Calculus I

Prepared by: Engr. AD Delima

Functions:

A function arise whenever one quantity depends on another. Here are four practical examples:

1. The area of a circle depends on its radius described by the equation 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 ! . With each positive number r there is
associated one value of A, and we say that A is a function of r.

2. The human population of the world P depends on the time t. The table gives estimates of the world population 𝑃(𝑡) at
time 𝑡, for certain years. For instance,

𝑃(1950) = 2,560,000,000

But for each value of the time t there is a corresponding value of P, and we say that

P is a function of t.

3. The cost C of mailing an envelope depends on its weight w. Although there is no

simple formula that connects w and C, the post office has a rule for determining C
when w is known

4. The vertical acceleration a of the ground as measured by a seismograph during an earthquake is a function of the elapsed
time t. Figure 1 shows a graph generated by seismic activity during the Northridge earthquake that shook Los Angeles
in 1994. For a given value of t, the graph provides a corresponding value of a

Figure 1. Vertical ground acceleration during the Northridge Earthquake

Each of these examples describes a rule whereby, given a number (r, t, w, or t), another number (A, P, C, or a) is assigned. In
each case we say that the second number is a function of the first number.

A function 𝑓 is a rule that assigns each element 𝑥 in a set 𝐷 exactly, called 𝑓(𝑥), in a set 𝐸.
 Figure 2. Domain and Range of function y=f(x)

A symbol that represents an arbitrary number in the domain of a function 𝑓 is called an independent variable.

A symbol that represents a number in the range of 𝑓 is called a dependent variable.

"($%&)("($)
Example 1: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ! − 5𝑥 + 1 and ℎ ≠ 0, evaluate .
&

Solution: We first evaluate 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) by replacing 𝑥 by 𝑎 + ℎ in the expression for 𝑓(𝑥):

𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 2(𝑎 + ℎ)! − 5(𝑎 + ℎ) + 1

= 2(𝑎! + 2𝑎ℎ + ℎ! ) − 5(𝑎 + ℎ) + 1

= 2𝑎! + 4𝑎ℎ + 2ℎ! − 5𝑎 − 5ℎ + 1

Then we substitute into the given expression and simplify:

𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎) (2𝑎! + 4𝑎ℎ + 2ℎ! − 5𝑎 − 5ℎ + 1) − (2𝑎! − 5𝑎 + 1)

=
ℎ ℎ
2𝑎! + 4𝑎ℎ + 2ℎ! − 5𝑎 − 5ℎ + 1 − 2𝑎! + 5𝑎 − 1
=
ℎ
4𝑎ℎ + 2ℎ! − 5ℎ
= = 4𝑎 + 2ℎ − 5
ℎ

Exercise: A rectangular storage container with an open top has a volume of 10 𝑚) .The length of its base is twice its width.
Material for the base costs $10 per square meter; material for the sides costs $6 per square meter. Express the cost of materials
as a function of the width of the base.
 *+,
Answer: 𝐶(𝑤) = 20𝑤 ! + 𝑤>0
-

Exercise: Find the domain of each function:

*
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2 (b) 𝑔(𝑥) = . !(.

Answers: (a) [−2, ∞) ; (b) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0,1) ∪ (1, ∞)

The Vertical Line Test. A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function of x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve
more than once.

We observe from the parabola above in (a), if we reverse the roles of x and y, then the equation 𝑥 = ℎ(𝑦) = 𝑦 ! − 2 does
define x as a function of y (y = independent variable; x= dependent variable).

The parabola now appears as the graph of the function h.

Piecewise Functions

Example: A function 𝑓 is defined by

1 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ −1
𝑓(𝑥) = E !
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > −1

Evaluate 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(−1), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(0)

Answers: 3 ; 2 ; 0

THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION:

Investigate the behaviour of the function 𝑓 defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ! − 𝑥 + 2 for values of 𝑥 near 2.

