OEE351- RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS

Unit I - Introduction
Introduction :
 World energy supply and consumption is global production and preparation of fuel, generation of
electricity, energy transport and energy consumption. It is a basic part of economic activity.
 It does not include energy from food. Many countries publish statistics on the energy supply and
consumption of their own country or of other countries or the world. One of the largest
organizations in this field, the International Energy Agency (IEA), publishes yearly
comprehensive energy data.
 This collection of energy balances is very large. This article provides a brief description of energy
supply and consumption, using statistics summarized in tables, of the countries and regions
that produce and consume most.
Primary energy production
World total primary energy consumption by fuel in 2020
Oil (31.2%)
Coal (27.2%)
Natural Gas (24.7%)
Hydro (renewables) (6.9%)

This is the worldwide production of energy, extracted or captured directly from natural sources.
In energy statistics primary energy (PE) refers to the first stage where energy enters the supply chain
before any further conversion or transformation process.
Energy production is usually classified as:
 fossil, using coal, crude oil, and natural gas;
 nuclear, using uranium;
 renewable, using biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, tidal, wave, wind, and among others.
 Primary energy assessment follows certain rules to ease measurement of different kinds of energy.
These rules are controversial.
 Water and air flow energy that drives hydro and wind turbines, and sunlight that powers solar
panels, are not taken as PE, which is set at the electric energy produced. But fossil and nuclear
energy are set at the reaction heat which is about 3 times the electric energy.
 This measurement difference can lead to underestimating the economic contribution of renewable
energy.
 The table lists the worldwide PE and the countries/regions producing most (90%) of that. The
amounts are rounded and given in million tonnes of oil equivalent per year (1 Mtoe = 11.63 TWh, 1
TWh = 109 kWh). The data are of 2018.

Total Energy Supply

 Total Energy Supply (TES) indicates the sum of production and imports subtracting exports and
storage changes.
 For the whole world TES nearly equals primary energy PE because im- and exports cancel out,
but for countries/regions TES and PE differ in quantity, and also in quality as secondary energy is
involved, e.g., import of an oil refinery product.
 TES is all energy required to supply energy for end users.
Final consumption
 Total final consumption (TFC) is the worldwide consumption of energy by end-users (whereas primary
energy consumption (Eurostat) or total energy supply (IEA) is total energy demand and thus also
includes what the energy sector uses itself and transformation and distribution losses).
 This energy consists of fuel (78%) and electricity (22%). The tables list amounts, expressed in million
tonnes of oil equivalent per year (1 Mtoe = 11.63 TWh) and how much of these is renewable energy.
Non-energy products are not considered here. The data are of 2018.
Fuel:
 Fossil: natural gas, fuel derived from petroleum (LPG, gasoline, kerosene, gas/diesel, fuel oil),
from coal (anthracite, bituminous coal, coke, blast furnace gas).
 Renewable: Biofuels and fuel derived from waste.
 The amounts are based on lower heating value.
 The first table lists final consumption in the countries/regions which use most (85%), and per
 person.
 In developing countries fuel consumption per person is low and more renewable. Canada,
Venezuela and Brazil generate most electricity with hydropower.
Alternative scenarios
 Alternative Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals scenarios are developed by a team of
20 scientists at the University of Technology of Sydney, the German Aerospace Center, and the
University of Melbourne, using IEA data but proposing transition to nearly 100% renewables by
mid-century, along with steps such as reforestation. Nuclear power and carbon capture are excluded in
these scenarios.
 The researchers say the costs will be far less than the $5 trillion per year governments currently spend
subsidizing the fossil fuel industries responsible for climate change.
 In the +2.0 C (global warming) Scenario total primary energy demand in 2040 can be 450 EJ = 10755
Mtoe, or 400 EJ = 9560 Mtoe in the +1.5 Scenario, well below the current production. Renewable
sources can increase their share to 300 EJ in the +2.0 C Scenario or 330 PJ in the +1.5 Scenario in
2040. In 2050 renewables can cover nearly all energy demand.
 Non-energy consumption will still include fossil fuels.
 Global electricity generation from renewable energy sources will reach 88% by 2040 and 100% by
2050 in the alternative scenarios. "New" renewables — mainly wind, solar and geothermal energy —
will contribute 83% of the total electricity generated.
 The average annual investment required between 2015 and 2050, including costs for additional
power plants to produce hydrogen and synthetic fuels and for plant replacement, will be around
$1.4 trillion (p.182).
 Shifts from domestic aviation to rail and from road to rail are needed. Passenger car use must
decrease in the OECD countries (but increase in developing world regions) after 2020.
 The passenger car use decline will be partly compensated by strong increase in public transport rail
and bus systems.
 CO2 emission can reduce from 32 Gt in 2015 to 7 Gt (+2.0 Scenario) or 2.7 Gt (+1.5 Scenario) in
2040, and to zero in 2050.
Coal
 Coal is the most abundant and burned fossil fuel.
 This was the fuel that launched the industrial revolution and continued to grow in use; China,
which already has many of the world's most polluted cities, was in 2007 building about two coal-
 fired power plants every week.
 Coal's large reserves would make it a popular candidate to meet the energy demand of the global
community, short of global warming concerns and other pollutants.
Natural gas:
 Natural gas is a widely available fossil fuel with estimated 850 000 km³ in recoverable reserves
and at least that much more using enhanced methods to release shale gas.
 Improvements in technology and wide exploration led to a major increase in recoverable natural gas
reserves as shale fracking methods were developed.
 At present usage rates, natural gas could supply most of the world's energy needs for between 100
and 250 years, depending on increase in consumption over time.
Oil
 It is estimated that there may be 57 ZJ of oil reserves on Earth (although estimates vary from a low
of 8 ZJ, consisting of currently proven and recoverable reserves, to a maximum of 110 ZJ)
consisting of available, but not necessarily recoverable reserves, and including optimistic
estimates for unconventional sources such as oil sands and oil shale.
 Current consensus among the 18 recognized estimates of supply profiles is that the peak of
extraction will occur in 2020 at the rate of 93-million barrels per day (mbd).
 Current oil consumption is at the rate of 0.18 ZJ per year (31.1 billion barrels) or 85 mbd.
 There is growing concern that peak oil production may be reached in the near future, resulting in
severe oil price increases.
 A 2005 French Economics, Industry and Finance Ministry report suggested a worst-case scenario
that could occur as early as 2013.
 There are also theories that peak of the global oil production may occur in as little as 2–3 years. The
ASPO predicts peak year to be in 2010.
 Some other theories present the view that it has already taken place in 2005. World crude oil
production (including lease condensates) according to US EIA data decreased from a peak of 73.720
mbd in 2005 to 73.437 in 2006, 72.981 in 2007, and 73.697 in 2008.
 According to peak oil theory, increasing production will lead to a more rapid collapse of production
in the future, while decreasing production will lead to a slower decrease, as the bell-shaped curve
will be spread out over more years.
 In a stated goal of increasing oil prices to $75/barrel, which had fallen from a high of $147 to a
low of $40, OPEC announced decreasing production by 2.2 mbd beginning 1 January 2009.
Nuclear energy
 The International Atomic Energy Agency estimates the remaining uranium resources to be equal to
2500 ZJ. This assumes the use of breeder reactors, which are able to create more fissile material than
they consume.
 IPCC estimated currently proved economically recoverable uranium deposits for once-through
fuel cycles reactors to be only 2 ZJ. The ultimately recoverable uranium is estimated to be 17 ZJ for
once-through reactors and 1000 ZJ with reprocessing and fast breeder reactors.
 Resources and technology do not constrain the capacity of nuclear power to contribute to meeting
the energy demand for the 21st century.
 However, political and environmental concerns about nuclear safety and radioactive waste started
to limit the growth of this energy supply at the end of last century, particularly due to a number
of nuclear accidents.
 Concerns about nuclear proliferation (especially with plutonium produced by breeder reactors) mean
that the development of nuclear power by countries such as Iran and Syria is being
actively discouraged by the international community.
 Although at the beginning of the 21st century uranium is the primary nuclear fuel worldwide,
others such as thorium and hydrogen had been under investigation since the middle of the 20th
century.
 Thorium reserves significantly exceed those of uranium, and of course hydrogen is abundant. It is
also considered by many to be easier to obtain than uranium.
 While uranium mines are enclosed underground and thus very dangerous for the miners, thorium
is taken from open pits, and is estimated to be roughly three times as abundant as uranium in the Earth's
crust.
 Since the 1960s, numerous facilities throughout the world have burned Thorium.

