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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography

Lecture - 62
Karst Topography
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Karst Topography
Karst Topography
 Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and
gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves.
 Karst is most strongly developed in dense carbonate rock, such as limestone, that is thinly bedded and
highly fractured.
 The distribution of karst topography is not limited to a specific region or continent.
 Some notable examples of karst landscapes around the world include:
 Causses of France: The Causses are limestone plateaus in southern France with distinctive karst
features.
 Kwangsi area of China: Karst topography is found in various regions of China, including Kwangsi,
where limestone formations contribute to the creation of sinkholes and caves.
 Yucatán Peninsula: The Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico is known for its extensive karst landscape,
characterized by sinkholes called cenotes.
 United States: Karst features are present in various parts of the United States, with notable examples in
the Middle West, Kentucky, and Florida.
 India: Karst topography is found in different regions of India, including the Vindhya region, the
Himalayas, Pachmarhi in Madhya Pradesh, Gupt Godavari Cave in Chitrakoot (U.P.), the coast near
Visakhapatnam (Borra Caves), and Bastar in Chhattisgarh.

Characteristics of Karst Landforms:

 Bleak Landscape with Precipitous Slopes: Karst regions often exhibit a rugged and barren landscape
characterized by rocky outcrops and steep slopes. The dissolution of soluble rocks, such as limestone, can
result in the formation of sharp ridges and cliffs, contributing to the bleak appearance.
 General Absence of Surface Drainage: One distinctive feature of karst topography is the limited presence
of surface water drainage. Most of the surface water in karst regions tends to percolate through the soluble
rock, creating underground pathways. This absence of surface water flow can lead to dry surface valleys and
contributes to the formation of unique landforms.
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 Streams Cutting along Joints and Fissures: In karst landscapes, streams, and rivers often follow the natural
joints and fissures in the rock. As water infiltrates the soluble rock, it exploits existing fractures and creates
underground channels. Over time, these channels may enlarge, forming extensive cave systems. The visible
streams in karst areas may be intermittent or completely disappear underground at certain points.
 Underground Channels: The dissolution of soluble rocks creates a network of underground channels that
can range from small conduits to large cave systems. These underground pathways allow water to flow
through the karst landscape, contributing to the formation of sinkholes and caves. The interconnected nature
of these channels can result in complex and extensive subterranean environments.
Erosional Landforms of Karst Topography:
 Blind Valley:
 A steephead valley, steephead, or blind valley is a deep,
narrow, flat-bottomed valley with an abrupt ending.
 Karst valley abruptly terminated by the passage
underground of the watercourse which has hitherto
resisted the karst processes and remained at the surface.
 Swallow Hole/Sinkholes/Doline:
 A sinkhole, also known as a cenote, sink, sink-hole,
swallet, swallow hole, or doline (the different terms for
sinkholes are often used interchangeably), is a depression or
hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the
surface layer.
 Most are caused by karst processes-for example, the
chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks or suffosion
processes. The surface streams that sink disappear
underground through swallow holes.
 Polje:
 A polje, also karst polje or karst field, is a large flat plain found in karstic
geological regions of the world, with areas usually 5 to 400 km². They are
large depressions that can be as vast as 100 square miles.
 While dolines and uvalas may form due to dissolution and collapse, poljes
in Yugoslavia are mentioned to be influenced partly by faulting. Faulting
can play a role in the creation and shaping of these large depressions.
 Uvalas:
 Karst depressions that are much larger than sinkholes and that display
gentler slope and more complex three-dimensional shapes are known
as uvalas.
 Uvalas is collection of multiple smaller individual sinkholes that coalesce
into a compound sinkhole.
 A single uvala typically contains numerous sinkholes within it.
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 Caves/Cavern:
 This is an underground cave formed by water action by various methods
in a limestone or chalk area.
 Cave formation is prominent in areas where there are alternating beds of
rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites) with limestones or dolomites in
between or in areas where limestones are dense, massive and occurring as
thick beds
 Stalactites:
 The water containing limestone in solution seeps through the roof in
the form of a continuous chain of drops. A portion of the roof hangs
on the roof and evaporation of water, a small deposit of limestone
is left behind contributing to the formation of a stalactite,
growing downwards from the roof.
 Usually, the base is broader than the free end of the hanging
stalactites
 Stalagmites:
 A stalagmite is a type of rock formation that rises from the floor of
a cave due to the accumulation of material deposited on the floor
from the ceiling drippings.
 It is an upward-growing mound of mineral deposits that have precipitated from water dripping onto the
floor of a cave.

Indian Drainage System:

 The Indian drainage system consists of a large number of small and big rivers. It is the outcome of the
evolutionary process of the three major physiographic units and the nature and characteristics of
precipitation.
 The Indian drainage system is characterized by several major rivers and their tributaries, forming an
extensive network that plays a crucial role in the country's geography and agriculture. The Great Indian
Water Divide refers to the division of rivers into two major drainage basins: those flowing into the Bay of
Bengal and those flowing into the Arabian Sea.
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 The distribution of river systems is lopsided, with approximately 77% of the total river discharge in India
flowing into the Bay of Bengal, while the remaining 23% drains into the Arabian Sea. This lopsided
drainage pattern is primarily due to the presence of the Western Ghats along the western coast of India. The
Western Ghats act as a barrier, causing most of the rivers on the western side to be shorter and discharge
directly into the Arabian Sea.
 The major rivers flowing into the Bay of Bengal include the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna,
and others. These rivers traverse through the northern and eastern parts of India. The Ganges, in particular, is
one of the most significant rivers, playing a vital role in the agriculture and cultural life of the region.

