THE ANIMAL CELL

LABEL THE PARTS OF THE CELL

FUNCTION OF THE CELL

It produces ;proteins called enzymes which control all

chemical reactions in the body’
It causes growth of an organism when the cell divides by
mitosis
It causes transmission of characteristics from parents to
offspring
INTRODUCTION

There two types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) makes up the genes located
on the chromosomes in the nucleus
RNA (Ribonucleic acid is formed in the nucleus but functins
in the cytoplasm
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

Both DNA and RNA are large molecules. They are made
of a number of smaller units or monomers called
nucleotides.
Each nucleotide is made up of: a nitrogenous base,
Pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose sugar in
RNA), and phosphate ion
 NUCLEOTIDES

Phosphate

Nitrogenous
Base

Pentose
Sugar
FUNCTIONS OF DNA

1.HOLDS THE HEREDITARY INFORMATION FROM

PARENTS TO OFFSPRING
2.CONTROLS PROCESSES/WORKING OF THE CELL.
I.E. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS AND REPLICATION.
 DNA –POSITION IN THE CELL
DNA double helix

Nucleus

Chromosomes
Instructions to make your whole body and keep
it working is contained in DNA
• Instructions is called genetic code
• The DNA in your genes tells the cell which
amino acids (protein building blocks) must
combine to make a protein. It also gives
instructions in which sequence the amino
acids must combine.
• Thus, DNA provides the blueprint of all life in
a living body.
• Let us investigate how that this happens.
 DEOXYRIBOSE NUCLEIC ACID

• Location of DNA in the Cell

1 Nuclear DNA
• Blue print of life
• Concerns about cell control & -heredity
Extra- nuclear DNA are:
2 Chloroplastic DNA
• Controls protein synthesis here
3 Mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA
• Controls protein synthesis here
• Helps to trace our ancestors

11
SEPT. 2007
DNA STRUCTURE

DNA is double stranded: it consists of two strands of

nucleotides joined to each other by weak hydrogen bonds.
The natural shape of DNA is double helix/ spring/ helical.
Each DNA nucleotide contains the sugar deoxyribose.
◦ There are two groups of nitrogenous bases: purine
and pyrimidines.
◦ Purines (larger) Adenine & Guanine
◦ Pyrimidines (smaller) Thymine & Cytosine
•The nitrogenous bases are complementary meaning that:
•Cytosine always pairs with guanine
•Adenine always pairs with thymine
•The two strands of DNA are held together by weak
hydrogen bonds. The structure of DNA is based on the
model put forward by Watson and Crick in 1953
HELICAL STRUCTURE OF DNA
DOUBLE STRANDED SHAPE
 16
SEPT. 2007
 STRUCTURE OF DNA CONT…
Double helix model -Watson & Crick in 1953
Phosphate & Sugar form the chain
Nitrogen bases attached to sugar form the rungs
One Purine with a Pyrimidine
Adenine pairs with Thymine using 2 weak hydrogen bonds
Guanine pairs with Cytosine using 3 weak hydrogen bonds

17
SEPT. 2007
REMEMBER

DNA
T–A
G-C
DNA STRUCTURE
A T

C G

T A

C G

A T

G C

T A
DNA STRUCTURE
 To crack the genetic code found in DNA we need to look at the
sequence of bases.

 The bases are arranged in triplets called codons.