𝑥 1.0 1.5 1.9 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.995 1.999 2.001 2.005 2.01 2.105 2.1 2.2 2.5
𝑓(𝑥)

It appears that we can make the values of 𝑓(𝑥) as close as we like to 4 by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to 2. Therefore

lim(𝑥 ! − 𝑥 + 2) = 4
.→!

Intuitive Definition of a Limit

Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is defined when 𝑥 is near the number 𝑎. (This means that 𝑓 is defined on some open interval that contains 𝑎,
except possibly at 𝑎 itself.) Then we write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
.→$

and say “ the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, equals 𝐿”

if we can make the values of 𝑓(𝑥) arbitrarily close to 𝐿 (as close to 𝐿 as we like) by restricting 𝑥 to be sufficiently close to 𝑎 (on
either side of 𝑎) but not equal to 𝑎.

.(*
Exercise: Evaluate lim
.→* . ! (*

One Sided Limits

The Heaviside Funtion:

The Heaviside function 𝐻 is defined by

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0
𝐻(𝑡) E
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≥ 0

In this case, We noticed in Example 6 that H(t) approaches zero as t approaches zero from the left, and H(t) approaches one as t
approaches zero from the right. We indicate this situation symbolically by writing

lim 𝐻(𝑡) = 0 ; lim 𝐻(𝑡) = 1

0→," 0→,#

Definition of One-Sided Limits. We write

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
0→$"

and say the left-hand limit of 𝒇(𝒙) as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂 [of the limit of 𝒇(𝒙)as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂 from the left] is equal to 𝑳 if
we can make the values of 𝑓(𝑥) arbitrarily;y close to 𝐿 by taking 𝑥 to be sufficiently close to 𝑎 with 𝑥 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑎. Similarly, if
we require that 𝑥 be greater than 𝑎, we get “the right-hand limit of 𝒇(𝒙) as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂 is equal to L:

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
0→$#

Figure 3. Limits of a function from (a) the left-hand side; (b) the right-hand side
The limit

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
0→$

can only be if and only if

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
0→$"

and

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
0→$#

Infinite Limits

Find
1
lim
.→, 𝑥 !

*
As x becomes close to 0, 𝑥^2 also becomes close to 0, and . ! becomes very large and does not approach a number indicating
that there is no limit

To indicate the kind of behavior exhibited in this example, we use the notation
1
lim =∞
.→, 𝑥 !

Intuitive Definition of an Infinite Limit. Let 𝑓 be a function defined on both sides of 𝑎, except possibly 𝑎 itself. Then

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
.→$

means that the values of the function can be made arbitrarily large by taking 𝑥 sufficiently close to but not equal to 𝑎.

The vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎 is called the vertical asymptote of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) if at least on the following statements is true

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞

.→$ .→$" .→$#

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞

.→$ .→$" .→$#
 !.
Exercise: Find lim
.→) .()

Ans: ∞; −∞

Limit Laws:

Suppose that 𝑐 is a constant and the limits

lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥)

.→$ .→$

exist. Then

1. lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)

.→$ .→$ .→$

2. lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)

.→$ .→$ .→$

3. lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐lim 𝑓(𝑥)

.→$ .→$

4. lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ lim 𝑔(𝑥)

.→$ .→$ .→$

"(.) 234 "(.)

5. lim 1(.) = $→&
234 1(.)
if lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
.→$ $→&
.→$

"(.)
Example: From the graph below, evaluate lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 5𝑔(𝑥)] ; lim[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)]; lim
.→(! .→* .→! 1(.)
Limit law
5
6. lim [𝑓(𝑥)]5 = ^lim 𝑓(𝑥)_ when n is a positive integer
.→$ .→$

7. lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
.→$

8. lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
.→$

Exercise: Evaluate the following

. ' %!. ! (*
lim (2𝑥 ! − 3𝑥 + 4) ; lim 6().
.→6 .→(!

