WC

MODULE-1

Module 1 – 3 Marks Questions

 Define Grade of Service (GOS) and Trunking.

 What are the standards used for implementing Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)?
 Describe the concept of frequency reuse in cellular networks.
 Describe the different types of interference that can occur in cellular networks.
 Compare and contrast the analog and digital cellular systems.
 What are the methods adopted for hand-off procedures?
 Determine the number of channels per cluster and the total channel capacity for a cellular
telephone area composed of 10 clusters with seven cells in each cluster and 10 channels in each
cell.
 What is cell splitting? How does it improve system performance?

Module 1 – 14 Marks Questions

1.1 (June 2023 - Q11)

a) What are different standards used to implement the Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)? Explain
by comparing. (07)
b) If a Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR) of 20 dB is required for satisfactory forward channel
performance of a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster size that should be used
for maximum capacity? Assume: n = 4, 12 co-channel cells in first tier. (07)

1.2 (June 2023 - Q12 - OR)

a) Enumerate the different features of a 4G mobile communication system. (07)
b) How do co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference affect cellular system capacity? (07)

2.1 (Jan 2024 - Q11)

a) Compare the performance of WiMAX, Wireless LAN, and 5G for broadband wireless access. (06)
b) In a cellular system using a 4-cell reuse pattern with a total bandwidth of 60 MHz, if 2 channels of 30
kHz are needed for a call, how many simultaneous calls can be accommodated in one cell? (08)

2.2 (Jan 2024 - Q12 - OR)

a) Discuss the challenges of implementing cellular networks in rural areas. (08)
b) A cellular network covers an area of 160 square kilometers. If the cells are identical squares with an
area of 16 square kilometers each, how long is one side of a cell? Calculate the total perimeter of the
coverage area. (06)

3.1 (Oct 2023 - Q11)

a) Describe the features of the GSM system architecture with the help of a neat block diagram. (07)
b) How does cell splitting and sectoring improve the capacity and coverage of the cellular system? (07)
3.2 (Oct 2023 - Q12 - OR)
a) Explain the different channel assignment strategies used in cellular systems. (07)
b) Enumerate the features of 4G wireless networks. (07)

4.1 (Model Paper - Q11)

a) How are co-channel signal-to-interference ratio, cluster size and system capacity are related to one
another in a cellular system? Explain with necessary equations. (07)
b) Explain the architecture of wireless LAN (WLAN). (07)

4.2 (Model Paper - Q12 - OR)

a) List three differences between 2G and 3G systems. (03)
b) A total of 33MHz of bandwidth is allocated to an FDD cellular system which uses two 25kHz simplex
channels to provide full-duplex voice & control channels. Compute the number of channels available per
cell if the system uses 7-cell reuse. (03)
c) What is cell splitting? How does it improve system performance? (08)

5.1 (Aug 2024 - Q11)

a) Describe the evolution of wireless communication systems through the generations (2G, 3G, 4G, and
5G). List out the key technological advancements and capabilities introduced in each generation. (07)
b) Describe the role of Bluetooth technology in the development of personal area networks. What are the
main features that distinguish Bluetooth from other wireless technologies? (07)

5.2 (Aug 2024 - Q12 - OR)

a) Describe different types of handoff techniques. How do these techniques address the challenges
associated with maintaining seamless connectivity during mobility? (08)
b) A cellular service provider uses a digital TDMA scheme with a worst-case tolerance of 23 dB signal-
to-interference ratio. Calculate the optimal value of cluster size N and frequency reuse factor Q that
should be used for maximum capacity for omnidirectional antennas. (No of co-channel cells = 6, path loss
exponent n = 4.) (06)

6.1 (May 2024 - Q11)

a) Name any two methods to improve capacity in a cellular system. Explain the features with diagrams.
(08)
b) Define trunking and grade of service with relevant formulae. (06)

6.2 (May 2024 - Q12 - OR)

a) Compare the important features of 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G systems. (10)
b) In a cellular system using a 4-cell reuse pattern with a total bandwidth of 60 MHz, if 2 channels of 30
kHz each are needed for a call, how many simultaneous calls can be accommodated in one cell and in one
cluster? (04)

MODULE-2
3 Marks Questions

 Find the Fraunhofer distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of one meter and
operating frequency of 900MHz. What is the significance of Fraunhofer distance?
 What is meant by coherence bandwidth of the channel? Define coherence bandwidth in terms of
rms delay spread of the channel.
 Explain the concept of multipath fading in wireless communication systems.
 Express the relationship between channel capacity and bandwidth with suitable equation and
explain.
 How does fading occur? Derive the expression for doppler shift.
 Assume a receiver is located 10km away from a 50W transmitter. Given f = 900 MHz, Gt = 1 and
Gr= 2. Find the power at receiver and RMS voltage at receiver antenna matched with 50 Ω
resistor.
 Explain the notion of delay spread and coherence bandwidth.
 Give the expression for capacity of flat fading AWGN channel with CSIR. Describe how it is
obtained assuming AWGN capacity.
 What is fading? List various types of small scale fading.
 A transmitter radiates a sinusoidal carrier frequency of 3GHz. For a vehicle moving at a speed of
72Kmph, compute the received frequency if the mobile is moving i) Directly towards the
transmitter ii) Directly away from the transmitter.
 How does multipath propagation cause small scale fading?
 Define Ergodic capacity in the context of wireless communication systems and explain its
significance.

