Intro to Database Systems (15-445/645)

01 Course Intro &

Relational Model
FALL Andy
2022 Pavlo
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TO DAY ’ S AG E N DA

Course Logistics
Relational Model
Relational Algebra

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WA I T L I S T

I do not control the wait list.

I do not take bribes.

Admins will move students moved off the wait list

as new spots become available.
If you are not currently enrolled, the likelihood
that you will get in is unfortunately very low.

15-445/645 will be offered in Spring 2023!

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L E C T U R E RU L E S

Please interrupt me for the following reasons:

→ I am speaking too fast.
→ You don't understand what I am talking about.
→ You have a database-related question.

Do not interrupt me for the following reasons:

→ Whether you can use the bathroom.
→ Questions about blockchains.

I will not answer questions about the lecture

immediately after class.
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C O U R S E OV E R V I E W

This course is about the design/implementation of

database management systems (DBMSs).

This is not a course about how to use a DBMS to

build applications or how to administer a DBMS.
→ See CMU 95-703 (Heinz College)

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P RO J E C T S

All projects will use the CMU DB

Group BusTub academic DBMS.
→ Each project builds on the previous one.
→ We will not teach you how to
write/debug C++17.

Total of four late days the entire

semester for projects only.

You must complete Project #0 before

Sept 11th.
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C O U R S E LO G I S T I C S

Course Policies + Schedule: Course Web Page

Discussion + Announcements: Piazza
Homeworks + Projects: Gradescope
Final Grades: Canvas

Non-CMU students will be able to complete all

assignments using Gradescope (PXWVR5).
→D
→ Somebody needs to finish my Wikipedia article.

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C O U R S E LO G I S T I C S

Course Policies + Schedule: Course Web Page

Discussion + Announcements: Piazza
Homeworks + Projects: Gradescope
Final Grades: Canvas

Non-CMU students will be able to complete all

assignments using Gradescope (PXWVR5).
→D
→ Somebody needs to finish my Wikipedia article.

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P L AG I A R I S M WA R N I N G

The homework and projects must be your own

original work. They are not group assignments.
You may not copy source code from other people
or the web.

Plagiarism is not tolerated. You will get lit up.

→ Please ask me if you are unsure.

See CMU's Policy on Academic Integrity for

additional information.
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 DATA B A S E R E S E A RC H

¡Databases! – A Database Seminar Series

Mondays @ 4:30pm (starting on 9/12)
→ Live on Zoom. Published to Youtube afterwards
→ https://db.cs.cmu.edu/seminar2022

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15-445/645 (Fall 2022)

https://db.cs.cmu.edu/seminar2022
Databases
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DATA B A S E

Organized collection of inter-related data that

models some aspect of the real-world.

Databases are the core component of most

computer applications.

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DATA B A S E E X A M P L E

Create a database that models a digital music store

to keep track of artists and albums.

Things we need for our store:

→ Information about Artists
→ What Albums those Artists released

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F L AT F I L E S T R AW M A N

Store our database as comma-separated value

(CSV) files that we manage ourselves in our
application code.
→ Use a separate file per entity.
→ The application must parse the files each time they want
to read/update records.

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F L AT F I L E S T R AW M A N

Create a database that models a digital music store.

Artist(name, year, country) Album(name, artist, year)
"Wu-Tang Clan",1992,"USA" "Enter the Wu-Tang","Wu-Tang Clan",1993

"Notorious BIG",1992,"USA" "St.Ides Mix Tape","Wu-Tang Clan",1994

"Liquid Swords","GZA",1990
"GZA",1990,"USA"

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F L AT F I L E S T R AW M A N

Example: Get the year that GZA went solo.

Artist(name, year, country)
for line in file.readlines():
"Wu-Tang Clan",1992,"USA" record = parse(line)
"Notorious BIG",1992,"USA" if record[0] == "GZA":
"GZA",1990,"USA" print(int(record[1]))

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F L AT F I L E S : DATA I N T E G R I T Y

How do we ensure that the artist is the same for

each album entry?

What if somebody overwrites the album year with

an invalid string?

What if there are multiple artists on an album?

What happens if we delete an artist that has
albums?
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F L AT F I L E S : I M P L E M E N TAT I O N

How do you find a particular record?

What if we now want to create a new application

that uses the same database?

What if two threads try to write to the same file at

the same time?

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F L AT F I L E S : D U R A B I L I T Y

What if the machine crashes while our program is

updating a record?

What if we want to replicate the database on

multiple machines for high availability?

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DATA B A S E M A N AG E M E N T S Y S T E M

A database management system (DBMS) is

software that allows applications to store and
analyze information in a database.

A general-purpose DBMS supports the definition,

creation, querying, update, and administration of
databases in accordance with some data model.

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DATA M O D E L S

A data model is a collection of concepts for

describing the data in a database.

A schema is a description of a particular collection

of data, using a given data model.

