital Multi Meter

A digital multimeter or DMM is one of the most widely used pieces of test equipment today -
they are almost invaluable in any electronics laboratory, for the home, hobbyist and
professional electronics engineer.

The cost of digital multimeters varies considerably. Some of these test instruments can be
bought very cheaply and provide very good service and they are surprisingly accurate - far
more accurate than is needed for most measurements, but top range multimeters are also
available with very high specifications for use in the most demanding applications.

Originally analogue multimeters were used, but these are only rarely used these days as
digital technology has made digital multimeters cheaper, far more accurate and capable of
providing many more capabilities beyond just measuring current, voltage and resistance.

Digital multimeters or DMMs can measure a variety of different parameters within an

electrical circuit. The basic DMMs can measure amps, volts and ohms, as the older analogue
meters did, but with the ease of incorporating further functionality into an integrated circuit,
many digital multimeters are able to make a number of other measurements as well.
Many of them include functions enabling measurement of capacitance, frequency, continuity
(with a buzzer to facilitate easy measurements when looking at the circuit board),
temperature, transistor functionality, and often a number of other measurements as well.

The measurements of voltage and resistance are most simple and can be done with certain
precaution if required. But in the case of current measurement firm precaution is obligatory.
Reading current is quite tricky because current should be measured in series. To do so, the
flow of current is interrupted and keeps the digital multimeter in-line so that current passes
through DMM. The rest of the connection is same as done in the case of voltage
measurement and resistance.
Digital multimeter has two ports; A and µA mA for measurement of current. The reason
behind the two ports is to avoid overloading. In digital multimeter current has to pass through
a fuse and if large current passes through the fuse it will blow out. A port is designated for
large current and µA mA for small current. For measuring large current, plug one of the cords
in A port and other in COM port. For measuring small current in a circuit, plug one cord in
µA mA and the other in COM. While doing the connection, one more thing keeps in
consideration and that is the direction of the current. A multimeter is connected in such a
way that current enters from A port and leaves the DMM from the COM port, as shown in a
figure. Most of the multimeter uses direct current. But if the circuit is drawing alternate
current then you should use non-contact tester rather than the multimeter.

True RMS Voltmeter:

True RMS Voltmeter – Complex waveform are most accurately measured with an rms
voltmeter. This instrument produces a meter indication by sensing waveform heating power,
which is proportional to the square of the rms value of the voltage. This heating power can be
measured by amplifying and feeding it to a thermocouple, whose output voltages is then
proportional to the Erms.
However, thermocouples are non-linear devices. This difficulty can be overcome in some
instruments by placing two thermocouples in the same thermal environment.

The effect of non-linear behaviour of the thermocouple in the input circuit (measuring
thermocouple) is cancelled by similar non-linear effects of the thermocouple in the feedback
circuit (balancing thermocouple). The two couples form part of a bridge in the input circuit of
a dc amplifier.

The unknown ac voltage is amplified and applied to the heating element of the measuring
thermocouple. The application of heat produces an output voltage that upsets the balance of
the bridge.

The dc amplifier amplifies the unbalanced voltage; this voltage is fed back to the heating
element of the balancing thermocouple, which heats the thermocouple, so that the bridge is
balanced again, i.e. the outputs of both the thermocouples are the same. At this instant, the ac
current in the input thermocouple is equal to the dc current in the heating element of the
feedback thermocouple. This dc current is therefore directly proportional to the effective or
rms value of the input voltage, and is indicated by the meter in the output circuit of the dc
amplifier. If the peak amplitude of the ac signal does not exceed the dynamic range of the ac
amplifier, the true rms value of the ac signal can be measured independently.

The effect of non-linear behaviour of the thermocouple in the input circuit (measuring
thermocouple) is cancelled by similar non-linear effects of the thermocouple in the feedback
circuit (balancing thermocouple). The two couples form part of a bridge in the input circuit of
a dc amplifier.
The unknown ac voltage is amplified and applied to the heating element of the measuring
thermocouple. The application of heat produces an output voltage that upsets the balance of
the bridge.

The dc amplifier amplifies the unbalanced voltage; this voltage is fed back to the heating
element of the balancing thermocouple, which heats the thermocouple, so that the bridge is
balanced again, i.e. the outputs of both the thermocouples are the same. At this instant, the ac
current in the input thermocouple is equal to the dc current in the heating element of the
feedback thermocouple. This dc current is therefore directly proportional to the effective or
rms value of the input voltage, and is indicated by the meter in the output circuit of the dc
amplifier. If the peak amplitude of the ac signal does not exceed the dynamic range of the ac
amplifier, the true rms value of the ac signal can be measured independently.