Module 2 – 14 Marks Questions

1.1 (June 2023 - Q13)

a) What is the importance of Two Ray model? Derive the expression for path loss in a two ray ground
reflection model. (08)
b) A transmitter radiates a sinusoidal carrier frequency of 3GHz. For a vehicle moving at a speed of
72Kmph, compute the received frequency if the mobile is moving i) Directly towards the transmitter ii)
Directly away from the transmitter. (06)

1.2 (June 2023 - Q14 - OR)

a) What is Fading? What are different types? What are the main factors affecting fading? (09)
b) Calculate the coherence time of a channel, if doppler shift is produced due to the movement of a
mobile with a velocity of 50 m/sec and operating at 1900MHz. (05)

2.1 (Jan 2024 - Q13)

a) What are the assumptions and limitations of the Two-Ray model? (07)
b) Explain the concept of frequency-selective fading in wireless systems. How does it influence data
transmission quality? (07)
2.2 (Jan 2024 - Q14 - OR)
a) How can path loss models be used to design and implement wireless communication systems? (07)
b) How does the time-varying channel impulse response affect the transmission of data? (07)

3.1 (Oct 2023 - Q13)

a) Consider a wireless channel, where power falloff with distance follows the formula Pr(d)=Pt(do/d)³ for
do=50m. Assume the channel has bandwidth B =50KHz and AWGN with noise PSD No/2, Where
No=10⁻⁹ W/Hz. For a transmit power of 2W, find the capacity of this channel for a receive transmit
distance of 200m and 1KM? What is your conclusion? (07)
(Note: Paper 3 Q13 appears to only have part a)

3.2 (Oct 2023 - Q14 - OR)

a) What is the received power in dBm for a free space signal, whose transmit power is 1W and carrier
frequency is 2.4GHz. If the receiver is at a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km) from the transmitter. What is the
path loss in dB? (07)
b) What is inferred by the channel capacity of AWGN channel? (04) What is meant by time selective
Fading? (03)

4.1 (Model Paper - Q13)

a) Explain the effect of multipath propagation using 2-ray model. (07)
b) Assuming narrow band fading model, derive statistical characterization of in-phase and quadrature
components of a received signal when an unmodulated carrier is transmitted. (07)

4.2 (Model Paper - Q14 - OR)

a) Derive time-varying impulse response of multipath wireless channel. (07)
b) Consider a flat-fading channel with iid channel gains g[i] which can take on values g1=0.05 with
probability p1=0.1, g2=0.5 with probability p2=0.5, and g3=1 with probability p3=0.4. The transmit
power is 10mW, noise spectral density N0 = 10⁻⁹ W/Hz, and channel bandwidth is 30kHz. Assume
instantaneous CSI-R, but transmitter does not have CSI. Compute the capacity of the channel. (07)

5.1 (Aug 2024 - Q13)

a) What is the importance of Two Ray model? Derive the expression for path loss in a two ray ground
reflection model. (07)
b) Describe the concept of ergodic capacity in flat fading channels. Give the expression for capacity of
flat fading AWGN channel with CSIR. Describe how it is obtained assuming AWGN capacity. (07)

5.2 (Aug 2024 - Q14 - OR)

a) Derive the expression for the impulse response model of a multipath channel. (07)
b) Compare and contrast flat fading with frequency-selective fading in wireless communication channels.
(04) Calculate the coherence time of a channel, if doppler shift is produced due to the movement of a
mobile with a velocity of 50 m/sec and operating at 1800MHz. (03)
6.1 (May 2024 - Q13)
a) Define small scale fading. What are the main types of small scale fading? Differentiate between flat
fading and frequency selective fading. (06)
b) A communication link is to be established between two station using half wave length antenna for
maximum directive gain. Transmitter power is 2 KW, distance between transmitter and receiver is 200
Km. What is the maximum power received by the receiver. Frequency of operation is 150 MHz. Gain of
transmitter and receiver = 1.64. (08)

6.2 (May 2024 - Q14 - OR)

a) With neat figure derive the expression for path loss in a Two-ray ground model. (08)
b) A wireless channel has channel bandwidth B = 320 kHz and AWGN with noise power spectral density
No/2. It is required to obtain a data rate of 1.6Mbps. Calculate the minimum value of SNR required. (06)

MODULE-3

3 Marks Questions

 What is the total bandwidth required for multi carrier modulation implementation with non-
overlapping subchannels?
 What is Peak-to-Average Power-Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM system? How can it be reduced?
 Describe the advantages of an OFDM system over conventional multi carrier systems.
 Explain how the peak-to-average-power ratio (PAPR) affects the performance of an OFDM
system.
 How is the outage probability computed for a wireless channel?
 Explain the significance of using cyclic prefix in an OFDM system.
 Define outage probability.
 What is the purpose of using cyclic prefix in an OFDM system?
 Describe cyclic prefix. Why is cyclic prefix required in OFDM?
 Define average error probability and outage probability.
 Name the multicarrier modulation scheme which completely eliminates the issues due to ISI.
What is the principle /technique applied?
 Write the expression for bit error probability in BPSK. Name the terms involved.