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DATA M O D E L S

Relational ← This Course

Key/Value
Graph
Document / Object
Wide-Column / Column-family
Array / Matrix / Vectors
Hierarchical
Network
Multi-Value
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E A R LY D B M S s

Early database applications were difficult to build

and maintain on available DBMSs in the 1960s.
→ Examples: IDS, IMS, CODASYL
→ Computers were expensive, humans were cheap.

Tight coupling between logical and physical layers.

Programmers had to (roughly) know what queries

the application would execute before they could
deploy the database.

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E A R LY D B M S s

Ted Codd was a mathematician

working at IBM Research in the late
1960s.

He saw IBM's developers spending

their time rewriting database
programs every time the database’s
schema or layout changed.

Devised the relational model in 1969. Edgar F. Codd

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E A R LY D B M S s

Ted Codd was a mathematician

working at IBM Research in the late
1960s.

He saw IBM's developers spending

their time rewriting database
programs every time the database’s
schema or layout changed.

Devised the relational model in 1969. Edgar F. Codd

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R E L AT I O N A L M O D E L

The relational model defines a database abstraction

based on relations to avoid maintenance overhead.

Key tenets:
→ Store database in simple data structures (relations).
→ Physical storage left up to the DBMS implementation.
→ Access data through high-level language, DBMS figures
out best execution strategy.

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R E L AT I O N A L M O D E L

Structure: The definition of the database's

relations and their contents.

Integrity: Ensure the database's contents satisfy

constraints.

Manipulation: Programming interface for

accessing and modifying a database's contents.

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R E L AT I O N A L M O D E L

A relation is an unordered set that Artist(name, year, country)

contain the relationship of attributes name year country

that represent entities. Wu-Tang Clan 1992 USA

Notorious BIG 1992 USA

A tuple is a set of attribute values (also GZA 1990 USA

known as its domain) in the relation.

→ Values are (normally) atomic/scalar. n-ary Relation
→ The special value NULL is a member of =
every domain (if allowed). Table with n columns

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R E L AT I O N A L M O D E L : P R I M A R Y K E Y S

A relation's primary key uniquely Artist(name, year, country)

identifies a single tuple. name year country
Wu-Tang Clan 1992 USA
Some DBMSs automatically create an
Notorious BIG 1992 USA
internal primary key if a table does
GZA 1990 USA
not define one.

Auto-generation of unique integer

primary keys:
→ SEQUENCE (SQL:2003)
→ AUTO_INCREMENT (MySQL)

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R E L AT I O N A L M O D E L : P R I M A R Y K E Y S

A relation's primary key uniquely Artist(id, name, year, country)

identifies a single tuple. id name year country
123 Wu-Tang Clan 1992 USA
Some DBMSs automatically create an
456 Notorious BIG 1992 USA
internal primary key if a table does
789 GZA 1990 USA
not define one.

Auto-generation of unique integer

primary keys:
→ SEQUENCE (SQL:2003)
→ AUTO_INCREMENT (MySQL)

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R E L AT I O N A L M O D E L : F O R E I G N K E Y S

A foreign key specifies that an attribute from one

relation has to map to a tuple in another relation.

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R E L AT I O N A L M O D E L : F O R E I G N K E Y S
Artist(id, name, year, country)
id name year country
123 Wu-Tang Clan 1992 USA
ArtistAlbum(artist_id, album_id) 456 Notorious BIG 1992 USA
artist_id album_id 789 GZA 1990 USA
123 11
123 22 Album(id, name, year)
789 22 id name year
456 22 11 Enter the Wu-Tang 1993
22 St.Ides Mix Tape 1994
33 Liquid Swords 1995

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DATA M A N I P U L AT I O N L A N G UAG E S ( D M L )

Methods to store and retrieve information from a

database.

Procedural: ← Relational
→ The query specifies the (high-level) strategy Algebra
to find the desired result based on sets / bags.

Non-Procedural (Declarative): ← Relational

→ The query specifies only what data is wanted Calculus
and not how to find it.

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A

Fundamental operations to retrieve σ Select

and manipulate tuples in a relation. π Projection
→ Based on set algebra.
∪ Union
Each operator takes one or more ∩ Intersection
relations as its inputs and outputs a – Difference
new relation.
→ We can "chain" operators together to create × Product
more complex operations.
⋈ Join

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A : S E L E C T
R(a_id,b_id)
Choose a subset of the tuples from a a_id b_id

relation that satisfies a selection a1

a2
101
102
predicate. a2 103
→ Predicate acts as a filter to retain only a3 104
tuples that fulfill its qualifying σa_id='a2'(R) σa_id='a2'∧ b_id>102(R)
requirement. a_id b_id a_id b_id
→ Can combine multiple predicates using a2 102 a2 103
conjunctions / disjunctions. a2 103

Syntax: σpredicate(R) SELECT * FROM R

WHERE a_id='a2' AND b_id>102;

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A : P RO J E C T I O N
R(a_id,b_id)
Generate a relation with tuples that a_id
a1
b_id
101
contains only the specified attributes. a2 102
→ Can rearrange attributes’ ordering. a2 103
→ Can manipulate the values. a3 104