Exercise: A crystal growth furnace is used in research to determine how best to manufacture crystals used in electronic
components for the space shuttle. For proper growth of the crystal, the temperature must be controlled accurately by adjusting the
input power. Suppose the relationship is given by

𝑇(𝑤) = 0.1𝑤 ! + 2.155𝑤 + 20

where T is the temperature in degrees Celcius and w is the power in watts.

a. How much power is needed to maintain the temperature at 200 deg C?

b. If the temperature is allowed to vary from 200 deg C by up to ±1 deg C, what range of wattage is allowed for the input
power?
c. In terms of the 𝜖, 𝛿 definition of lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, what is x? what is f(x)? what is a? what is L? what value of 𝜖 is given?
.→$
What is the corresponding value of 𝛿?
Continuity. A function 𝑓 is continuous at a number 𝒂 if

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

.→$

This definition implicitly requires three things:

1. 𝑓(𝑎) is defined (that is , 𝑎 is in the domain of 𝑓)

2. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
.→$
3. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
.→$

If 𝑓 is defined near a (in other words, 𝑓 is defined on an open interval containing a, except a) we say that 𝑓 is discontinuous at
a.
THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION

Considere the derivative of a function 𝑓 at a fixed number 𝑎. If we want to see how much the function changes from a to h, we use
the tangent of the function and approach it’s limit to zero:

𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 7 (𝑎) = lim (1)
&→, ℎ
Here we change our point of view and let the number 𝑎 vary. If we replace 𝑎 in Equation 1 by a variable 𝑥, we obtain

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 7 (𝑥) = lim (2)
&→, ℎ

Given any number 𝑥 for which this limit exists, we assign it to 𝑥 the number 𝑓 7 (𝑥). So we can regard 𝑓 7 a new function, called
the derivative of 𝑓 and defined by Equation 2.

We know that the value of 𝑓 7 at 𝑥, 𝑓 7 (𝑥), can be interpreted geometrically as the slope of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓 at the
point f𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)g.

Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ) − 𝑥, find a formula for 𝑓 7 (𝑥).

Solution:

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 7 (𝑥) = lim
&→, ℎ

[(𝑥 + ℎ)) − (𝑥 + ℎ)] − [𝑥 ) − 𝑥]

= lim
&→, ℎ

𝑥 ) + 3𝑥 ! ℎ + 3𝑥ℎ! + ℎ) − 𝑥 − ℎ − 𝑥 ) + 𝑥
= lim
&→, ℎ

3𝑥 ! ℎ + 3𝑥ℎ! + ℎ) − ℎ
= lim
&→, ℎ

= lim (3𝑥 ! + 3𝑥ℎ + ℎ! − 1) = 3𝑥 ! − 1

&→,

Exercise: Find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥.

*
Ans: !√.
 9:
If we want to indicate the value of a derivative 9. in Leibniz notation at a specific number a, we use the notation
𝑑𝑦
h
𝑑𝑥 .;$

Which is a synonym for 𝑓′(𝑎). The vertical bar means “evaluate at”

A Differentiable Function. A function is differentiable at a if 𝑓′(𝑎) exists. It is differentiable on an open interval (a,b) if it is
differentiable at ever number in the interval

Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ) − 𝑥, find and interpret 𝑓 77 (𝑥).

This is an example of taking second derivatives, that is

𝑓 7 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓 7 (𝑥)
𝑓 77 (𝑥) = (𝑓 7 )7 (𝑥) = lim
&→, ℎ
[3(𝑥 + ℎ)! − 1] − [3𝑥 ! − 1]
= lim
&→, ℎ
3𝑥 ! + 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ! − 1 − 3𝑥 ! + 1
= lim
&→, ℎ
= lim(6𝑥 + 3ℎ) = 6𝑥
&→,

The graphs of 𝑓, 𝑓 7 , and 𝑓 77 are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. 1st, 2nd, and 3rd derivatives of a function f

We can interpret 𝑓 77 (𝑥) as the slope of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 7 (𝑥) at the point f𝑥, 𝑓 7 (𝑥)g. In other words, it is the rate of change of
the slope of the original curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).

Notice from Figure 4 that 𝑓 77 (𝑥) is negative when 𝑦 = 𝑓 7 (𝑥) has negative slope and positive when 𝑦 = 𝑓 7 (𝑥) has positive
slope. So the graphs serve as a check on our calculations.
In general, we can interpret a second derivative as a rate of change of a rate of change. The most familiar example of this is
acceleration, which we define as follows.