Module 3 – 14 Marks Questions

1.1 (June 2023 - Q15)

a) Derive expression for average probability of error in BPSK under Rayleigh flat fading, when the
symbol duration is roughly equal to channel coherence time. (08)
b) How can the subcarrier fading be mitigated in multicarrier modulation system? (06)

1.2 (June 2023 - Q16 - OR)

a) With the help of neat block diagram explain Multicarrier modulation in OFDM transmitter and receiver
section. (09)
b) List out the advantages and disadvantages of OFDM. (05)

2.1 (Jan 2024 - Q15)

a) Derive the error probability of a BPSK communication system. (07)
b) Describe how PAPR affects the performance of an OFDM system. (07)

2.2 (Jan 2024 - Q16 - OR)

a) Derive the outage probability of a BPSK in flat fading channels? (07)
b) With the help of a block schematic, explain the implementation of an OFDM system. (07)

3.1 (Oct 2023 - Q15)

a) With the help of mathematical equations show how linear convolution is converted to circular
convolution in OFDM using Cyclic prefix. (07)
b) Determine the average SNR per bit of BPSK modulation in Rayleigh slow fading channel in such that
90% of the times, the average probability of bit error is less than 10⁻⁴. (07)

3.2 (Oct 2023 - Q16 - OR)

a) How can the subcarrier fading be mitigated in multicarrier modulation system? (07)
b) Explain the techniques employed to reduce PAPR in OFDM. (07)

4.1 (Model Paper - Q15)

a) Derive expression for average probability of error in BPSK under Rayleigh flat-fading when symbol
duration is roughly equal to channel coherence time. (07)
b) What is Peak-to-Average Power-Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM system? How can it be reduced? (07)

4.2 (Model Paper - Q16 - OR)

a) Determine the average SNR per bit of BPSK modulation in Rayleigh slow-fading channel such that
95% of the times, average probability of bit error is less than 10⁻⁴. (05)
b) Explain multi-carrier modulation in OFDM. (09)

5.1 (Aug 2024 - Q15)

a) Derive expression for average probability of error in BPSK under Rayleigh flat fading when symbol
duration is roughly equal to channel coherence time. (08)
b) Determine the average SNR per bit of BPSK modulation in Rayleigh slow-fading channel such that
95% of the times, average probability of bit error is less than 10⁻⁴. (06)

5.2 (Aug 2024 - Q16 - OR)

a) With the help of block diagrams, explain the implementation of an OFDM system. (09)
b) What is Peak-to-Average Power-Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM system? How can it be reduced? (05)

6.1 (May 2024 - Q15)

a) What is Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing? Explain the working of OFDM system with
necessary block diagrams. (10)
b) What are the applications of OFDM? (04)

6.2 (May 2024 - Q16 - OR)

a) Derive the expression for outage probability of a BPSK in flat fading channels. How is this related to
Fade margin? (08)
b) What is Peak-to-Average Power-Ratio (PAPR) in OFDM system? How can it be reduced? (06)

MODULE-4

3 Marks Questions

 Define Outage Probability (Pout) of a wireless channel.

 Compare and contrast linear equalizer over non linear equalizer.
 Explain the different types of receiver diversity techniques?
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of equalization?
 Differentiate between microdiversity and macrodiversity.
 Compare pros and cons of linear equaliser over non-linear equaliser.
 Consider a channel with impulse response h(t) = exp(-t/T) u(t). Find tap coefficients of a two-tap
zero-forcing equalizer for this channel.
 Why do we say that maximal ratio combining achieves full diversity?
 Describe the selection combining technique used in diversity receivers.
 Define equalization in the context of digital communication systems. Differentiate between linear
and nonlinear equalization techniques.
 What are the different types of Diversity in wireless communication?
 Differentiate between linear and nonlinear equalizers. Give examples for each.

Module 4 – 14 Marks Questions

1.1 (June 2023 - Q17)

a) Derive the expression for the impulse response Heq(z), of a Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE)
equaliser. (07)
b) Compare Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) and Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
techniques. (07)

1.2 (June 2023 - Q18 - OR)

a) Design a three tap zero forcing equaliser with following parameters P(0)=1, P(-1)=0.3, P(-2)=-0.05,
P(1)= 0.2, P(2)=-0.06. (07)
b) Describe the principle of Selection Combining (SC) diversity technique. (07)

2.1 (Jan 2024 - Q17)

a) Describe the role of equalizer in a communication system; explain the working of an adaptive
equalizer. (07)
b) An FDMA system with a total bandwidth of 60 MHz has subcarriers spaced 100 kHz apart. If each
subcarrier's bandwidth is 1.1 MHz, calculate the number of available subcarriers. (07)

2.2 (Jan 2024 - Q18 - OR)

a) Describe the concept of Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC) in MIMO systems. How does it enhance
signal reception? (07)
b) In a TDMA system with frame duration of 8 ms and 40 time slots per frame, each slot being 120 µs
long, calculate the bandwidth for a user given one time slot. (07)

3.1 (Oct 2023 - Q17)

a) Describe the working principle of a Zero Forcing Equaliser with the help of a neat diagram. (07)
b) Derive the expression for received SNR of transmitter diversity with 2 X 2 Alamouti scheme. (07)

3.2 (Oct 2023 - Q18 - OR)

a) Describe the steps to compute tap weights iteratively in LMS algorithm? (07)
b) Compare and contrast any three types of multiple access methods adopted in wireless communication
system. (07)

4.1 (Model Paper - Q17)

a) Explain Least-Mean-Square algorithm for equalization. (09)
b) Compute the average probability of bit error of BPSK under maximal-ratio-combining two-branch
diversity with iid Rayleigh fading. Average SNR on each branch is 10dB. (05)