Nuclear fusion
 Alternatives for energy production through fusion of hydrogen have been under investigation
 since the 1950s. No materials can withstand the temperatures required to ignite the fuel, so it must
be confined by methods which use no materials.
 Magnetic and inertial confinement are the main alternatives (Cucaracha, Inertial confinement
fusion) both of which are hot research topics in the early years of the 21st century.
 Fusion power is the process driving the sun and other stars.
 It generates large quantities of heat by fusing the nuclei of hydrogen or helium isotopes, which may be
derived from seawater.
 The heat can theoretically be harnessed to generate electricity. The temperatures and pressures
needed to sustain fusion make it a very difficult process to control.
 Fusion is theoretically able to supply vast quantities of energy, with relatively little pollution.
 Although both the United States and the European Union, along with other countries, are
supporting fusion research (such as investing in the ITER facility), according to one report, inadequate
research has stalled progress in fusion research for the past 20 years.

Renewable energy in India: In 33 years, India struggled to exploit just 12% of its wind energy potential
 Close to 33 years after India set up its first wind energy demonstration project of 1.15 MW in 1986
at Tuticorin, it emerges that a big source of clean energy has not been given the policy focus it
deserves.
 The latest wind energy potential study carried out by Chennai-based National Institute of Wind
Energy (NIWE) estimates 302 gigawatts (GW) at 100 meter above ground level (AGL). With only
35 GW installed so far, the country has a sizable untapped potential. It’s not just the low potential
exploitation, but also its pan-India spread that is worrying—almost 90 per cent of this potential is
concentrated in just five states.
 Given the high variability of wind energy, this has important implications on the evacuation
infrastructure needed and grid integration measures adopted.
 In 2015, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) set a target for 60 GW of wind
installations by 2022. While the capacity additions in 2016-17 were a sizable 5.4 GW, the pace
slowed down considerably in 2017-18, with only 1.7 GW of projects commissioned, against a
target of 4.1 GW.
 Most of these installations (~1.2 GW) came online only after December 2017.
 Lately, the industry’s performance has been mixed. Between January and September 2018, a
sizable 5.2 GW of auctions were planned—these included the three tranches of auctions led by the
 Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) Tranche-III of 2 GW, Tranche-IV of 2 GW and
Tranche-V of 1.2 GW and 1.2 GW of NTPC auctions.
 However, some of the auctions were reduced or cancelled on account of concerns about lack of
evacuation capacity.
 If the wind energy industry is planning to meet the target of 60 GW by 2022, it must auction 20
GW of capacity within the next two years, considering the two to three years needed to
commission wind projects.
 The industry blamed the abrupt introduction of reverse auctions and bidding—moves that it felt were
not fully thought through—in addition to the untimely withdrawal of support mechanisms. In contrast,
the MNRE called the move a necessary “course correction” to develop a competitive market.
 However, over the last decade, wind has become the largest contributor to renewable energy capacity
additions in India.
 It now accounts for 50 per cent of all renewable energy capacity and 10 per cent of the total installed
power capacity in India.
 The sector’s growth has come on the back of a favorable policy environment, including a host of
subsidies and incentives.
 At the end of 2017, India was in the fourth spot globally for cumulative installed capacity—behind
USA, China and Germany—and fifth for annual capacity installations.
 This growth, however, has been turbulent, with the government erratically introducing and
withdrawing incentives.
 In the past, the government has announced incentives that were subsequently reduced and when
faced with a sudden drop in the market, it has reintroduced incentives.
 The latest abrupt change in policy occurred in 2016 when the government introduced competitive
auctions to determine tariffs and award contracts; the change stalled the market for around a year as
the industry was unclear about certain provisions and protections in the auction mechanism.
 However, over the last year, the new regime did result in a sharp fall in tariffs.
 The sector has been marked by the introduction of large incentives and sudden withdrawals that has,
alternately, boosted installations and disrupted the market.
 Growth began with the introduction of high feed-in tariffs (Fits), which ensured long- term guaranteed
sale of power at attractive tariffs.
 At the same time, accelerated depreciation (AD) and generation-based incentives (GBI) were
employed to draw in investors.
 But these policies were periodically withdrawn or reduced and, subsequently, reintroduced when
installations slowed down.
 Historically, the growth in wind energy capacity has followed a pattern, with individual states
dominating for a few years before the focus shifts to another state.
 In the first phase, before 2004-05, Tamil Nadu was responsible for a majority of the capacity addition—
in March 2005, its share of the country’s total wind energy capacity was around 56 per cent.
 Subsequently, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Karnataka began making sizable investments in wind
energy. Rajasthan was the next state to show rapid growth beginning in 2009- 10, followed by Andhra
Pradesh where installations increased sharply post 2012-2013.
 During 2014-16, Madhya Pradesh was the clear leader.
Renewable Energy Scenario in Tamil Nādu
 A 2018 report lists Tamil Nadu as one of the top nine renewable energy markets in the world. Today,
14.3 per cent of all the energy demand in the state is met by renewable energy, primarily solar and
wind.
 Wind power capacity in Tamil Nadu increased from a meager 877 MW in 2002 to 7,652 MW in
2017. Persistent load shedding by the Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Corporation
Limited (TANGEDCO) has been a huge problem for the local industry.
 The policies and incentives offered by the government — bundling of wind power projects,
accelerated depreciation, a Technology Up gradation Fund etc — have driven the state’s power-
intensive industries to invest in captive wind power plants. Of the total capacity today, nearly
5,500 MW36 of captive plants have been set up by textile mills and cement industries.
 The Tamil Nadu Spinning Mills Association (TASMA) was an early adopter of the ‘bundled wind
project’ model—several small power consumers formed cooperatives to invest in wind turbines.
Today, TASMA cooperatives own a total of 3,500 MW of wind energy capacity, 45 per cent of
the state’s wind-generation capacity.
 Even the reintroduction of accelerated depreciation could not revive the regional wind market. This
can be attributed to evacuation problems, history of curtailment and payment delays, all of which are
acute in Tamil Nadu because of the large shares of renewable energy in its power mix.
 A TASMA official said, “The curtailment averaged around 30-35 per cent of the generation in the
peak season during 2012-15 and averages at 20-25 per cent today.
 A conservative figure of 15 per cent back down translates to an annual loss of 2,000 to 2,500 million
units.”
 TASMA has filed a case to ensure compliance of a must-run provision for windmills.