AGG-CTC-AAG-TCC-TAG
TCC-GAG-TTC-AGG-ATC
IT'S HARD TO BELIEVE
THAT AN ALPHABET WITH
ONLY FOUR LETTERS CAN
MAKE SOMETHING AS
WONDERFUL AND
COMPLEX AS A PERSON
HISTORY ON DNA DISCOVERY
James Watson and Francis crick at Cambridge university, London
and two other scientists Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
carried out researches on DNA structure. Rosalind discovered that
DNA was double helix in structure from the x-ray extract film.
Maurice disliked Rosalind and showed James the x- ray extract which
helped them to carry out their research. Therefore Watson Crick
discovered that DNA have same amount of Cytosine and guanine
and same amount of Thymine and adenine. This gave them an idea of
complementary base pairing.. They also discovered that DNA can
make a copy of itself through DNA replication. In 1953 Watson and
Crick said that DNA is double helix in structure with complementary
base pairing. Rosalind died of cancer in 1958. in 1962, Watson ,
Crick and Maurice won the DNA noble price. If Rosalind did not die
of cancer she was going to get the noble price not Maurice.
 DNA REPLICATION
 Double helix DNA unwinds.
 Weak hydrogen bonds break.
 The two DNA strands separate
 Each strand serves as a template
 to form a new strand by attaching to free nucleotides to form
complimentary strands. A-T C-G
 Each strand becomes a double helix
 The result is two genetically identical DNA molecules.
 Sometimes mistakes happens – mutation
 Mutations is important in evolution
DNA REPLICATION

Unzip
into two
single
strands
 New bases
attached
Free nucleotides in themselves in
nucleoplasm the correct
place of each
strand
Two identical strands are formed
Each strand now becomes a double helix.
Strand 1 Strand 2
 Questions on the DNA Molecule
1

G 2

3 T

1. Identify the above molecule.

2. Give labels for parts numbered 1to 5
3. Describe how the above molecule
replicates itself.
4. What is it significance that this molecule can
replicate itself?
SIGNIFICANCE OF DNA REPLICATION:
• Important for growth
• reproduction
Mutations can cause variation

 The main enzyme that catalyze the process is DNA polymerases

 Which forms the building block for amino acids that forms proteins
 Three bases provides more than the 20 combinations needed to code amino
acids
 The sequence of the three bases is called a codon.
 STRUCTURE OF AN RNA
• Single strand
U
• Sugar is ribose
G • Four nitrogen bases
A Adenine and Uracil
Guanine and Cytosine
C

Assessment : Make a drawing of RNA

 TYPES OF RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• 1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) which acts as a template for protein synthesis and
has the same sequence of bases as the DNA strand that has the gene
sequence. It is made in the nucleus by DNA during transcription process. The
three triplet bases on mRNA are also called codons,
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) : it codes for a pecific amino-
acid (the building blocks of proteins). tRNA molecules
are covalently attached to the corresponding amino-
acid at one end, and at the other end they have a triplet
sequence (called the anti-codon) that is
complementary to the triplet codon on the mRNA.

3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which make up an

integral part of the ribosome, the protein synthesis
machinery in the cell.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA
DNA RNA
Double strand Single strand

Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar

Thymine and Adenine Adenine and Uracil

WHAT IS DNA PROFILING?
it refers to a pattern of black bars that are left on an
X-Ray film when an extract of DNA is put through a
special biotechnical process. This method is used
identify and compare individual's DNA finger printing
with another known DNA finger print. DNA is taken
from any body tissue eg hair, blood, saliva, semen,
clothes, sweat etc
If the DNA finger prints produced from two different
samples matches, it is highly true that the two samples
came from one person
WHERE DO WE GET DNA
 DNA profiling
• Technique used to identify sequence of bases
• The nucleotides are separated from each other in
the order that they are found in strand of DNA.
• Nucleotides appear as dark bands
• The sequence in this segment
of DNA reads CTT- AGT
• DNA fingerprint is Unique for every person
DNA PROFILING IS DIFFERENT FROM FINGERPRINTS
ADVANTAGES OF DNA PROFILING
1 Solving Medical Problems 2 solving of crime

DNA profiles can be used to It is used by police to track down

suspects of crime in forensic
determine whether a particular laboratories using biological evidence
person (father) is the parent of left at crime scene such as clothes.
a child. The pattern of the DNA profile is then
compared with those found on the
A childs paternity (father) and victim and the suspect.
maternity(mother) can be
If the profile matches the suspect it
determined. provides strong evidence that the
This information can be used in suspect was present at the crime scene
(NB: it does not prove they committed
•Paternity suits the crime).