Clamp Meter

The clamp meter has various parts, and most of these are found on any modern generation
clamp meter:

1. Transformer Clamps (Jaws) – Jaws detect the magnetic field produced due to
current flow.
2. Clamp Opening Trigger – As the name indicates, the trigger is used to open and
close transformer jaws.
3. Power Switch – You can use the power switch button for turning the clamp meter on
or off.
4. Back Light Button – When you press the backlight button, the LCD is illuminated so
that the displayed value may be easily read in dark places or at night.
5. Hold Button – The value displayed on display can be held by pressing this button.
6. Negative/ Ground Input Terminal – The meter cable's negative/grounding jack is
joined to this cover (on combo clamp/multimeters)
7. Positive Input Terminal – The meter cable's positive jack is joined to this cover.
8. LCD Display – There is a display panel at the clamp meter to check the measured
values.
9. Functional Rotary Switch – This enables the user to choose between different
currents for measurement. Modern clamp meters can measure voltages, continuity,
 and resistance. So, this rotatory switch allows you to switch between different
measurement modes.

Types of Clamp Meter

The two significant types of clamp meters are:

1. Current Transformer Clamp Meter- AC measuring device

2. Hall Effect Clamp Meter – AC and DC measuring device

Current Transformer Clamp Meter:

Two clamps made from Ferrites Iron are used in current transformer metering. Copper coils
separately cover these clamps. Combined, they form a magnetic core on the surface of which
the measurements are taken.

According to the Electromagnetic principle, a current in a conducting material causes

magnetic flux to form. The magnetic field can be measured by magnetic flux, a unit of
charge. Greek letter Phi () is used to represent it.

Hall Effect Clamp Meter

Both AC and DC signals can be measured by Hall effect clamp meters. A Hall Effect clamp
meter contains a concentrating magnetic field when the clamps are closed around the
conductor, induced by current flowing through the conductor.
With the Hall Effect Clamp meter, you can measure DC too since it can concentrate DC
magnetic fields. These clamp meters must be zeroed when measuring the current. It is
necessary to avoid errors arising from the Earth's magnetic field or any other magnetic field
sources in the vicinity.

Major Applications of Clamp Meter

The clamp meter is of much significance in both industrial and commercial aspects. Some of
the standard applications of the clamp meter are as follow:

1. These digital meters are used primarily to measure very high currents. Current above
10A cannot be measured by these meters for more than 30 seconds without damaging
them.
2. Commercial, industrial, residential electrical systems & HVAC use these meters the
most.
3. Accessible systems are repaired using these as per the requirement.
4. Technicians and engineers use clamp meters for troubleshooting electrical instrument
fixing problems, executing last circuit tests etc.
5. It is also used for supervising a beginner electrician while fitting electrical
instruments.
6. The clamp meters are used for both scheduled and emergency maintenance as well as
troubleshooting.
 Digital Storage Oscilloscope
A digital oscilloscope is an instrument which stores a digital copy of the waveform in the
digital memory which it analyses further using digital signal processing techniques rather
than using analogue techniques. It captures the non-repetitive signals and displays it
consciously until the device gets reset. In digital storage oscilloscope, signals are received,
stored and then displayed. The maximum frequency measured by digital oscilloscope
depends upon two things: one is sampling rate of the scope, and the other is the nature of the
converter. Converter is either analogue or digital. The traces in digital oscilloscope are bright,
highly defined, and displayed within seconds as they are non-stored traces. The main
advantage of the digital oscilloscope is that it can display visual as well as numerical values
by analysing the stored traces.
The displayed trace on the flat panel could be magnified and also we can change the
brightness of the traces, and minute detailing can be done as per requirement after an
acquisition.
There is a small screen, which shows input voltage on a particular axis for the period of time.
Even it could display three-dimensional figure or multiple wave forms for comparison
purpose by doing some changes. It has an advantage that it can capture and store electronic
events for the future purpose. The digital oscilloscopes are widely used today because of its
advanced features of storage, display, fast traces rate and remarkable bandwidth. Although,
the digital scope is costlier than the analogue oscilloscope, still it is popular in the market.
Sometimes, people get confuse between digital voltmeter and digital storage oscilloscope.
They thought that both dealt with voltage. But there is a huge difference between the two.
Digital oscilloscope shows the graphical representation of the signals for visual diagnosis and
it helps to find out the unexpected voltage’s source. It also represents timing, affected circuit,
and shape of the pulse so that technicians could easily find out malfunctioning part. It locates
an even minor problem in the operations and send an alert for replacement or tuning. On the
other side, digital voltmeter only records voltage fluctuation which requires further
diagnostics.

Digital Oscilloscope Technology

First the waveforms are conditioned by some analogue circuits then enter in the second stage
which involves receiving the digital signals. To do so, samples have to pass through analogue
to digital converter and output signals get recorded in digital memory at different interval of
time. These recorded points together make a waveform. The set of points in a waveform
show its length. The rate of samples defines the design of the oscilloscope. The recorded
traces are then processed by the processing circuit and obtained traces are ready to display for
visual assessment.
Uses of Digital Storage Oscilloscope

 Used for testing signal voltage in circuit debugging.

 Testing in manufacturing.
 Designing.
 Testing of signals voltage in radio broadcasting equipment.
 In the field of research.
 Audio and video recording equipment.