Difference between Himalayan Rivers and Peninsular Rivers:

Aspects Himalayan Rivers Peninsular Rivers

Place of origin Himalayan mountains are covered with Peninsular plateau and central highland.
glaciers.

Nature of flow Perennial; receives water from glaciers Seasonal; dependent on monsoon rainfall.
and rainfall.

Type of drainage Antecedent and consequent leading to Superimposed, rejuvenated resulting in trellis,
dendritic pattern in plains. radial and rectangular patterns.

Nature of river Long course, flowing through the rugged Smaller, fixed course with well-adjusted
mountains experiencing headward valleys.
erosion and river capturing; In plains
meandering and shifting of the river
course.

Catchment area Very large basins. Relatively smaller basin.

Age of the river Young and youthful, active and Old rivers with graded profile, and have almost
deepening in the valleys. reached their base levels.
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The Indus River System:

 The Indus River (locally called Sindhū) is one of the longest rivers in Asia.
 It originates in the Tibetan Plateau in the vicinity of Lake Manasarovar.
 India got her name from Indus. “The Indus Valley Civilization‟ was born around this river.
 Its length is about 2,900 km.
 Its total drainage area is about 1,165,000 square km [more than half of it lies in the semi-arid plains of
Pakistan].
 It is joined by the Dhar River.
 The average elevation at which the Indus flows through is about 4000 meters above sea level.
 It rises near lake ManSarovar in Tibet from the glaciers (Bokhar chu glacier)of Kailas ranges. It enters
India and continues to flow in the North West direction between Ladakh
and Zanskar ranges.
 It enters Ladakh region in India from a place called Demchok after
which the river flows between Karakoram and Ladakh ranges.
 At Dungti, the river takes a sharp southwest turn and cuts through the
Ladakh range and then takes a northwestern course and continues to
flow towards the Leh region of Ladakh between the Ladakh Range
and Zaskar Range.
 It encircles the town of Leh touching Batalik in Kargil and is joined by
the Zanskar river and later by Shyok and Suru Rivers.
 The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, and Hunza are the other
Himalayan tributaries.
 Upon reaching Gilgit, the river takes a south bend and then turns west, and then fully enters the northwest
frontier province of Pakistan which is called Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
 Shyok river originates at the Rimo Glacier, one of the tongues of the Siachen glacier.
 Suru originates from the Deosai mountains. Burzil la pass, and Kargil are located on it. The Chutak dam is
built on the Suru river.
 Gilgit is the last tributary of the Indus.
 Kabul River empties into the Indus River near Attock, Pakistan.
 Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad) the accumulated waters of the five eastern
tributaries and form its Delta.

 Jhelum River:
 It rises in South East Kashmir valley (Verinag) and flows through the Pir Panjal ranges.
 It is joined by the Kishanganga river near Muzaffarabad.
 It passes through Wular lake.
 It joins Chenab, near Jhang Maghiana in Pakistan at Trimmu.
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 Chenab River:
 It originates (Bara Shigri Glacier) from near BaraLacha La near Lahaul Spiti of Zanskar range.
 Two small headstreams, i.e, Chandra (Baralachala) and Bhaga (Surya Taal) and join at Thandi,
Himachal Pradesh to form the Chandrabhaga which flows through Pir Panjal and enters Jammu and
Kashmir as the Chenab.
 It joins Sutlej (at Mithankot) after receiving water from Jhelum and Ravi.
 Salal, Dulhasti, Baglihar and Rattle Dams are built on this river.
 Its Length is 960 kms.
 The Altitude is 4900 meters.
 Chandrabhaga flows in the north-west direction through the Pangi valley, parallel to the Pir Panjal
range.
 Near Kishtwar, it cuts a deep gorge.
 It enters the plain area near Akhnoor in Jammu and Kashmir.
 From here, it is through the plains of Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad where it joins the Satluj after
receiving the waters of the Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
 The waters of the Chenab are allocated to Pakistan under the terms of the Indus Waters Treaty.

Dams on Chenab:
 Salal Dam - Near Reasi.
 Dul Hasti Hydroelectric Plant - in Kishtwar District.
 Ratle Hydroelectric Plant - in Kishtwar District.
 Marala Headworks - located near Sialkot.
 Khanki Headworks - located in Gujranwala District.
 TrimmBaglihar Dam u Barrage - located in Jhang District.
 - in Doda district

 Beas River:
 It originates near the South of Rohtang pass near Pir
Panjarange close to the source of Ravi.
 It crosses DhaulaDhar Range and meets the Shivalik hills
and into the plains.
 It lies entirely within India.
 Parbati is its tributary.
 Pong Reservoir is built on it.
 Manali and Kullu are situated on the right banks of the River
Beas.
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 It flows through Kangra Valley. Then it meets Sutlej at Harike in Punjab.