•Inheritance cases If the profile doesn’t match the

suspect then that suspect may be
•Immigration cases eliminated from the enquiry.
USES OF DNA FINGER PRINTING
 1 to trace siblings 5 to diagnose the inherited
(brother & sister) diseases such as cystic
separated at birth fibrosis, haemophilia, sickle
 2 to identify people cell anaemia in new and un
who were burnt beyond borne babies.
recognition at accident
scene # early detection help
 3to identify the medical staff to help parents
presence of genetic to prepare themselves for
diseases proper care & treatment of
 4 to develop cures of the child. Genetic
the genetic disorders counsellors help couples
who want to have children
understand the risk of
DNA FINGERPRINTING

• DNA fingerprinting is often used by the police in

identifying the suspect of a crime.
• A useful but controversial method
• A sample of a suspect’s bodily fluid or tissue is to be
compared with a sample found at the scene of a
crime.
• The pattern of lines represents a person’s specific
genetic make-up.
DEBATES ABOUT DNA FINGER PRTINTING
1interpretation of DNA tests 3 the method can reveal AIDS
might be wrong leading to disease of the suspect thus
false results exposing suspect’s privacy

2 DNA fingerprinting is very 4 DNA tests can not be done

expensive. Poor suspects can not using uniform standards and
have money to carry further quality control especially those
same tests to defend themselves done in private laboratories
.
 Bacterial DNA - Manufacturing of insulin
Diabetics need insulin to live

Diabetes use insulin from pigs and cattle. This is

not the same as human insulin and sometimes
produces side effects. With genetic engineering,
bacteria are used to produce some human insulin
when it reproduce itself. The insulin is collected in
the laboratory and sold to diabetics people to
NYHETER-15s17-diabetes-449_368

treat diabetic mellitus.

 1. A ring of DNA is taken from a bacterium
6. The insulin is
collected and purified
ready for use

5. The bacteria
2. A piece is cut out using enzymes reproduce, making
as ‘chemical scissors’ clones of themselves

3. A cell is taken
from a human
pancreas. The gene 4. The insulin gene
for insulin is cut is put into the ring
from the of bacteria DNA
chromosome
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS
Proteins play essential roles in the cells of all
living creatures they serve as building blocks
of cells, control chemical reactions, and
transport materials to and from cells. Proteins
are composed of long chains of amino acids.
The specific sequence of amino acids in a
chain determines the exact function of the
protein.
DNA MUST REPLICATE

In preparation for the manufacture of mRNA, a DNA molecule

in the nucleus separates into two strands in the region of a
gene carrying instructions for a specific protein. Each sequence
of three bases in a DNA strand is called a triplet, which is a code
for one of 20 amino acids, the building blocks of protein.
IN NUCLEUS IN SITOPLASMA

TRANSLATION
TRANSCRIPTION

mRNA moves to
ribosome r RNA

tRNA carries Amino acids

amino acid to linked up to
DNA unzip mRNA copies ribosome form protein
to expose a the gene molecule
gene
TRANSCRIPTION TO RNA
•One DNA strand acts as the template,
or pattern, for the construction of mRNA
in the nucleus.
• In this process, called transcription,
free-floating RNA nucleotides travelling
in the cell nucleus pair with
complementary bases on the DNA
template strand.
•RNA nucleotides use the base uracil
(U) instead of thymine (T). DNA RNA
•Transported out from the DNA of T–A U–A
nucleus into the cytoplasm G–C G-C
TERMS IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Genetic code- sequences of bases on DNA

Gene- segment of DNA that carries
information
Codon- 3 bases found on mRNA
Anticodon- triplet found on tRNA
polyribosomes
DESCRIPTION OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Aminino acids are the building blocks of proteins,

