UNIT II

[PHYSICAL LAYER]

ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Analog data, such as
the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values. When someone speaks, an
analog wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a microphone and converted to
an analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital signal. Digital data takes on
discrete values. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of 0s and
1s

ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

An electrical or electromagnetic quantity (current, voltage, radio wave, microwave, etc.)
that carries data or information from one system (or network) to another is called a
signal.
Analog Signal
A signal which is a continuous function of time and used to carry the information is
known as an analog signal.
Digital Signal
A signal that is a discrete function of time, i.e. which is not a continuous signal, is
known as a digital signal. The digital signals are represented in the binary form and
consist of different values of voltage at discrete instants of time.
 Parameter Analog Signal Digital Signal

A signal for conveying A signal which is a discrete

information which is a function of time, i.e.
Definition
continuous function of time is non-continuous signal, is known
known as analog signal. as digital signal.

An analog signal is typically The typical representation of a

represented by a sine wave signal is given by a square wave
Typical
function. There are many more function.
representation
representations for the analog
signals also.

Analog signals use a continuous Digital signals use discrete values

range of values to represent the (or discontinuous values), i.e.
Signal values
data and information. discrete 0 and 1, to represent the
data and information.

Signal bandwidth Low. High.

Effect of electronic Analog signals get affected by The digital signals are more stable
noise the electronic noise easily. and less susceptible to noise.

Accuracy Less. High accuracy

Use more power for data Use less power than analog signals
Power consumption
transmission.

Analog signals are processed by Digital circuits are required for

analog circuits whose major processing of digital signals whose
Circuit components
components are resistors, main circuit components are
capacitors, inductors, etc. transistors, logic gates, ICs, etc.

The analog signals give The digital signals do not give

Observational errors
observational errors. observational errors.

temperature, current, voltage, data stored in a computer memory.

Examples
voice, pressure, speed, etc.

The analog signals are used in The digital signals are used in
landline phones, thermometer, computers, keyboards, digital
Applications
electric fan, volume knob of a watches, smartphones, etc.
radio, etc.
DIGITAL SIGNALS

A 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can
have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

No. Bits per level = log2n

Bit Rate
Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate
characteristics. Another term-bit rate is used to describe digital signals. The bit rate is the
number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps). The above Figure shows the
bit rate for two signals

Bit Length
We discussed the concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the distance one cycle
occupies on the transmission medium. We can define something similar for a digital
signal: the bit length. The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission
medium.
Bit length =propagation speed * bit duration
 TRANSMISSION OF DIGITAL SIGNALS

1. Baseband transmission
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing
the digital signal to an analog signal.

2. Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)

Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an analog
signal for transmission.

Basis of Comparison Baseband Transmission Broadband Transmission

In baseband transmission, the type In broadband transmission, the type
Type of Signal of signaling used is digital. of signaling used is analog.

Baseband Transmission is Broadband Transmission is

Direction Type bidirectional in nature. unidirectional in nature.
The Signal can be sent in both Sending of Signal in one direction
Signal Transmission directions. only.
Distance covered by the Signals can only travel over short Signals can be traveled over long
signal distances. distances without being attenuated.

Device used to increase Repeaters are used to enhance Amplifiers are used to enhance signal
signal strength signal strength. strength.

It utilizes Time Division It utilizes Frequency Division

Type of Multiplexing used Multiplexing. Multiplexing.
It can only transfer one data It can send multiple signal waves at
Data Streams stream at a time in bi-directional once but in one direction only.
mode.
Installation and Easy to install and maintain. Difficult to install and maintain.
Maintenance
Cost cheaper expensive

Typically seen in Ethernet LAN Typically found in cable and

Application networks. telephone networks.
Suitable for Wired networks. Non-wired networks.

Structure Simple structure Complex structure

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

● Signals are transmitted using imperfect transmission media. Signal impairment is

brought on by the infection.
● This indicates that the signal at the start of the medium and the signal at the end of
the medium are different.
● What is sent and received are not the same thing. Attenuation, distortion, and noise
are three factors that affect sound quality.

Attenuation
● An energy loss is known as attenuation. Simple or composite signals lose some of
their energy when they navigate the medium's resistance during transmission.
● Because of this, a wire carrying electric impulses eventually becomes heated, if
not scorching.
● The signal's electrical energy undergoes some heat conversion.
● Amplifiers are used to magnify the signal in order to make up for this loss.

Distortion
● When a signal is distorted, its appearance or structure are altered. A composite
signal composed of several different frequencies is susceptible to distortion.
● Each signal component travels through a medium at a different pace, which causes
a delay in reaching the intended location (see the following
● section).
● If the delay is not exactly equal to the period duration, there may be a variation in
phase.
● In other words, the phases of the signal components at the receiver are different
from those at the sender. As a result, the composite signal's form is different.