4.2 (Model Paper - Q18 - OR)

a) Describe Alamouti scheme for 2x2 MIMO. (07)
b) Describe how multiple-access works on uplink and downlink in CDMA. (07)

5.1 (Aug 2024 - Q17)

a) Describe Alamouti scheme for 2x2 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) systems. (07)
b) Compare and contrast the various multiple access methods, including Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA), Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), and
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA). (07)

5.2 (Aug 2024 - Q18 - OR)

a) What is the role of the Least Mean Squares (LMS) algorithm in adaptive equalization? (07)
b) Outline the differences between uplink and downlink transmission in multiuser systems and the
challenges associated with them. (07)

6.1 (May 2024 - Q17)

a) With neat figure explain the operation of a ZF equaliser. (07)
b) Compare the features of TDMA, FDMA and CDMA. (07)
6.2 (May 2024 - Q18 - OR)
a) Describe the features of the Selection Combining diversity technique. (09)
b) List the advantages of Adaptive Equalization. (05)

MODULE-5

3 Marks Questions

 What do you mean by virtual height of an ionospheric layer?

 Which mode of propagation is used by radio waves of frequency above 300MHz? Explain.
 Explain the concept of surface wave propagation?
 Describe the factors affecting around the Earth radio wave propagation.
 Deduce the expression for critical frequency of an ionised region in terms of its maximum
ionization density.
 Explain the mechanism of wave bending in ionosphere with suitable diagram.
 Distinguish between critical frequency and maximum usable frequency.
 Define virtual height in antennas.
 What are the advantages and limitations of ground wave propagation for long-distance
communication?
 Define critical frequency and maximum usable frequency and establish the relation between
them.
 How does the spherical nature of the earth affect ground wave propagation?
 Two aircrafts are flying at altitudes of 3 Km and 5 Km respectively. What is the maximum
possible distance along the surface of the earth over which they can have effective point to point
communication? (Use effective radius of earth with K=4/3)

Module 5 – 14 Marks Questions

1.1 (June 2023 - Q19)

a) Derive an expression for the LOS distance in km when the antenna heights above ground are ht and hr
respectively for the transmitter and receiver antennas. (07)
b) Analyze the effect of earth's magnetic field on radio wave propagation. (07)

1.2 (June 2023 - Q20 - OR)

a) A receiving antenna is located 60km from the transmitting antenna. The Height of the transmitting
antenna is 100meters. What is the required height of the receiving antenna. Consider effective radius of
earth. (07)
b) Derive the relation between the terms (i) Critical Frequency (ii) Skip Distance (iii) Maximum Usable
Frequency. (07)

2.1 (Jan 2024 - Q19)

a) Discuss the effect of ionosphere on the propagation of radio waves around the Earth. (07)
b) If the critical frequency for the F layer is 12 MHz, determine the maximum usable frequency for a
radio signal transmitted at an angle of 45° and received back on the ground. (07)

2.2 (Jan 2024 - Q20 - OR)

a) Discuss the factors affecting the range of radio wave propagation around the Earth. (07)
b) A radio wave signal of frequency 15 MHz is received on Earth after a delay of 3ms at a place 800 km
away from the source. Assuming flat Earth for simplicity, what is the virtual height of the ionosphere
layer? What is the angle of signal transmission? (07)

3.1 (Oct 2023 - Q19)

a) A television transmitter antenna mounted at a height of 200 meters and the receiving antenna has a
height of 20 meters. What is the maximum spacing between the transmitter and receiver through
tropospheric propagation? Also compute the radio horizon in this case. (07)
b) Derive expression for critical frequency, maximum usable frequency and skip distance (assume flat
earth's surface) for skywave propagation. (07)

3.2 (Oct 2023 - Q20 - OR)

a) List out the features of the various modes of radio wave propagation. (08)
b) What is the critical frequency for reflection at vertical incidence if the maximum value of electron
density is 1.24x 10⁶ electrons/cc? (06)

4.1 (Model Paper - Q19)

a) Derive an expression for the LOS distance in km when the antenna heights above ground are ht and hr
respectively for the transmitter and receiver antennas. (07)
b) A receiving antenna is located at 80km from the transmitting antenna. The height of the transmitting
antenna is 100m. What is the required height of the receiving antenna? (07)

4.2 (Model Paper - Q20 - OR)

a) An HF radio communication is to be established between two points on the earth's surface. The points
are at a distance of 2600km. The height of the ionosphere layer is 200km and critical frequency is 4MHz.
Find maximum usable frequency. (07)
b) Derive expression for critical frequency, maximum usable frequency and skip distance (assuming flat
earth's surface) for sky wave propagation. (07)

5.1 (Aug 2024 - Q19)

a) Derive the expression for the refractive index of ionosphere. (09)
b) Determine the maximum ionic density and critical frequency of an ionospheric layer with refractive
index 0.92 and a frequency of 10MHz. (05)

5.2 (Aug 2024 - Q20 - OR)

a) How does the Earth's magnetic field influence ionospheric propagation? (07)
b) A receiving antenna is located 65 km from the transmitting antenna. The Height of the transmitting
 antenna is 100meters. What is the required height of the receiving antenna. Consider effective radius of
earth. (07)

6.1 (May 2024 - Q19)

a) Define MUF. Derive an expression for MUF in terms of critical frequency, height of the ionospheric
region at the point of reflection and skip distance. (08)
b) The critical frequencies for F1 and F2 layers are observed as 5 MHz and 9 MHz respectively. Find the
maximum electronic concentration of these two layers. (06)