If 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑡) is the position function of an object that moves in a straight line, we know that its first derivative represents the
velocity 𝑣(𝑡) of the object as a function of time:

𝑑𝑠
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑠 7 (𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the acceleration 𝑎(𝑡) of the object. Thus, the
acceleration function is the derivative of the velocity function and is therefore the second derivative of the position function:

𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 7 (𝑡) = 𝑠 77 (𝑡)

or, in Leibniz notation,

𝑑𝑣 𝑑! 𝑠
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 !
THE DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS

Basic Derivative Rules 𝑑 1

ln𝑥 = , 𝑥>0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1. Constant Rule
𝑑 1
𝑑 log $ 𝑥 = , 𝑥>0
(𝑐) = 0 𝑑𝑥 𝑥ln𝑎
𝑑𝑥
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
where 𝑐 is a constant.
10. Sine and Cosine
2. Power Rule
𝑑
𝑑 5 sin𝑥 = cos𝑥
(𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 5(* 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
where 𝑛 is any real number. cos𝑥 = −sin𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3. Constant Multiple Rule 11. Tangent and Cotangent
𝑑 𝑑 𝜋
[𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐𝑓 7 (𝑥) tan𝑥 = sec ! 𝑥, 𝑥≠ + 𝑘𝜋
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
where 𝑐 is a constant. 𝑑
cot𝑥 = −csc ! 𝑥, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑘𝜋
𝑑𝑥
4. Sum and Difference Rule
12. Secant and Cosecant
𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 7 (𝑥) ± 𝑔7 (𝑥) 𝑑 𝜋
𝑑𝑥
sec𝑥 = sec𝑥tan𝑥, 𝑥≠ + 𝑘𝜋
𝑑𝑥 2
Product and Quotient Rules
𝑑
5. Product Rule csc𝑥 = −csc𝑥cot𝑥, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑘𝜋
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 7 (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔7 (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
13. Inverse Sine and Cosine
6. Quotient Rule
𝑑 1
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 7 (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔7 (𝑥) sin(* 𝑥 = , ∣ 𝑥 ∣< 1
k l= 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 !
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)!
𝑑 1
where 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0. cos(* 𝑥 = − , ∣ 𝑥 ∣< 1
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 !
Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 14. Inverse Tangent and Cotangent
8. Exponential Function 𝑑 1
tan(* 𝑥 =
𝑑 . 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥!
𝑒 = 𝑒.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑 1
cot (* 𝑥 = −
𝑑 . 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥!
𝑎 = 𝑎 . ln𝑎
𝑑𝑥 15. Inverse Secant and Cosecant
where 𝑎 > 0. 𝑑 1
sec (* 𝑥 = , ∣ 𝑥 ∣> 1
𝑑𝑥 ∣ 𝑥 ∣ √𝑥 ! − 1
9. Logarithmic Function
 𝑑 1 𝑑
csc (* 𝑥 = − , ∣ 𝑥 ∣> 1 tanh𝑥 = sech! 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ∣ 𝑥 ∣ √𝑥 ! − 1 𝑑𝑥

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions 𝑑

coth𝑥 = −csch! 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
16. Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine
18. Hyperbolic Secant and Cosecant
𝑑
sinh𝑥 = cosh𝑥 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 sech𝑥 = −sech𝑥tanh𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
cosh𝑥 = sinh𝑥 𝑑
𝑑𝑥 csch𝑥 = −csch𝑥coth𝑥
𝑑𝑥
17. Hyperbolic Tangent and Cotangent

THE CHAIN RULE

If 𝑔 is differentiable at 𝑥 and 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑔(𝑥), then the composite function 𝐹 = 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 defined by 𝐹(𝑥0 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is
differentiable at 𝑥 and 𝐹′ is given by the product

𝐹 7 (𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑔′(𝑥)

Or in Leibniz notation, if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢) and 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) are both differentiable functions, then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