 The Association claims that the older wind turbine generators with higher tariffs were curtailed
more compared to the newer, more efficient ones and payments continue to be delayed by 12-18
months.
 Wind generation peaks during the southwest and northeast monsoon months, followed by below
average generation for the remaining months.
 The state introduced banking of energy, which allows the cooperatives to supply to the grid when
there is excess generation, in exchange for free supply during low generation periods. According
to TASMA, TANGEDCO seldom honors these banking obligations since power purchase costs are
high during the low generation period.
 Addressing these challenges should be the priority; if that is not done, they can wreak havoc in the
renewable energy industry. While these issues are more serious in Tamil Nadu, they are slowly
creeping into the other high potential states of India as well, since discoms across the country are
struggling with poor financial health.
Potentials of Renewable Energy sources
 The most sustainable energy sources are renewable Bioenergy (wood, biomass, energy crops),
geothermal (deep or shallow), solar energy (photovoltaic, solar thermal), hydro and wind energy.
Since much more, orders of magnitudes more, solar energy hits the earth than is required for human
needs, the total potential of renewable energies seems to be almost infinite.
 It should be noted that, with respect to our discussion about energy here, the term "potential" is not the
same as in physics.
 A better term would be "availability". Also, the terms "renewable energy" and "energy sources" do not
make sense physically, since in physics the energy conservation law prohibits a source or renewal of
energy; only transformations are allowed.
 From a physical point of view, it would be better to formulate this as "availability of sustainable
energies" instead of "potential of renewable energies".
 India became the world’s third largest producer of electricity in the year 2013 and accounts for 4.8%
of global share in electricity generation.
 But its per capita electricity consumption is only 746 kWh, which is lower compared to many
countries, though electricity tariff is cheaper in India. Energy is the basic input in all sectors of the
nation’s economy, and the standard of living is directly related to per capita energy consumption.
 As the country is heavily populated, provision of adequate quantities and kinds of energy is a
 challenge to the government, and the institutions in the country engaged in tasks relating to energy
supply and transport.
 The commercial energy inputs to the Indian economy are from conventional sources like coal,
hydroelectricity and nuclear energy. The country currently has total installed capacity of thermal 70%,
hydroelectric 16%, nuclear 2% and renewable 12%.
 For long-term sustainability, minimum utilization of fossil fuel for energy and maximum utilization
of renewable energy are to be considered.
 At the same time, minimum losses during generation transport and utilization sector is also
important.
Renewable sources and their potential for supplying electricity:
 Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources, which are naturally
replenished on their own.
 Renewable energy sources are all essentially based on the direct or indirect use of solar energy. The
only exception is tidal energy, which essentially derives its power from the interaction between the
earth and the moon.
 Renewable energy can replace conventional fuels in the distinct areas like electricity generation, water
heating, space heating, motor fuels, and rural energy services.
 The important renewable energy sources, which can be utilized for generating electricity in our country
are as follows:
 Solar energy (direct): Solar thermal power and solar photovoltaic (PV) power, Solar energy
 Hydroelectric power (large and small units)
 Wind energy (on land and offshore)
 Biomass power
 Wave energy, marine currents, and ocean thermal energy conversion
 Tidal energy
Solar thermal power and PV power:
 Solar energy is utilized for direct thermal applications and for solar-electric applications.
 Solar thermal applications include water heating, space heating, drying, cooking etc.
 Generation of electricity is possible in solar thermal-electric power plants.
 These plants use concentrating collectors to collect the sun’s energy at high temperatures and use this
energy to generate high-pressure steam
 The steam in turn is used in a conventional Rankine cycle to generate electricity. India is ranked
number one in terms of solar electricity production per watt installed.
 As on 30 March 2015, the installed grid connected solar power capacity is 3,383 MW, and India
expects to install an additional 10,000 MW by 2017 and a total of 100,000 MW by 2022.
 Photovoltaic conversions are also a direct method of utilizing solar energy, which makes use of solar
cells to convert solar energy directly into electrical energy.
 The electrical energy requirement for localized use in the remote locations all over India is estimated
at about 11,000 MW – a substantial part of which is expected to come from PV systems that are not
connected to the grid.
 These systems may be located as far as possible on rooftops, so that no land space is used. India has
total installed capacity of almost 4101.68 MW grid-connected PV power systems having small
capacities.
 Indirect solar energy is the solar power that goes through more than one change to become in the
useful form of energy. Examples of indirect solar energy are hydropower, biomass and wind energy.
Hydroelectric power:
 India is ranked as the 6th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world and has great potential
for hydro-electric power.
 Hydroelectric power projects are the largest contributors amongst renewable energy sources in our
country.
 Apart from generating electricity, they provide water for irrigation, help in flood control and drinking
water purposes.
 Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power which utilizes the potential energy of water at
a high level.
 A hydroelectric facility requires a dependable flow of water – and the water head is created by
constructing a dam across the river.
 In a typical installation, water is fed from a reservoir through a channel or pipe into a turbine and the
 pressure of the flowing water on the turbine blades causes the shaft to rotate, which, in turn, is
connected to an electrical generator, which converts the motion of the shaft into electrical energy.
 The present installed capacity is approximately 40,661.41 MW, which is 16.36% of total
electricity generation in India and small hydro power capacity is 4101MW
 India has huge hydro potential of about 84,000 MW at 60% load factor, which can be
economically exploited. Almost 49 large hydropower projects are under construction in India,
which will be completed by the year 2022 with a cumulative capacity of 15,006 MW.
 In addition, a potential of 6,740 MW of installed capacity from small, mini and micro hydel schemes
have been assessed – and pumped storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000
MW have been identified.
 Pumped storage schemes would be helpful for meeting peak load demand and storing the surplus
electricity, which can also produce power at no additional cost when rivers are flooding. India has
already established nearly 6,800 MW pumped storage capacity.
 For small units, 5,718 sites with a total capacity of 15,384 MW have been identified all over the
country.
Wind energy:

 India has great potential of wind energy to project as an alternate source of energy.
 Electricity can be generated from wind power by converting the kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical energy utilizing wind turbines.
 The energy in the wind is utilized to turn propeller shaped blades around a rotor, which when
connected to the main shaft can spin a generator to produce electricity.
 The power that can be extracted theoretically from wind is proportional to the cube of its velocity and
the energy generated depends on wind speed and rotor size of the turbine.
 Wind energy is regarded as a means of saving fuel by injecting power into an electrical grid and to
run wind power plant in conjunction with a pumped storage plant.
 Wind power has application to rotate machinery to do physical work, such as crushing grain or
 pumping water and has application to desalinate water.
 The estimation of the potential wind resources in India is 102,788 MW assessed at 80m Hub height.
The installed capacity of wind power in India was 22,645 MW as of 30 March 2015.
 The target set for wind power generation capacity is 60,000 MW by the year 2022. The preliminary
assessments along the 7,600 km long Indian coastline have indicated prospects of development of
offshore wind power as the wind speeds offshore are usually higher and steadier.
Energy from biomass
 Biomass energy has been an important alternate energy source for the country and more than 70%
of the country’s population depends on biomass for energy needs.
 It is renewable, widely available, and free from greenhouse gases. Biomass is biological material
derived from agricultural and forest resources including plant and animal manure.
 As an energy source, biomass can be used directly via combustion to produce heat.
 Indirectly, biomass can be converted into forms of bio fuel, like ethanol and methanol, to be used in
engines; gaseous fuel called biogas can be obtained from biomass by anaerobic fermentation.
 Biomass fuels can be most efficiently used when generating both power and heat through a combined
heat and power (or cogeneration) system.
 A total of 288 biomass power and cogeneration projects with 2,665 MW capacities have been installed
in the country for feeding power to the grid.
 Biogases cogeneration projects in sugar mills have capacity aggregating to 1,666 MW. A target of
10,000 MW has set for biomass energy till 2022.
Wave energy:
 Wave energy is indirectly derived from solar energy and is available at the ocean surface – because of
the interaction of the wind with water surface.
 Wave energy can be generated directly from surface waves or from pressure variations below the
surface.
 Wave energy converters are devices, which can capture wave power for generating electricity and
extract useful work like water desalination or pumping of water.
 India has a coastline of 7,500 km with an estimated wave energy potential of about 40,000 MW.
Tidal energy:
 Tides are the largest source of short-term sea-level fluctuations and caused by the combined effects of
gravitational forces of sun and moon and the rotation of the earth.
 When the gravitational forces due to the Sun and the Moon add together, tides of maximum range
called spring tides form, and when the two forces oppose each other, tides of minimum range, called
neap tides, are obtained.
 Electrical energy can be extracted from tides in several ways by constructing a reservoir behind a
barrage, and then tidal water is allowed to pass through turbines in the barrage to generate electricity.
 India has a potential of 8,000 MW of tidal energy as per the estimates.
 Despite the huge potential, there is no progress in extracting tidal energy.
 Agreement is signed to implement India’s first 3.75 MW mini-tidal power project in West Bengal.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC):
 Ocean thermal energy conversion uses difference in ocean temperature from the surface to depths
lower than 1,000 meters, to extract energy.
 A temperature difference of only 20°C can yield usable energy.
 The closed cycle and open cycle OTEC technologies are commonly used to extract thermal energy and
convert it to electric power.
 The total OTEC potential around India is estimated as 180,000 MW considering 40% of gross power
for parasitic losses.
 The Government of India proposed to establish a 1 MW gross OTEC plant in India, which will be the
first ever MW range plant established anywhere in the world.
Geothermal energy:
 Geothermal energy is the thermal energy stored in the earth’s interior.
 The steam and hot water at high temperature and pressure come naturally to the surface of the earth at
some places that can be utilized for electricity generation, residential and industrial heating,
greenhouses and other local uses.
 According to the estimates, India has 10,600 MW potential in the geothermal energy sector but it still
needs to be exploited. Union Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) recently drafted a
national policy, which intends to exploit the sector by generating 1,000 MW in phase-one by 2022.

Total installed power generation capacity:

 The total installed power generation capacity is the sum of utility capacity, captive power capacity and
other non-utilities.
 Utility power: The utility electricity sector (Table-1) in India had an installed capacity of 274,817.94
MW as of end June 2015.
 Renewable Power plants constituted 28% of the total installed capacity and Non- Renewable Power
Plants constituted the remaining 72%.
 Captive power: Presently India has a total installed captive power generation capacity (above 1 MW
capacity) of 47,082 MW in the industries and almost 75,000 MW capacities with diesel power
generation sets.
In addition, there are a large number of DG sets of capacity less than 100 kVA cater to emergency power
needs in all sectors such as industrial, commercial, domestic and agriculture