6.2 (May 2024 - Q20 - OR)

a) Deduce the expression for critical frequency of an ionized region in terms of its maximum ionization
density. (08)
b) Calculate the skip distance for flat earth with MUF of 10 MHz. The wave is reflected from a height of
300km where the maximum value of refractive index is 0.9 and critical frequency is 5 MHz. (06)

ANSWERS

Module 1 – 3 Marks Questions

 Define Grade of Service (GOS) and Trunking.

o Trunking: Trunking is used by cellular radio systems to accommodate a large number of
users in a limited radio spectrum. It allows a large number of users to share the relatively
small number of channels in a cell by providing access on demand from a pool of
available channels. It exploits the statistical behavior of users so that a fixed number of
channels can serve a large, random user community.
o Grade of Service (GOS): The grade of service (GOS) is a measure of the ability of a
user to access a trunked system during the busiest hour. It's a benchmark used to define
the desired performance of a trunked system, typically given as the likelihood that a call
is blocked or the likelihood of a call experiencing a delay greater than a certain queuing
time.
 What are the standards used for implementing Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)?
o The notes state that Wireless PAN uses Bluetooth or Infrared connections. Bluetooth
PANs (piconets) use the IEEE 802.15 standard.
Key WPAN Standards:
 IEEE 802.15:
This is the general framework for WPAN technologies, encompassing various
standards for different needs.
 IEEE 802.15.1 (Bluetooth): A widely used standard for short-range wireless
communication, known for its low power consumption and versatility.
 IEEE 802.15.4: Designed for low-cost, low-power, and short-range applications, often
used in home automation and IoT.

 IEEE 802.15.5: Focuses on wireless mesh networking for WPAN devices.

 Bluetooth:
Includes Bluetooth BR/EDR (Basic Rate/Enhanced Data Rate) and Bluetooth Low
Energy (BLE), with BR/EDR being more suited for streaming data and BLE for low-
power applications.
 Zigbee:
A standard based on IEEE 802.15.4, often used in home automation and industrial
applications.

 Describe the concept of frequency reuse in cellular networks.

o Frequency reuse is a core concept in cellular systems where the same set of frequency
channels are used in different geographic locations (cells) that are sufficiently separated
to keep interference at tolerable levels. By limiting the coverage area of a cell, the same
channel group can be reused in other cells that are far enough apart. This process, also
called frequency planning, allows a cellular system to increase the overall capacity
(number of simultaneous calls) within a limited spectrum allocation. The set of N cells
that collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called a cluster.
 Describe the different types of interference that can occur in cellular networks.
o Interference is a major limiting factor in cellular system performance. Sources include
other mobiles in the same cell, calls in neighboring cells, other base stations on the same
frequency, and non-cellular systems leaking energy. The two major types of system-
generated cellular interference are:
1. Co-channel interference (CCI): Occurs between cells that use the same set of
frequencies (co-channel cells) due to frequency reuse. Signals from co-channel
cells interfere with the desired signal.
2. Adjacent channel interference (ACI): Results from signals that are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal leaking into the passband due to imperfect
receiver filters.
Adjacent channel interference (ACI) occurs when a wireless
transmission in a neighboring frequency band interferes
with a desired signal. This happens because of imperfect
receiver filters that allow some of the adjacent channel's
power to leak into the desired channel, causing distortion,
reduced throughput, and potential dropped connections.
 Compare and contrast the analog and digital cellular systems.
 o Analog (1G): Based on analog circuit switching (e.g., AMPS, TACS). Used FDMA.
Supported voice calls only. Limitations included low traffic capacity, unreliable
handovers, inefficient bandwidth use, poor voice quality, poor battery life, and large
handsets.
o Digital (2G and later): Employ digital technologies (digital voice coding and
modulation). Support voice, data, SMS, Fax, WAP services (2G). Use TDMA or CDMA
multiple access techniques. Offer improvements over 1G like better battery performance,
higher signal quality, increased capacity, and features like paging and higher data rate
internet access (though still limited in 2G, e.g., 9.6-28.8 kbps). 2G introduced concepts
like the Base Station Controller (BSC) and Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO). Later
generations (3G, 4G, 5G) are also digital, offering progressively higher data rates, packet-
based services (IP), multimedia capabilities, and lower latency.
 What are the methods adopted for hand-off procedures?
o The notes describe the following handoff strategies and methods:
1. Hard Handoff: Break-before-make; the connection to the old base station (BS)
is broken before the connection to the new BS is made. Can be intercellular
(between cells).
2. Soft Handoff: Make-before-break; the connection to the old BS is maintained
until the connection to the new BS is established.
3. Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO): The mobile station measures received
power from surrounding BSs and reports results to the serving BS, which
initiates the handoff. This is faster than first-generation methods.
4. Intersystem Handoff: Occurs when a mobile moves between cellular systems
controlled by different Mobile Switching Centers (MSCs).
 Determine the number of channels per cluster and the total channel capacity for a cellular
telephone area composed of 10 clusters with seven cells in each cluster and 10 channels in
each cell.
o Given: M = 10 clusters, N = 7 cells/cluster, k = 10 channels/cell.
o Number of unique channels per cluster (S): S = N * k = 7 cells/cluster * 10 channels/cell
= 70 channels per cluster.
o Total channel capacity (C) for the area: C = M * S = 10 clusters * 70 channels/cluster
= 700 channels. (Alternatively, C = M * N * k = 10 * 7 * 10 = 700 channels).
 What is cell splitting? How does it improve system performance?
o Cell Splitting: It is the process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells (called
microcells), each with its own base station, lower transmitter power, and reduced antenna
height.
o Performance Improvement: Cell splitting increases the capacity of a cellular system
because it increases the number of times channels are reused within a given geographic
area. By creating smaller cells, it provides more channels per unit area, thus
accommodating more users and alleviating congestion.
Module 1 – 14 Marks Questions