Πb_id-100,a_id(σa_id='a2'(R))
Syntax: A1,A2,…,An(R) b_id-100 a_id
2 a2
3 a2

SELECT b_id-100, a_id

FROM R WHERE a_id = 'a2';

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A : U N I O N
R(a_id,b_id) S(a_id,b_id)
Generate a relation that contains all a_id b_id a_id b_id
a1 101 a3 103
tuples that appear in either only one a2 102 a4 104
or both input relations. a3 103 a5 105

(R ∪ S)
Syntax: (R ∪ S) a_id b_id
a1 101
a2 102
(SELECT * FROM R) a3 103
UNION ALL a3 103
(SELECT * FROM S); a4 104
a5 105

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A : I N T E R S E C T I O N
R(a_id,b_id) S(a_id,b_id)
Generate a relation that contains only a_id b_id a_id b_id
a1 101 a3 103
the tuples that appear in both of the a2 102 a4 104
input relations. a3 103 a5 105

Syntax: (R ∩ S) (R ∩ S)
a_id b_id
a3 103

(SELECT * FROM R)
INTERSECT
(SELECT * FROM S);

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A : D I F F E R E N C E
R(a_id,b_id) S(a_id,b_id)
Generate a relation that contains only a_id b_id a_id b_id
a1 101 a3 103
the tuples that appear in the first and a2 102 a4 104
not the second of the input relations. a3 103 a5 105

Syntax: (R – S) (R – S)
a_id b_id
a1 101
a2 102
(SELECT * FROM R)
EXCEPT
(SELECT * FROM S);

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A : P RO D U C T
R(a_id,b_id) S(a_id,b_id)
Generate a relation that contains all a_id b_id a_id b_id
a1 101 a3 103
possible combinations of tuples from a2 102 a4 104
the input relations. a3 103 a5 105
(R × S)
Syntax: (R × S) R.a_id
a1
R.b_id
101
S.a_id
a3
S.b_id
103
a1 101 a4 104
a1 101 a5 105
SELECT * FROM R CROSS JOIN S; a2 102 a3 103
a2 102 a4 104
a2 102 a5 105
SELECT * FROM R, S; a3 103 a3 103
a3 103 a4 104
a3 103 a5 105

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A : J O I N
R(a_id,b_id) S(a_id,b_id)
Generate a relation that contains all a_id b_id a_id b_id
tuples that are a combination of two a1 101 a3 103

tuples (one from each input relation) a2

a3
102
103
a4
a5
104
105
with a common value(s) for one or
more attributes. (R ⋈ S)
a_id b_id
Syntax: (R ⋈ S) a3 103

SELECT * FROM R NATURAL JOIN S;

SELECT * FROM R JOIN S USING (a_id, b_id);

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R E L AT I O N A L A LG E B R A : E X T R A O P E R ATO R S

Rename (ρ)
Assignment (R←S)
Duplicate Elimination (δ)
Aggregation (γ)
Sorting (τ)
Division (R÷S)

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O B S E R VAT I O N

Relational algebra still defines the high-level steps

of how to compute a query.
→ σb_id=102(R⋈S) vs. (R⋈(σb_id=102(S))

A better approach is to state the high-level answer

that you want the DBMS to compute.
→ Retrieve the joined tuples from R and S where b_id
equals 102.

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R E L AT I O N A L M O D E L : Q U E R I E S

The relational model is independent of any query

language implementation.

SQL is the de facto standard (many dialects).

for line in file.readlines():

SELECT year FROM artists
record = parse(line)
WHERE name = 'GZA';
if record[0] == "GZA":
print(int(record[1]))

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DATA M O D E L S

Relational
Key/Value
Graph
Document / Object ← Leading Alternative
Wide-Column / Column-family
Array / Matrix / Vectors
Hierarchical
Network
Multi-Value
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D O C U M E N T DATA M O D E L

Embed data hierarchy into a single object.

Artist R1(id,…)

⨝
ArtistAlbum R2(artist_id,album_id)

⨝
Album R3(id,…)

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D O C U M E N T DATA M O D E L

Embed data hierarchy into a single object.

Artist R1(id,…)

⨝
ArtistAlbum R2(artist_id,album_id)

⨝
Album R3(id,…)

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D O C U M E N T DATA M O D E L

Embed data hierarchy into a single object.

Application Code {
class Artist { "name": "GZA",
Artist int id; "year": 1990,
"albums": [
String name;
{
int year; "name": "Liquid Swords",
Album albums[]; "year": 1995
} },
class Album { {
int id; "name": "Beneath the Surface",
Album String name; "year": 1999
}
int year;
]
} }
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CONCLUSION

Databases are ubiquitous.

Relational algebra defines the primitives for

processing queries on a relational database.

We will see relational algebra again when we talk

about query optimization + execution.

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NEXT CLASS

Modern SQL
→ Make sure you understand basic SQL before the lecture.

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