 The river rises in the Himalayas in central Himachal Pradesh, India, and flows for some 470 kilometers
(290 meters) to the Sutlej River in the Indian state of Punjab.
 Its total length is 470 kilometers (290 meters) and its drainage basin is 20,303 square kilometers (7,839
sq meters) large
 Sutlej River:
 It rises from Mansarovar (Rakas lake) near Damra pass in Kailash Mountain in Western Tibet
(Langchen Khambab) at a height of 4,570 m within 80 km of the source of the Indus.
 It enters India through Shipki La pass after which it cuts Zanskar ranges and flows in the South-
westerly direction through Kinnaur, Shimla, Kullu, Solan, Mandi, and Bilaspur.
 It cuts a gorge near Naina Devi, where the Bhakra Dam has been constructed, and then enters the
plains of Punjab.
 Bhakra Nangal dam has been constructed on this river.
 It is joined by Beas at Harike.
 During its journey, it receives the collective waters of Ravi, Chenab, and Jhelum. It finally joins
Indus in Pakistan.
 Out of its total length of 1,450 km, it flows for 1,050 km in Indian territory forming the border between
India & Pakistan for 120 kms from Ferozpur to Fazilka.
 The waters of the Sutlej are allocated to India under the Indus Waters Treaty between India and
Pakistan and are mostly diverted to irrigation canals in India.
 There are several Major Hydroelectric Projects on the Sutlej, including a) Bhakra Dam, b) Karcham
Wangtoo Hydroelectric Plant, and c) Nathpa Jhakri Dam.

Major Hydroelectric Projects on the Sutlej:

 Nathpa Jhakri Hydroelectric Power Station(1,530 MW): Located in Himachal Pradesh, it is one of the
largest hydroelectric power stations in India. The Nathpa Jhakri Dam is a concrete gravity dam on the Sutlej
River, and the power station utilizes the water released from the dam to generate electricity.
 Karcham Wangtoo Hydroelectric Plant (1,000 MW): Located in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh,
India.,Karcham Wangtoo is a run-of-the-river hydroelectric project that diverts water from the Sutlej River
through a tunnel to generate electricity.
 Bhakra Dam Hydroelectric Plant: It is located in Himachal Pradesh and Punjab.
Bhakra Dam is a multipurpose dam on the Sutlej River, and the associated hydroelectric plant, part of the Bhakra
Nangal Power Complex, contributes to power generation in the region.

 Ravi River:
 Its origin is in Kullu Hills in Dhauladhar range, North of Rohtang pass.
 It flows between the Dhaula-Dhar and Pir Panjal ranges.
 It joins Chenab (Sarai Sidhu) in Pakistani Punjab.
 Chamba Valley on it.
 It enters Pakistan near Amritsar.
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 It is a transboundary river crossing northwestern

India and eastern Pakistan.
 Its length is 720 km
 Its right bank tributaries:
 Budhil,
 Tindahan Beljedi,
 Saho and
 Siul
 Its left bank tributary is Chirchind Nala.
 Multipurpose projects on the river: Ujh Project, Shahpurkandi Dam Project

Ganga River System:

 It originates as Bhagirathi (rises at the foot of Gangotri
Glacier, at Gaumukh,) from Gangotri in the Uttarkashi
district of Uttarakhand.
 Alaknanda (feet of the Satopanth and Bhagirath glaciers)
joins it at Devprayag and from here on it flows by the name
of Ganga.
 After Haridwar, Ganga flows into the plains. It is joined by
Yamuna at Allahabad.
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 At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West

Bengal and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh (it ceases to
be known as the Ganga after Farraka).
 The total length of the river is 2525 kms.
 It forms a large delta called the Sundarbans before
emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
 It is the 3rd largest river in the world by discharge.
 It is joined by a large number of tributaries from left as well
as right.
 Yamuna is the largest and most important tributary and
originates from Yamunotri near Bandar punch in the Garhwal district. After cutting across Nag Tibba,
Mussoorie and Shiwalik ranges; it enters the plains.
 In the upper reaches, it is joined by Tons and near Ghaziabad by Hindon.

Left Bank Tributaries: Right Bank Tributaries:

 Ramganga  Yamuna
 Gomti  Tamsa
 Sharda (Kali)  Son
 Saryu  Punpun
 Gandak
 Burhi Gandak
 Ghaghra
 Kosi
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Panch Prayag:
 Devaprayag: Place of confluence of Bhagirathi river
and Alaknanda river.
 Rudraprayag: Place of confluence of Mandakini river
(Chorabari Glacier) and Alaknanda river.
 Nandaprayag: Place of confluence of Nandakini river
(Trishul Glacier) and Alaknanda river.
 Karnaprayag: Place of confluence of Pindar river
(Pindari Glacier) and Alaknanda river.
 Vishnuprayag: Place of confluence of Dhauliganga
river (Mana Glacier) and Alaknanda river.

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