Noise
● The signal may be distorted by a variety of noise forms, including thermal noise,
generated noise, crosstalk, and impulsive noise.
● Thermal noise is an additional signal not initially provided by the transmitter and
is caused by the random movement of electrons in a wire.
● Sources of induced noise include motors and appliances.
● The transmission medium serves as the receiving antenna, and these devices serve
as the transmitting antenna.
● The impact of one wire on another is known as crosstalk. The transmission
antenna is one wire, while the receiving antenna is the other.
● Impulse noise, often known as spike noise, is a signal that has a high energy and
decays quickly.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
● The ratio of signal power to noise power in order to determine the theoretical bit
rate limit. As defined by, the signal-to-noise ratio is
● SNR = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟/𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
● The average signal power and average noise power must be taken into account
because they could alter over time.
● SNR is actually a measure of the ratio of desired signal to undesirable signal
(noise).
● A higher SNR indicates less noise-induced signal degradation, while a lower SNR
indicates more noise-induced signal degradation.
● SNR is frequently described in decibel units, SNRdB, because it represents the
ratio of two powers.
● SNRdB is defined as
SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR

DATA RATE LIMITS

● Data rate is how fast we can send data, in bits per second over a channel.
● Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
● Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data rate: one by Nyquist
for a noiseless channel, another by Shannon for a noisy channel.

Noiseless Channel : Nyquist Bit Rate

● For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical
maximum bit rate
Bit rate= 2Blog2L

● In this formula, B is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal levels
used to represent data, and Bit Rate is the bit rate in bits per second.

Noisy Channel : Shannon Capacity

● In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is always noisy.
● In 1944, Claude Shannon introduced a formula, called the Shannon capacity, to
determine the theoretical highest data rate for a noisy channel:

Capacity = Bandwidth*log2(1+SNR)
 ● In this formula, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, SNR is the
signal-to-noise ratio, and capacity is the capacity of the channel in bits per second.
● In the Shannon formula there is no indication of the signal level, which means that
no matter how many levels we have, we cannot achieve a data rate higher than the
capacity of the channel.

Numericals:

1. Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with

two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

2. Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal levels
(for each level, we send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as:

3. We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How
many signal levels do we need?

Solution:
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the number of levels or
reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels, the
bit rate is 240 kbps.

4.Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is
almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint.
For this channel the capacity C is calculated as:
5. The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the
channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated as

PERFORMANCE OF THE NETWORK

Bandwidth
● The amount of data or information that can be transmitted in a given amount of
time is referred to as bandwidth.
● The phrase can be applied in two ways, each having its own set of estimating
values. The bandwidth of digital devices is measured in bits per second (bps) or
bytes per second (bps).
● The bandwidth of analog devices is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).

Throughput
● The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network. Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per second and throughput
seem the same, they are different.
● A link may have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this
link with T always less than B.
● In other words, the bandwidth is a potential measurement of a link; the throughput
is an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.
● For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but the devices
connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps. This means that we
cannot send more than 200 kbps through this link.

Latency (Delay)
● The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to completely
arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent out from the source.
● We can say that latency is made of four components: propagation time,
transmission time, queuing time and processing delay.

Latency = propagation time + transmission time +

queuing time + processing delay
 Jitter
● We can roughly say that jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter
different delays and the application using the data at the receiver site is
time-sensitive (audio and video data, for example).
● If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the second is 45 ms, and for the third
is 40 ms, then the real-time application that uses the packets endures jitter.

TRANSMISSION

There are two methods used for transferring data between computers which are given
below: Serial Transmission and Parallel Transmission.

1. Serial Transmission:
In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another computer in
bi-direction. In this transmission, one bit flows at one clock pulse. In Serial Transmission,
8 bits are transferred at a time having a start and stop bit.
1. Synchronous Transmission
Synchronous data transmission is a type of data transfer that carries a
frequent stream of data in the form of signals along with timing signals
generated by an electric clock that ensures the synchronization of the sender
and receiver. Synchronous transmission allows data to be transmitted in
fixed intervals in the form of frames or blocks.

2. Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission is a type of data transmission which works on
start and stop bits. In Asynchronous transmission, each character contains
its start and stop bit and irregular interval of time between them.
 Serial Transmission

2. Parallel Transmission:
In Parallel Transmission, many bits flow together simultaneously from one computer to
another computer. Parallel Transmission is faster than serial transmission to transmit the
bits. Parallel transmission is used for short distances.