1.1 (June 2023 - Q11)

 a) What are different standards used to implement the Wireless Local Area Network
(WLAN)? Explain by comparing. (07)
o The primary standard family mentioned for WLAN is IEEE 802.11. The notes illustrate
its evolution:
 Original IEEE 802.11: Operated in the 2.4 GHz band (also mentions 850-950
nm for Infrared). It supported different physical layer technologies:
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Offered 1 Mbps (using
2GFSK) or 2 Mbps (using 4GFSK).
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): Offered 1 Mbps (using
DBPSK) or 2 Mbps (using DQPSK).
 Diffuse Infrared (IR)
 IEEE 802.11b (Extension/Wi-Fi): Also operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band. It
standardized higher rates using DSSS, achieving 5.5 Mbps (using DQPSK-CCK /
BPSK-PBCC) and 11 Mbps (using DQPSK-CCK / QPSK-PBCC). This is
commonly known as Wi-Fi.
 IEEE 802.11a: Mentioned in Table 1.2 as operating in the unlicensed U-NII
bands around 5 GHz (5.15-5.35 GHz, 5.725-5.825 GHz. it's for indoor and
outdoor systems.
 IEEE 802.11g: operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band along with 802.11b.
o HiPERLAN: Mentioned as another standard developed to provide similar capabilities to
IEEE 802.11, intended for individual wireless LANs for computer communications. It
used the 5.2 GHz and 17.1 GHz frequency bands.
o Comparison:
 Standard Body: Primarily IEEE 802.11 family. HiPERLAN is another standard.
 Frequency Bands: IEEE 802.11/b/g use the 2.4 GHz ISM band. IEEE 802.11a
uses 5 GHz U-NII bands. HiPERLAN used 5.2 GHz and 17.1 GHz.
 Technology: Early 802.11 used FHSS, DSSS, or IR. 802.11b uses DSSS.
(802.11a/g typically use OFDM).
 Data Rates: Original 802.11 offered 1-2 Mbps. 802.11b offers up to 11 Mbps.
 Naming: 802.11b is referred to as Wi-Fi.
 b) If a Signal to Interference Ratio (SIR) of 20 dB is required for satisfactory forward
channel performance of a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster
size that should be used for maximum capacity? Assume: n = 4, 12 co-channel cells in first
tier. (07)
1.2 (June 2023 - Q12 - OR)

 a) Enumerate the different features of a 4G mobile communication system. (07)

o Based on the notes, features of 4G include:
 Data-optimized technology with significant speed improvements (up to 10x over
3G).
 Extension of 3G with more bandwidth and services.
  High-quality audio/video streaming over end-to-end Internet Protocol (IP).
 Higher transmission rates (text mentions up to 20 Mbps higher than 3G, but also
targets 100 Mbps mobile / 1 Gbps stationary).
 Initial technologies: WiMAX and LTE (LTE-Advanced is newer).
 Elimination of circuit switching; employs an all-IP network using packet
switching over internet/LAN/WAN via VoIP.
 Provides "ultra-broadband" access for mobile devices.
 Enables real-world wireless internetworking (WWWW: World Wide Wireless
Web concept).
 Allows video conferencing and streaming picture-perfect video.
 Uses advanced techniques like OFDMA, frequency-domain equalization (FDE),
MIMO, and Turbo Codes.
 Aims for smooth handovers across different networks without data loss.
 Provides high Quality of Service (QoS) for next-gen media.
 Utilizes IPv6 to overcome limitations of IPv4 addresses.
 Key features summary: Much higher data rates (up to 1 Gbps), enhanced security
and mobility, high definition video streaming and gaming, enhanced voice call
quality (VoLTE), reduced latency, Voice over LTE network (VoLTE).
 b) How do co-channel interference and adjacent channel interference affect cellular system
capacity? (07)
o Interference is noted as the major limiting factor for capacity.
o Co-channel Interference (CCI): This interference arises directly from the reuse of
frequencies in different cells. To maintain acceptable signal quality (Signal-to-
Interference Ratio, SIR), co-channel cells must be spaced sufficiently far apart (large
distance D relative to cell radius R, i.e., large reuse factor Q=D/R). A larger required Q
necessitates a larger cluster size N (since Q=√(3N)). With a fixed total number of system
channels (S), a larger N means fewer channels are available per cell (k = S/N). Fewer
channels per cell directly translates to lower capacity within that cell. Therefore,
managing CCI by increasing N limits the per-cell capacity.
o Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI): This arises from energy leaking from adjacent
frequency channels due to non-ideal filters. If ACI is significant, it may prevent the
assignment of spectrally adjacent channels within the same cell or necessitate larger
guard bands between channels. Both scenarios reduce the number of usable channels
within the allocated spectrum for a given cell or area, thereby reducing the overall system
capacity. Careful channel assignment (e.g., maximizing frequency separation between
channels used in the same cell) and filtering are used to minimize ACI's impact, but it can
still constrain how densely channels can be packed, affecting capacity.