Achievements applications of renewable energy sources

 Renewable energy resources commonly used for building applications include solar, wind,
geothermal, and biomass.
 Before selecting an appropriate renewable energy technology to apply to an existing building
 retrofit project, it is important to first consider a number of factors.
Examples of these factors include:
 Available renewable energy resource at or near the building site
 Available area for sitting of the renewable energy technology
 Cost of energy purchased from the electrical or thermal energy provider for the building
 Available incentives for offsetting the installation cost of the renewable energy system Local
regulations affecting renewable energy systems
 Desire to preserve or not alter existing architectural features
 Characteristics of the energy profiles to be offset by the renewable energy installation.
 European renewable energy resource data are available through organizations such as the Global
Energy Network Institute (GENI 2007).
 Renewable energy resource maps are a starting point to determine if a building site is located in an
area with acceptable amounts of renewable energy resource.
 However, other factors such as the cost of alternative energy sources and available local incentives for
renewable energy installations often make installing renewable energy systems cost effective even if
the resource is not ideal.
 For example, Germany leads Europe in solar electric system installations with 5,351,000 megawatts
peak (MWp) of cumulated installed capacity in 2008, yet, most of the country has a modest average
annual solar resource of less than 1,000 kilowatt hours per square meter (kWh/m2).
• Solar electric, or photovoltaic (PV), systems
• Solar thermal, including solar hot water (domestic water heating and space heating), and solar
ventilation air preheating
• Geothermal heat pump
• Wind turbines
• Biomass systems.
• Geothermal heat pumps use the constant temperature of the earth as an exchange medium for heat.
 Although many parts of the world experience seasonal temperature extremes—from scorching heat in
the summer to sub-zero cold in the winter—the ground a meter or so below the surface remains at a
relatively constant temperature.
 Geothermal heats pumps are able to heat, cool, and, if so equipped, supply homes and buildings
with hot water.
 Wind energy is created by uneven solar heating of the Earth’s surface. This wind flow, or motion
 energy, can be harnessed by modern wind turbines to generate electricity.
 Wind turbines use rotating propeller-like blades to harness the energy in the wind and drive a turbine
that generates electricity. Before installing a wind turbine, it must be established that the wind resource
in a specific location is adequate. Wind resource is classified according to its potential to produce
electricity over an annual basis.
 Wind resource maps can determine if an area of interest should be further explored, but wind
resource at a micro level can vary significantly.
 Therefore, it is important to evaluate the specific area of interest before deciding to invest in wind
systems.
 Wind Resource Classifications. Wind Power Class Resource Potential Wind Speed at 50m (m/s)
1 Poor.
 If the site has a class 3 wind resource, consider small wind turbine (100 kW or less) or large, low
wind speed turbine opportunities.
 If the site has a class 4 or greater wind resource, wind may be a good option and even larger, utility-
scale turbines may provide economic options.
 Lower wind resources are less likely to be economically feasible, but should be reviewed if the site
is in a class 2 area and there are nearby pockets of class 3 resources (DOE 2011c).
 Most wind turbines are designed for an operating life of up to 20 years and require little maintenance
during this period.
 Wind turbines require land area, so on-site wind power generation usually occurs for projects having
space for installing the turbines.
 Roof-mounted wind systems are beginning to be used in some building projects. However,
building designers should carefully consider issues such as maintaining the building’s structural
integrity, noise, and the added cost before determining if building- mounted systems are
appropriate for a specific project.
 The City of Medford, Massachusetts, USA owns a Northern Power Systems North wind 100 wind
turbine sited at McGlynn Elementary and Middle School. Source: Photo from Northern Power
Systems.
 Bioenergy: There are many types of biomass—organic matter such as plants, residue from
agriculture and forestry, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes—that can
be used to produce fuels, chemicals, and power.
 Wood has been used to provide heat for thousands of years. This flexibility in materials has resulted
 in increased use of biomass technologies (DOE 2011d).
 Biomass technologies break down organic matter to release stored energy from the sun.
 The process used depends on the type of biomass and its intended end use. For example, biofuels
and biopower can be used to provide heat or electricity for buildings. Biofuels are liquid or gaseous
fuels produced from biomass.
 Most biofuels are used for transportation, but some are used as fuels to produce electricity. Biofuels
include ethanol and biodiesel.
 Biopower is the production of electricity or heat from biomass resources.
 Biopower technologies include direct combustion, co-firing, and anaerobic digestion (DOE 2011f).
 Connecting to the Electrical Grid Building-sited renewable energy systems generating electricity and
connected to the electrical utility grid (known as “grid-tied” systems) are known as distributed
generation (DG) systems.
 It is important to consider all issues of connecting the DG system to the grid when such systems are
part of a building project.
 Project leads should communicate with the utility on topics such as technical design requirements,
which the utility may mandate for interconnection and net metering agreements, including rates the
utility will pay for excess renewable energy power generations supplied back to the grid.
 Net metering allows for the flow of electricity from a grid-connected DG system both to and from
the customer typically through a single, bi-directional meter.
 When a customer’s generation exceeds usage, electricity flows back onto the grid.
 This effectively offsets electricity consumed by the customer at a different time during the same
billing cycle or is carried over as a credit on future billing cycles. Net metering policies vary
widely.
 Some net metering programs reimburse customers for excess generation at 10 the wholesale rate, while
others reimburse at the retail value.
 Some policies specify a limit on the capacity of renewable energy systems that can participate in the
net metering program. Interconnection standards specify the technical and procedural process by which
a customer connects a renewable energy system to the grid.
 Such standards include the technical and contractual arrangements by which system owners and
utilities must abide.
 Utilities can be reluctant to allow interconnection of DG systems.
 The reasons for this are often associated with concerns over ensuring high-quality, reliable power to
 all customers, load management when considering the intermittency of renewable energy power
generation, safety of those maintaining the utility distribution systems, and other similar issues.
 Even with the increased number of DG systems being added to grid systems, many utilities still have
limited experience with these systems.
 As a result, these utilities address the interconnection questions on a case-by-case basis, which can
result in a significant amount of time needed to develop interconnection agreements. Grants, tax
credits, or other incentives are available to encourage historic preservation in many areas, which further
urge investment into existing building retrofit projects.
 However, without proper planning, installing a renewable energy system on or near the building can
comprise both the architectural aesthetics and structural integrity of the building.
 Historic preservation entities from the national to the local levels exist in many nations.
 These entities are often responsible for designating historic properties, providing guidance and
resources for historic preservation projects, and imposing regulatory restrictions with which historic
projects must comply.
 Therefore, it is important to understand what regulations apply to historic building projects before
investigating renewable energy installation options.
 In general, when embarking on an historic building project, it is advised to first determine
what energy efficiency features included in the building’s original design can be rehabilitated, such
as day lighting, natural ventilation, and thermal storage features.
 The next step is to consider how to incorporate on-site renewable energy installations. Some
technologies can be hidden from view, such as installing a bio-fuel generator or geothermal heat pump.
 Solar electric and solar thermal systems can be integrated into the building “skin”, such as the
roofing material or shading devices.
 These systems can also be installed out of the view of building visitors, such as on a roof, facing away
from where visitors view the building, behind roof parapets, on other structures located on the site
such as a parking structure, or ground-mounted away from the historic building.
Unit 2 Solar Radiation
Solar radiation, often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful
forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies.