Parallel Transmission
 Difference between Serial and Parallel Transmission

Sr.No. Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

1. In this type, a single communication link is used to In this type, multiple parallels links used
transfer data from one end to another to transmit the data

2. In serial transmission, data(bit) flows in In Parallel Transmission, data flows in

bi-direction. multiple lines.
3. Serial Transmission is cost-efficient. Parallel Transmission is not
cost-efficient.
4. In serial transmission, one bit is transferred at one In Parallel Transmission, eight bits are
clock pulse. transferred at one clock pulse.
5. Serial Transmission is slow in comparison to Parallel Transmission is fast in
Parallel Transmission. comparison to Serial Transmission.

6. Generally, Serial Transmission is used for Generally, Parallel Transmission is used

long-distance. for short distances.
7. The circuit used in Serial Transmission is simple. The circuit used in Parallel Transmission
is relatively complex.
8. Serial Transmission is full duplex as sender can Parallel Transmission is half-duplex
send as well as receive the data since the data is either send or receive
9. Converters are required in a serial transmission to No converters are required in Parallel
convert the data between internal and parallel form Transmission
10. Serial transmission is reliable and straightforward. Parallel transmission is unreliable and
complicated.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
● In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
● Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one
communication.

1. Circuit Switching
● Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
● In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
 ● Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
● A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
● In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgement to ensure the availability of the dedicated path.
● After receiving the acknowledgment, a dedicated path transfers the data.
● Circuit switching is used in public telephone networks. It is used for voice
transmission.
● Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

➔ Circuit establishment
➔ Data transfer
➔ Circuit Disconnect
➔

Advantages of Circuit Switching:

● In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is
dedicated.
● It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:
● Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
● It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no
data can be transmitted.
● It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is
required for each connection.
 ● It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
● In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred
even if the channel is free

2. Message Switching
● Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
● In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.
● The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on
the information available in the message.
● Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
● Each and every node stores the entire message and then forwards it to the next
node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.
● Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages of Message Switching:

● Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve
the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
● Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily
stored in the nodes.
● Message priority can be used to manage the network.
 ● The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages of Message Switching:
● The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable
them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
● The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.

3. Packet Switching
● The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one
go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
● The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
● Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
● Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path possible.
● All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
● If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
● If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message
will be sent.

Advantages of Packet Switching:

● Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not require
massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is minimized to some
extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching technique is a
cost-effective technique.
● Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This ensures that
the Packet Switching technique provides reliable communication.
 ● Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require any
established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the same
communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of available bandwidth
very efficiently.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:
● Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that
require low delay and high-quality services.
● The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and require
high implementation cost.
● If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor
recovered.
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

Line Coding Techniques

Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. By this technique we
converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender side digital data are encoded
into a digital signal and at the receiver side the digital data are recreated by decoding
the digital signal.

Properties of Line Coding

• As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the bandwidth
used is much reduced.
• For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
• The probability of error is much reduced.
• Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
• Power density is much favorable.
• The timing content is adequate.
• Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.
Types of Line Coding
There are 3 types of Line Coding

• Unipolar
• Polar
• Bi-polar

1. Unipolar Signaling
Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off Keying or simply OOK. The presence of pulse
represents a 1 and the absence of pulse represents a 0. There are two variations in Unipolar
signaling −

• Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

• Return to Zero (RZ)

1. (a) Unipolar Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse called
as Mark, which has a duration T0 equal to the symbol bit duration. A Low in data input has
no pulse.The following figure clearly depicts this.
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

Advantages
The advantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

• It is simple.
• A lesser bandwidth is required.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Unipolar NRZ are −
• No error correction done.
• Presence of low frequency components may cause the signal droop.
• No clock is present.
• Loss of synchronization is likely to occur (especially for long strings of 1s and 0s).
1. (b)Unipolar Return to Zero (RZ)
In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its
duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it
immediately returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the
bit duration.
It is clearly understood with the help of the following figure.
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

Advantages
The advantages of Unipolar RZ are −

• It is simple.
• The spectral line present at the symbol rate can be used as a clock.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Unipolar RZ are −

• No error correction.
• Occupies twice the bandwidth as unipolar NRZ.
• The signal droop is caused at the places where signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

2. Polar Signaling
There are two methods of Polar Signaling. They are −

• Polar NRZ
• Polar RZ
2 (a) Polar NRZ
In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse, while a Low
in data is represented by a negative pulse. The following figure depicts this well.
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

Advantages
The advantages of Polar NRZ are −

• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Polar NRZ are −
• No error correction.
• No clock is present.
• The signal droop is caused at the places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.
2 (b)Polar RZ
In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its
duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it
immediately returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the
bit duration.
However, for a Low input, a negative pulse represents the data, and the zero level remains
same for the other half of the bit duration. The following figure depicts this clearly.
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

Advantages
The advantages of Polar RZ are −

• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Polar RZ are −
• No error correction.
• No clock is present.
• Occupies twice the bandwidth of Polar NRZ.
• The signal droop is caused at places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

3. Bipolar Signaling
This is an encoding technique which has three voltage levels namely +, - and 0. Such a signal
is called as duo-binary signal.
An example of this type is Alternate Mark Inversion AMI. For a 1, the voltage level gets a
transition from + to – or from – to +, having alternate 1s to be of equal polarity. A 0 will have
a zero voltage level.
Even in this method, we have two types.