2.1 (Jan 2024 - Q11)

 a) Compare the performance of WiMAX, Wireless LAN, and 5G for broadband wireless
access. (06)
o The notes provide the following points for comparison regarding broadband access:
 Wireless LAN (WLAN): Based on IEEE 802.11 standards (like 802.11b/Wi-Fi
offering up to 11 Mbps). Designed for local area access (home, office) within a
limited coverage range. Uses unlicensed spectrum (2.4 GHz, 5 GHz). While
providing wireless access, it's typically not considered a
primary broadband competitor to wide-area technologies like WiMAX or 5G,
focusing instead on local connectivity.
 WiMAX: Based on IEEE 802.16 standards. Explicitly designed to provide
broadband wireless connectivity across larger geographical areas (like a metro
city - WMAN). Uses technologies like OFDMA and operates in licensed or
specific bands (e.g., 2.3, 2.5, 3.5, 5.8 GHz). Mobile WiMAX (802.16e) adds
mobility. It was positioned as a technology for broadband service delivery,
competing with wired DSL/cable.
 5G: Presented as the evolution beyond 4G. it enables IoT and positioned after
4G, implying higher capacity and performance suitable for broadband and
beyond.
o Performance Comparison (Based on Text):
 Coverage/Range: WLAN (Local) < WiMAX (Metro) < 5G (Wide Area Cellular
- implied).
 Mobility: WLAN (Local), WiMAX (Fixed & Mobile versions), 5G (High
Mobility - implied).
 Primary Goal: WLAN (Local Network Access), WiMAX (Metropolitan
Broadband Access), 5G (Next-gen Mobile Broadband, IoT, etc. - implied).
 Data Rates/Bandwidth: WLAN (e.g., 11 Mbps for 802.11b), WiMAX (designed
for broadband, rates not specified but implied higher than early WLAN), 5G
(implied significantly higher than 4G).
 Standards: WLAN (802.11), WiMAX (802.16), 5G (Cellular standards).
 b) In a cellular system using a 4-cell reuse pattern with a total bandwidth of 60 MHz, if 2
channels of 30 kHz are needed for a call, how many simultaneous calls can be
accommodated in one cell? (08)
o Given: Cluster size N = 4, Total bandwidth = 60 MHz.
o Channel requirement per call: 2 channels of 30 kHz each. Assuming these are simplex
channels for a full-duplex call, the bandwidth per duplex call = 2 * 30 kHz = 60 kHz.
o Total number of available duplex channels (S) in the system = Total bandwidth /
Bandwidth per duplex channel
S = 60 MHz / 60 kHz = 60,000 kHz / 60 kHz = 1000 channels.
o Number of channels available per cell (k) = Total system channels (S) / Cluster size (N)
k = 1000 channels / 4 = 250 channels per cell.
 o Since each simultaneous call requires one duplex channel (with a 60 kHz bandwidth), the
number of simultaneous calls that can be accommodated in one cell is equal to the
number of channels per cell.
o Answer: 250 simultaneous calls can be accommodated in one cell.

2.2 (Jan 2024 - Q12 - OR)

 a) Discuss the challenges of implementing cellular networks in rural areas. (08)

🔹 1. Low Population Density

 Fewer users per square kilometer means lower revenue per cell tower, making it hard
to justify investment.
 Network operators may not see a strong return on investment (ROI) for expensive
infrastructure in sparsely populated regions.

🔹 2. High Deployment Costs

 Longer distances between settlements require:

o More towers to provide continuous coverage.
o High costs for laying fiber or backhaul infrastructure.
 Difficult terrain (mountains, forests, etc.) increases installation and maintenance
complexity.

🔹 3. Lack of Existing Infrastructure

 Rural areas often lack:

o Reliable power supply — towers may need solar panels or diesel generators.
o Roads/access routes — which complicates transportation of equipment and
materials.
o Wired backhaul — operators may need to use microwave links or satellite,
which are more expensive and have latency limitations.

🔹 4. Spectrum Availability and Interference

 Lower frequency bands (like 700 MHz) are preferred in rural areas due to greater range,
but:
o These bands are limited and in high demand.
o Licensing and regulatory issues may hinder deployment.
🔹 5. Technical Challenges

 Large cell radius leads to:

o Higher path loss, requiring higher transmission power.
o Greater latency and potential interference over large distances.
 Need for robust handover mechanisms for users on highways or trains passing through
rural zones.

🔹 6. Limited Local Technical Support

 Fewer trained technicians in rural areas → delays in maintenance and troubleshooting.

 Increased downtime if equipment fails.

🔹 7. Regulatory and Policy Issues

 Permitting delays, lack of government incentives, or restrictive land use policies can
slow down deployments.
 Coordination with multiple local authorities may be required.

🔹 8. Affordability and Demand

 Rural residents often have lower income levels, which affects:

o Demand for premium services like 4G/5G.
o Willingness or ability to pay for mobile plans.
 Operators may prefer urban rollouts where ARPU (Average Revenue Per User) is
higher.