•When amino acid combine, water is released. This process
is called dehydration.
•Dipeptide molecule is formed when two amino acids
combine.
•Polypeptide is formed when three or more amino acids
combine
•Amino acid +amino acid= dehydration
synthesi=dipeptide +water
3 amino acids=polypeptide+ water
Proteins are different from each other due to the
order in which proteins combine
A protein is formed when 20 or more amino acids
join together.
STAGES OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
A )DNA replication and transcription
. DNA unwinds and splits to two single strands
. one strand acts as template for mRNA using free
mRNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
This process is called transcription and is
facilitated by enzyme called transcptase
. mRNA is complementary to DNA template i.e. A-U
and C-G
•mRNA moves through the nuclear pore into
cytoplasm and wrap around the ribosome
b)Translation
• Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid.
• When the anticodon on the tRNA , matches the
codon on the mRNA ,then tRNA brings the
required amino acid to the ribosome.
• Amino acids become attached by peptide
bonds to form the required protein
FORMATION OF PROTEINS

Ribosome is the site

Amino acids attached on the ribosome to
the t-RNA detaches and form dipeptides by
dehydration synthesis
Poly peptides
Proteins
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
DNA replication Transcription
• Produces DNA • Produces RNA
molecule molecule
• Both strands of DNA
• Only one strand
are used as
templates of DNA used as
templateBoth
THE ROLE OF DNA IN PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Double helix unwinds to form two single strands

One strand acts as a template to form mRNA
Using free mRNA nucleotides
From the nucleoplasm
THE ROLE OF mRNA in protein synthesi
mRNA moves out of the nucleus through nuclear pore into
the cytoplasm
And attaches itself to the ribosome
THE ROLE OF TRANSFER RNA IN PROTEIN
SYNT
According to the codons on the mRNA
tRNA with the matching anticodons brings the
required amino acids
Which then link together by peptide bonds
To form the required protein
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS IN THE CELL

Free amino
acids

tRNA brings
amino acid to
ribosome

Ribosome
incorporati
ng amino
mRNA acid in
being protein
translated chain
mRNA ATTACHED TO THE RIBOSOME

Once mRNA is completely formed, the mRNA strand

leaves the cell nucleus to enter the cytoplasm, where it
attaches to a cellular organelle called a ribosome.
Protein synthesis occurs in the ribosomes
 TRANSLATION
tRNA
•After a tRNA binds to an amino acid, it
carries the amino acid to the mRNA-
ribosome complex.

•The anticodon of the tRNA binds to a codon

on the mRNA. The sequence of bases in the
codon code for the type of amino acid carried
by the tRNA.
C C G Anticodon
• A second tRNA attaches to the mRNA-
ribosome complex. The first tRNA transfers GGC Codon
its amino acid to the amino acid of the second
tRNA before detaching from the ribosome.
mRNA
•In thus way a protein chain is formed
 The single-stranded chain
is folded in a 'clover-leaf’

tRNA bind to aminoacids

•Scattered throughout the cytoplasm are

different types of transfer RNA (tRNA),
tRNA
each capable of attaching to one of the 20
different amino acids that are used to build a
protein.
• One end of a tRNA molecule attaches to a
specific amino acid as determined by the
anticodon at the other end of the tRNA.
CCG Anticodon
• An anticodon is a three-base sequence that
recognizes a particular mRNA codon
MEIOSIS
Cell division - process by which cells reproduce
Chromosomes - cell parts that determine what traits
a living thing will have
Chromatid - one strand of DNA; after replication, a
chromosome is made up of two identical chromatids
Daughter cells - new cells produced by cell division
Cytokinesis – a division of the cytoplasm of one
parent cell into 2 daughter cells
 First meiotic division

Prophase 1

Metaphase 1

Anaphase 1:

Two daughter cells

MEIOSIS I
Interphase: Duplication of each chromosome
Prophase I: Paring of homologous Chromosomes -
chiasmata – crossing over
Metaphase I: Organisation of two tetrads in the
equatorial plane