• Bipolar NRZ
• Bipolar RZ
From the models so far discussed, we have learnt the difference between NRZ and RZ. It
just goes in the same way here too. The following figure clearly depicts this.
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

The above figure has both the Bipolar NRZ and RZ waveforms. The pulse duration and
symbol bit duration are equal in NRZ type, while the pulse duration is half of the symbol bit
duration in RZ type.
Advantages
Following are the advantages −
• It is simple.
• No low-frequency components are present.
• Occupies low bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ schemes.
• This technique is suitable for transmission over AC coupled lines, as signal drooping
doesn’t occur here.
• A single error detection capability is present in this.
Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages −

• No clock is present.
• Long strings of data causes loss of synchronization.

Encoding is the process of converting the data or a given sequence of characters,

symbols, alphabets etc., into a specified format, for the secured transmission of
data. Decoding is the reverse process of encoding which is to extract the information
from the converted format.
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

Data Encoding
Encoding is the process of using various patterns of voltage or current levels to
represent 1s and 0s of the digital signals on the transmission link.
The common types of line encoding are Unipolar, Polar, Bipolar, and Manchester.

Encoding Techniques
The data encoding technique is divided into the following types, depending upon the
type of data conversion.
• Analog data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as
Amplitude Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation of
analog signals, fall under this category.
• Analog data to Digital signals − This process can be termed as
digitization, which is done by Pulse Code Modulation PCMPCM. Hence,
it is nothing but digital modulation. As we have already discussed,
sampling and quantization are the important factors in this. Delta
Modulation gives a better output than PCM.
• Digital data to Analog signals − The modulation techniques such as
Amplitude Shift Keying ASKASK, Frequency Shift Keying FSKFSK,
Phase Shift Keying PSKPSK, etc., fall under this category. These will be
discussed in subsequent chapters.
• Digital data to Digital signals − These are in this section. There are
several ways to map digital data to digital signals. Some of them are −

Non Return to Zero NRZNRZ

NRZ Codes has 1 for High voltage level and 0 for Low voltage level. The main
behavior of NRZ codes is that the voltage level remains constant during bit interval.
The end or start of a bit will not be indicated and it will maintain the same voltage
state, if the value of the previous bit and the value of the present bit are same.
The following figure explains the concept of NRZ coding.
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

If the above example is considered, as there is a long sequence of constant voltage

level and the clock synchronization may be lost due to the absence of bit interval, it
becomes difficult for the receiver to differentiate between 0 and 1.
There are two variations in NRZ namely −

NRZ - L NRZ–LEVELNRZ–LEVEL
There is a change in the polarity of the signal, only when the incoming signal changes
from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. It is the same as NRZ, however, the first bit of the input
signal should have a change of polarity.

NRZ - I NRZ–INVERTEDNRZ–INVERTED
If a 1 occurs at the incoming signal, then there occurs a transition at the beginning of
the bit interval. For a 0 at the incoming signal, there is no transition at the beginning
of the bit interval.
NRZ codes has a disadvantage that the synchronization of the transmitter clock with
the receiver clock gets completely disturbed, when there is a string of 1s and 0s.
Hence, a separate clock line needs to be provided.

Bi-phase Encoding
The signal level is checked twice for every bit time, both initially and in the middle.
Hence, the clock rate is double the data transfer rate and thus the modulation rate is
also doubled. The clock is taken from the signal itself. The bandwidth required for this
coding is greater.
There are two types of Bi-phase Encoding.

• Bi-phase Manchester
• Differential Manchester
 lOMoARcPSD|24101960

Bi-phase Manchester
In this type of coding, the transition is done at the middle of the bit-interval. The
transition for the resultant pulse is from High to Low in the middle of the interval, for
the input bit 1. While the transition is from Low to High for the input bit 0.
Differential Manchester
In this type of coding, there always occurs a transition in the middle of the bit interval.
If there occurs a transition at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 0. If
no transition occurs at the beginning of the bit interval, then the input bit is 1.
The following figure illustrates the waveforms of NRZ-L, NRZ-I, Bi-phase Manchester
and Differential Manchester coding for different digital inputs.
l