Solar radiation, often called the solar resource or just sunlight, is a general term for the
electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. Solar radiation can be captured and turned into useful forms
of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety of technologies. However, the technical
feasibility and economical operation of these technologies at a specific location depends on the available
solar resource.
BASIC PRINCIPLES
Every location on Earth receives sunlight at least part of the year. The amount of solar radiation
that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to:
 Geographic location
 Time of day
 Season
 Local landscape
 Local weather.
Because the Earth is round, the sun strikes the surface at different angles, ranging from 0° (just
above the horizon) to 90° (directly overhead). When the sun's rays are vertical, the Earth's surface gets all
the energy possible. The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere,
becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid polar regions never get a high
sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year.
The Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit and is closer to the sun during part of
the year. When the sun is nearer the Earth, the Earth's surface receives a little more solar energy.
The Earth is nearer the sun when it is summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern
hemisphere. However, the presence of vast oceans moderates the hotter summers and colder winters one
would expect to see in the southern hemisphere as a result of this difference.
The 23.5° tilt in the Earth's axis of rotation is a more significant factor in determining the
amount of sunlight striking the Earth at a particular location. Tilting results in longer days in the
northern hemisphere from the spring (vernal) equinox to the fall (autumnal) equinox and longer days
in the southern hemisphere during the other 6 months. Days and nights are both exactly 12 hours
long on the equinoxes, which occur each year on or around March 23 and September 22.
 Countries such as the United States, which lie in the middle latitudes, receive more solar
energy in the summer not only because days are longer, but also because the sun is nearly overhead.
The sun's rays are far more slanted during the shorter days of the winter months. Cities such as
Denver, Colorado, (near 40° latitude) receive nearly three times more solar energy in June than they
do in December.
The rotation of the Earth is also responsible for hourly variations in sunlight. In the early morning
and late afternoon, the sun is low in the sky. Its rays travel further through the atmosphere than at noon,
when the sun is at its highest point. On a clear day, the greatest amount of solar energy reaches a
solar collector around solar noon.
DIFFUSE AND DIRECT SOLAR RADIATION
As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected by:
 Air molecules
 Water vapor
 Clouds
 Dust
 Pollutants
 Forest fires
 Volcanoes.
This is called diffuse solar radiation. The solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface
without being diffused is called direct beam solar radiation. The sum of the diffuse and direct solar
radiation is called global solar radiation. Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct beam radiation by
10% on clear, dry days and by 100% during thick, cloudy days.
MEASUREMENT
Scientists measure the amount of sunlight falling on specific locations at different times of the
year. They then estimate the amount of sunlight falling on regions at the same latitude with similar
climates. Measurements of solar energy are typically expressed as total radiation on a horizontal surface,
or as total radiation on a surface tracking the sun.
Radiation data for solar electric (photovoltaic) systems are often represented as kilowatt-hours per
square meter (kWh/m2). Direct estimates of solar energy may also be expressed as watts per square
meter (W/m2).
Radiation data for solar water heating and space heating systems are usually represented in British
thermal units per square foot (Btu/ft2).
DISTRIBUTION
The solar resource across the United States is ample for photovoltaic (PV) systems because they
use both direct and scattered sunlight. Other technologies may be more limited. However, the amount of
power generated by any solar technology at a particular site depends on how much of the sun's energy
reaches it. Thus, solar technologies function most efficiently in the southwestern United States, which
receives the greatest amount of solar energy.
Measurements of Solar Radiation
Solar radiance measurements consist of global and/or direct radiation measurements taken
periodically throughout the day. The measurements are taken using either a pyranometer
(measuring global radiation) and/or a pyrheliometer (measuring direct radiation). In PV system design it
is essential to know the amount of sunlight available at a particular location at a given time. The two
common methods which characterize solar radiation are the solar radiance (or radiation) and solar
insolation. The solar radiance is an instantaneous power density in units of kW/m 2. The solar radiance
varies throughout the day from 0 kW/m2 at night to a maximum of about 1 kW/m2. The solar
radiance is strongly dependent on location and local weather.
An alternative method of measuring solar radiation, which is less accurate but also less expensive,
is using a sunshine recorder. These sunshine recorders (also known as Campbell- Stokes recorders),
measure the number of hours in the day during which the sunshine is above a certain level (typically
200 MW/cm2). Data collected in this way can be used to determine the solar insolation by comparing the
measured number of sunshine hours to those based on calculations and including several correction
factors.
A final method to estimate solar insolation is cloud cover data taken from existing satellite
images.
While solar irradiance is most commonly measured, a more common form of radiation data
used in system design is the solar insolation. The solar insolation is the total amount of solar energy
received at a particular location during a specified time period, often in units of kWh/(m 2 day).
While the units of solar insolation and solar irradiance are both a power density (for solar insolation
the "hours" in the numerator are a time measurement as is the "day" in the denominator), solar insolation
is quite different than the solar irradiance as the solar insolation is the instantaneous solar irradiance
averaged over a given time period. Solar insolation data is commonly used for simple PV system design
while solar radiance is used in more complicated PV system performance which calculates the system
performance at each point in the day. Solar insolation can also be expressed in units of MJ/m 2 per
 year and other units and conversions are given in the units page.
Solar radiation for a particular location can be given in several ways including:
 Typical mean year data for a particular location
 Average daily, monthly or yearly solar insolation for a given location
 Global isoflux contours either for a full year, a quarter year or a particular month
 Sunshine hours data
 Solar Insolation Based on Satellite Cloud-Cover Data
 Calculations of Solar Radiation
Ultraviolet Measurements
For the measurement of sun and sky ultraviolet radiation in the wavelength interval 0.295 to
0.385 µm, which is particularly important in environmental, biological, and pollution studies the
Total Ultraviolet Radiometer (Model TUVR) was developed. This instrument utilizes a photoelectric
cell protected by a quartz window. A specially designed Teflon diffuser not only reduces the radiant
flux to acceptable levels but also provides close adherence to the Lambert cosine law. An encapsulated
narrow bandpass (interference) filter limits the spectral response of the photocell to the wavelength
interval 0.295-.0385 µm.
Shortwave Measurements
As solar radiation passes through the earth’s atmosphere, some of it is absorbed or scattered by air
molecules, water vapor, aerosols, and clouds. The solar radiation that passes through directly to
the earth’s surface is called Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI). The radiation that has been scattered out of
the direct beam is called Diffuse Horizontal Irradiance (DHI).
The direct component of sunlight and the diffuse component of skylight falling together on a
horizontal surface make up Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI). The three components have a
geometrical relationship.
Direct radiation is best measured by use of a pyrheliometer, which measures radiation at
normal incidence. The Normal Incidence Pyrheliometer (Model sNIP) consists of a wire wound
thermopile at the base of a tube with a viewing angle of approximately 5º which limits the
radiation that the thermopile receives to direct solar radiation only.
Flat Plate and Concentrating Collectors
The difference between them is that concentrating collectors have a bigger interceptor than the
absorber, while the non-concentrating collectors have them both with same sizes. Flat-plate and
evacuated-tube solar collectors are used for domestic purposes, such as space heating, hot water or
cooling
 Although solar panels are the most known device when it comes to solar energy, Solar thermal
collectors are also very efficient and are used to collect heat by absorbing sunlight. Solar thermal is
also used for capturing solar radiation, which is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation
consisting of both infrared and ultraviolet waves. This can occur due to the huge quantity of sunlight
that hits Earth’s surface on a daily basis. Solar collectors can be either non-concentrating or
concentrating.
Flat-Plate Collectors
Flat-plate solar collectors are the most common ones. They consist of an absorber, a transparent
cover and insulation. The main use of the technology is usually in residential buildings where the
demand for hot water is big and affects bills. Commercial application of flat-plate collectors is usually
seen in car washes, laundromats, military laundry facilities or restaurants.