Anaphase I: Separation of homologous chromosomes

Completion of Meiotic division:

Two daughter cells each with two dyads
SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Four haploid cells, each with two chromosomes

known as reproductive cells. (ovum or sperm)
MEIOSIS
SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION
Metaphase II: Each daughter cell from the previous
division has two dyads

Anaphase II:–Mitotic separation of chromatids of

each chromosome

Completion of second meiotic division – four

haploid cells, each with two chromosomes known as
reproductive cells. (ovum or sperm)
SEX CELLS

Sperm and Ovum

 THE IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS:

•The process of meiosis reduces the number of

chromosomes by half
• One cell divides into four cells with each the haploid (n)
number of chromosomes
• The first meiotic division reduces the number of chromosomes
• The second meiotic division is actually mitosis which
increases the umber of cells
• Meiosis is the process through which gametes are prepared for
fertilisation.
• Meiosis ensures that the number of in the species stays the
same over generations
• Meiosis is important to introduce genetic variation.
 KARYOGRAM AND KARYOTYPE
➢ Diagram of arrangement of chromosomes
➢ Chromosomes are paired according to size
➢ Arrangement is called karyogram
➢ Set of chromosomes is called a karyotype
➢ Human karyogram shows the 23 pairs of
chromosomes
➢ Chromosome set 23 indicate the sex of the
individual
KARYOGRAM

Normal Male Normal Female

DOWN SYNDROME
• Down's syndrome is
caused by the presence of
three copies of the 21st
chromosome.
• This chromosomal defect
is known as Trisomy-21.
• Down's syndrome almost
always results in mental
retardation, though the
severity of the retardation
varies.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DOWN SYNDROME

Epicanthic fold

Small, oblique eyes

Flattened, nasal bridge

Open mouth
Protruding tongue
Broad neck
Small
underdeveloped
ears set low on head
 Wide gap between
first and second toe

Incurved
finger

Single palmar
(“simian”) crease

Short broad
hands
CHROMOSOME MUTATIONS

Change in chromosome number

1. Non-disjunction in meiosis
2. Non-disjunction of sex chromosomes
3. Complete non-disjunction and
polyploidy
NON-DISJUNCTION DURING
MEIOSIS
❑Spindle fibre fails during meiosis

❖Members of one pair of homologous chromosomes fail to

become separated

➢2 gametes receive extra copy of affected chromosome

✓2 gametes lack that chromosome

DOWN’S SYNDROME
Non-disjunction in chromosome 21

Occurs in human egg mother cell

One or more abnormal eggs formed (n = 24)

Fertilised by normal sperm (n = 23)

Formation of abnormal zygote (2n = 47)

NON DIS-JUNCTION OF SEX
CHROMOSOMES
COMPLETE NON-DISJUNCTION
AND POLYPLOIDY
All the spindle fibres in a gamete mother cell fail

All homologous pairs fail to become separated

Production of abnormal diploid gametes

Each contains 2 complete sets of chromosomes instead of one

POLYPLOIDY
Fertilisation of abnormal gametes

Formation of mutant plants which possess complete extra sets of

chromosomes

This type of chromosome mutation is called polyploidy

A: the strawberry
plant is exposed to a
chemical
B: due to the effect of
chemical, total non-
disjunction at meiosis
produces diploid
gametes(2n)
C: two diploid gametes
fuse at fertilisation
D: a new plant develops
which has four sets of
chromosomes (4n)
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE
Polyploid plants are larger than diploid relatives

Increased seed and fruit size

Many commercially developed crop plants are polyploid

-apples
-strawberries
-tomatoes
-wheat

Give greater yields

EFFECTS OF POLYPLOIDY
Uneven sets of chromosome
-polyploidy plants are sterile

Produce seedless fruit

Increase in vigour

Resistance to disease