Solar water heating systems are expected to be much more cost efficient, especially for facilities
with huge hot water demand (kitchens, laundries and etc.) Flat-plate solar collectors show a good price-
performance ratio and also give a lot of mounting options (on the roof, within the roof itself or
standalone).
Evacuated-Tube Collector
This is a type of a vacuum collector, its absorber strip is placed in an evacuated and pressure proof
glass tube. The heat transfer fluid flows directly the absorber into a U-tube or in a tube- in-tube system.
The heat pipe collector integrates a special fluid, which evaporates even at low temperatures, thus the
steam rises in the individual heat pipes and warms up the fluid in the main pipe, generating heat.
Thermodynamic panels are also based on such a refrigerant fluid
but are exploiting the heat in the ambient air, and, therefore, are only suitable for hot water. The
technology is very reliable as it has an estimated lifespan of 25 years. The vacuum that surrounds
the outside of the tubes greatly reduces the risk of heat loss, therefore efficiency is greater than it is with
flat-plate collectors. There are also solar collectors that can be used for generating electricity. Parabolic
troughs, solar parabolic dishes and power towers are used in solar power stations or for research purposes.
Parabolic Trough
This specific type of solar collector is mainly used in solar power plants. The technology
utilizes trough-shaped parabolic reflector to concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube or a heat pipe,
placed in the focal point. Thus the generated heat is transferred to the boilers in the power station.

Parabolic Dish
What differentiates this technology is that with this solar collector, a few dishes can be utilized
and they can concentrate solar energy at the same focal point. Like the other collectors, it’s mainly used
in solar power plants and also for researchers. The dish is aligned in a way that allows it to collect almost
all of the solar radiation that hits Earth’s surface. Most efficiency losses come because of slight
imperfections in the shape of the dish. Losses due to weather conditions are usually minimal, however,
on a rainy foggy day, sun rays are usually distributed in all directions.
Power Tower
A power tower is a big tower fenced by tracking mirrors called heliostats. They align
themselves in order to track the sunlight, collect it and transfer it to the top of the tower, where the
receiver is, the received heat is transferred to a power station below. The power tower makes it
 cheaper to cover much larger area with relatively inexpensive mirrors opposed to the traditional solar
cells.However efficiency can be a problem as the power tower needs perfect weather conditions at
almost all the time, while solar cells still produce very good amount of energy even when the sky is
completely cloudy.

Solar Collectors or Solar Cells

Solar collectors are a great invention, however they are not quite perfect for the regular
customer who just wants to generate his own electricity. The collectors need perfect weather
conditions, which is hard to get in many parts of the world. On the other hand solar cells and panels
are a perfect solution for the people who want to generate their own eco friendly energy. Even though
price-wise they could end up costing you more, the government has
launched schemes that benefits people who are willing to go solar.
Solar Direct Thermal Applications.
 Solar thermal energy can generate power 24hours a day. This is made possible as solar
thermal power plants store the energy in the form of molten salt etc.
Other forms of Renewable energy like solar PV and wind energy are intermittent in nature.
In a Solar furnace, high temperature is obtained by concentrating the solar radiations onto a
specimen using a number of heliostats (turn-able mirrors) arranged on a sloping surface. The solar furnace
is used for studying the properties of ceramics at extremely high temperatures above the range measurable
in laboratories with flames and electric currents.
Heating can be accomplished without any contamination and temperature can be easily
controlled by changing the position of the material in focus. This is especially useful for metallurgical
and chemical operations. Various property measurements are possible on an open specimen. An
important future application of solar furnaces is the production of nitric acid and fertilizers from air.
 The process of converting solar energy into electricity so as to utilize its energy in day-to-
day activities is given below:
 Absorption of energy carrying particles in Sun’s rays called photons.
 Photovoltaic conversion, inside the solar cells.
 Combination of current from several cells. This step is necessary since a single cell has
a voltage of less than 0.5 V.
Conversion of the resultant DC to AC.
Solar Electric Power Generation
Electric energy or electricity can be produced directly from solar energy by means of
photovoltaic cells. The photovoltaic cell is an energy conversion device which is used to convert
photons of sunlight directly into electricity. It is made of semi conductors which absorb the photons
received from the sun, creating free electrons with high energies.
These high energy free electrons are induced by an electric field, to flow out of the semiconductor
to do useful work. This electric field in photovoltaic cells is usually provided by a p- n junction of
materials which have different electrical properties. There are different fabrication techniques to enable
these cells to achieve maximum efficiency.
These cells are arranged in parallel or series combination to form cell modules. Some of the
special features of these modules are high reliability, no expenditure on fuel, minimum cost of
maintenance, long life, portability, modularity, pollution free working etc.
 Photovoltaic cells have been used to operate irrigation pumps, rail road crossing warnings,
navigational signals, highway emergency call systems, automatic meteorological stations etc. in areas
where it is difficult to lay power lines.They are also used for weather monitoring and as portable power
sources for televisions, calculators, watches, computer card readers, battery charging and in satellites
etc. Besides these, photovoltaic cells are used for the energisation of pump sets for irrigation, drinking
water supply and for providing electricity in rural areas i.e. street lights etc.
Solar Thermal Power Production
Solar thermal power production means the conversion of solar energy into electricity through
thermal energy. In this procedure, solar energy is first utilized to heat up a working fluid, gas, water
or any other volatile liquid. This heat energy is then converted into mechanical energy m a turbine.
Finally a conventional generator coupled to a turbine converts this mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
Production of Power through Solar Ponds:
A solar pond is a natural or artificial body of water utilized for collecting and absorbing solar
radiation and storing it as heat. It is very shallow (5-10 cm deep) and has a radiation absorbing
(black plastic) bottom. It has a curved fiber glass cover over it to permit the entry of solar radiation but
reduces losses by radiation and convection (air movement). Loss of heat to the ground is minimized by
providing a bed of insulating material under the pond.
 Solar ponds utilize water for collecting and storing the solar energy which is used for many
applications such as space heating, industrial process heating and to generate electricity by driving a
turbine powered by evaporating an organic fluid with a low boiling point.

Fundamentals of Solar Photo Voltaic Conversion

Solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun. Energy from
the Sun is referred to as solar energy. Technology has provided a number of ways to utilize this
abundant resource. It is considered a green technology because it does not emit greenhouse gases. Solar
energy is abundantly available and has been utilized since long both as electricity and as a source of heat.

Solar technology can be broadly classified as −

 Active Solar − Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Active solar is directly
consumed in activities such as drying clothes and warming of air.
 Passive Solar − Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that
naturally circulate air.
Conversion of Solar Energy
The solar energy is the energy obtained by capturing heat and light from the Sun. The method of
obtaining electricity from sunlight is referred to as the Photovoltaic method. This is achieved using a
semiconductor material.
The other form of obtaining solar energy is through thermal technologies, which give two
forms of energy tapping methods.
 The first is solar concentration, which focuses solar energy to drive thermal turbines.
 The second method is heating and cooling systems used in solar water heating and air
conditioning respectively.
The process of converting solar energy into electricity so as to utilize its energy in day-to-day
activities is given below −
 Absorption of energy carrying particles in Sun’s rays called photons.
 Photovoltaic conversion, inside the solar cells.
 Combination of current from several cells. This step is necessary since a single cell has
a voltage of less than 0.5 V.
Conversion of the resultant DC to AC.
The process of converting solar energy into electricity so as to utilize its energy in day-to-day
activities is given below −
 Absorption of energy carrying particles in Sun’s rays called photons.
 Photovoltaic conversion, inside the solar cells.
 Combination of current from several cells. This step is necessary since a single cell has
a voltage of less than 0.5 V.
Conversion of the resultant DC to AC.
Solar Cells
A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an electrical device that
converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically a p-n
junction diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed to light.
 Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar panels. The
common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of
approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts. By itself this isn’t much – but remember these solar cells are tiny. When
combined into a large solar panel, considerable amounts of renewable energy can be generated.
Construction of Solar Cell
A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is little bit different from
conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin layer of p-type semiconductor is grown on a relatively
thicker n-type semiconductor. We then apply a few finer electrodes on the top of the p-type
semiconductor layer.These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type layer. Just below
the p-type layer there is a p-n junction. We also provide a current collecting electrode at the bottom
of the n-type layer. We encapsulate the entire assembly by thin glass to protect the solar cell from any
mechanical shock.

Working Principle of Solar Cell

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through
very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the
junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium
condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type
side of the junction.Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the
junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the
junction because of barrier potential of the junction.
Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further cross the
junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons becomes
higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another
side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a
small battery cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small
load across the junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.
Solar PV Applications
(1) Solar Water Heating
A solar water heating unit comprises a blackened flat plate metal collector with an associated metal
tubing facing the general direction of the sun. The plate collector has a transparent glass cover above and
a layer of thermal insulation beneath it.
The metal tubing of the collector is connected by a pipe to an insulated tank that stores hot water
during cloudy days. The collector absorbs solar radiations and transfers the heat to the water
circulating through the tubing either by gravity or by a pump.This hot water is supplied to the storage
tank via the associated metal tubing. This system of water heating is commonly used in hotels, guest
houses, tourist bungalows, hospitals, canteens as well as domestic and industrial units.

(2) Solar Heating of Buildings

Solar energy can be used for space heating of buildings in many ways namely:
(a) Collecting the solar radiation by some element of the building itself i.e. solar energy
is admitted directly into the building through large South-facing windows.
(b) Using separate solar collectors which may heat either water or air or storage devices
which can accumulate the collected solar energy for use at night and during inclement days.
 When the building requires heat then from these collectors or storage devices, the heat is
transferred by conventional equipment such as fan, ducts, air outlets, radiators and hot air registers etc.
to warm up the living spaces of a building. When the building does not require heat, the heated air
or water from the collector can be moved to the heat storage device such as well insulated water tank
or other heat holding material. For inclement days, an auxiliary
heating system using gas, oil or electricity is required as a backup system.

(3) Solar-distillation
In arid semi and or coastal areas there is scarcity of potable water. The abundant sunlight in these
areas can be used for converting saline water into potable distilled water by the method of solar
distillation. In this method, solar radiation is admitted through a transparent air tight glass cover into
a shallow blackened basin containing saline water.

Solar radiation passes through the covers and is absorbed and converted into heat in the
blackened surface causing the water to evaporate from the brine (impure saline water). The vapors
produced get condensed to form purified water in the cool interior of the roof.The condensed water flows
down the sloping roof and is collected in the troughs placed at the bottom and from there into a water
storage tank to supply potable distilled water in areas of scarcity, in colleges, school science laboratories,
defense labs, petrol pumps, hospitals and pharmaceutical industries. Per liter distilled water cost obtained
by this system is cheaper than distilled water obtained by other electrical energy-based processes.
(4) Solar-pumping

In solar pumping, the power generated by solar-energy is utilized for pumping water for irrigation
purposes. The requirement for water pumping is greatest in the hot summer months which coincide with
the increased solar radiations during this period and so this method is most appropriate for irrigation
purpose. During periods of inclement weather when solar radiations are low then the requirement for water
pumping is also relatively less as the transpiration losses from the crops are also low.