 `b) A cellular network covers an area of 160 square kilometers. If the cells are identical
squares with an area of 16 square kilometers each, how long is one side of a cell? Calculate
the total perimeter of the coverage area. (06)
3.1 (Oct 2023 - Q11)

 a) Describe the features of the GSM system architecture with the help of a neat block
diagram. (07)
GSM System Architecture
The Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is a digital cellular network used for
mobile communication. It is based on circuit-switched technology and provides voice, SMS, and
low-data-rate services. GSM follows a structured hierarchical architecture consisting of multiple
functional entities that work together to provide seamless communication.
b) How does cell splitting and sectoring improve the capacity and coverage of the cellular system?
(07)

📶 Cell Splitting
🔸 What is it?

Cell splitting is the process of dividing a large cell into smaller cells, each with its own base station.

🔸 Why is it done?

 To increase capacity in high-traffic areas.

 As demand grows, the original large cell can't handle all users efficiently.
 Smaller cells mean more frequent reuse of frequencies, increasing overall system capacity.

🔸 How does it work?

 A macrocell (e.g., 10 km radius) is divided into microcells (e.g., 5 km or less).

 Each microcell gets a portion of the original cell’s frequency range or new frequencies
altogether.
 Transmitter power is reduced to prevent interference between new smaller cells.
🔸 📈 Benefits:

 Higher user capacity due to more cells (more reuse of frequencies).

 Better coverage in high-density urban areas.
 Improved signal strength and lower path loss in smaller cells.

📡 Sectoring
🔸 What is it?

Sectoring involves dividing a cell into sectors using directional antennas.

Typical examples:

 3 sectors of 120° each

 6 sectors of 60° each

Each sector is treated like a mini-cell with its own directional antenna and frequency allocation.

🔸 Why is it done?

 To reduce co-channel interference from nearby cells using the same frequencies.
 To increase capacity without physically splitting the cell.

🔸 How does it work?

 Instead of using one omnidirectional antenna, the base station uses multiple directional
antennas.
 Each antenna serves a specific sector of the cell.
 Since interference is reduced, frequencies can be reused more aggressively in nearby sectors or
cells.

🔸 📈 Benefits:

 Improved SIR (Signal-to-Interference Ratio)

 Higher frequency reuse → more users supported per area
 Improved quality of service, especially in dense urban environments
3.2 (Oct 2023 - Q12 - OR)

a) Explain the different channel assignment strategies used in cellular systems. (07)
1.Fixed Channel Assignment: Each cell is allocated a predetermined, fixed set of voice channels. When
a call arrives, it can only be served by an unused channel from that specific cell's set. If all channels in the
set are busy, the call is blocked.
Borrowing Strategy (Variation): A cell with all channels occupied may be allowed to borrow a channel
from a neighboring cell, supervised by the MSC to ensure no interference or disruption occurs in the
donor cell.
2.Dynamic Channel Assignment: Voice channels are not permanently assigned to cells. When a call
request occurs, the serving base station requests a channel from the MSC. The MSC allocates an available
channel based on an algorithm considering factors like future blocking probability, channel usage
frequency, and ensuring the channel meets the minimum frequency reuse distance to avoid co-channel
interference. This strategy reduces blocking probability and increases trunking capacity as all channels in
the market are accessible to all cells. However, it requires the MSC to perform real-time monitoring of
channel occupancy, traffic, and signal strength, increasing system complexity and computational load.
b) Enumerate the features of 4G wireless networks. (07)
4.1 (Model Paper - Q11)

 a) How are co-channel signal-to-interference ratio, cluster size and system capacity are
related to one another in a cellular system? Explain with necessary equations. (07)
o These three factors are fundamentally related in cellular system design:
Co-channel SIR and Cluster Size (N): Co-channel interference limits performance. The signal-to-
interference ratio (SIR or S/I) is determined by the distance to interfering co-channel cells relative to the
cell radius (D/R ratio, or Q) and the path loss exponent (n). For hexagonal geometry, Q = √(3N). The SIR
is given by:
S/I = Qⁿ / i₀ = (√(3N))ⁿ / i₀
where i₀ is the number of significant co-channel interferers. This equation shows that increasing the
cluster size (N) increases Q, which in turn increases the SIR. Thus, a higher required SIR necessitates a
larger cluster size N.
Cluster Size (N) and System Capacity: System capacity relates to the number of channels available per
cell (k) and how many times the channel set is reused (M clusters). The total number of unique channels
is S. Channels per cell are inversely proportional to N:
k=S/N
The total system capacity (total channels across the area) is C = M * S = M * k * N. However, the
capacity per cell (k) decreases as N increases. For a fixed service area, a smaller N allows more clusters
(M) to fit, potentially increasing total traffic capacity, but at the cost of lower SIR.
Relationship/Trade-off: There is a direct trade-off. To improve SIR, N must be increased. However,
increasing N reduces the number of channels per cell (k), thus decreasing the capacity per cell. Cellular
design aims to find the smallest N (and thus largest k) that provides an acceptable SIR for the desired
quality of service.
b) Explain the architecture of wireless LAN (WLAN). (07)
Standard: Based on IEEE 802.11.
Operation: Uses high-frequency radio waves or spread spectrum in unlicensed bands (e.g., 2.4 GHz, 5
GHz). Allows users to move within a coverage area (home/office).
Architecture of Wireless LAN (WLAN)
A WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) is a system that enables wireless communication between
devices within a limited geographical area (like a home, office, or campus) using radio waves, typically
following the IEEE 802.11 standard.

🏗️Two Main Modes of WLAN Architecture:

1. Infrastructure Mode (most common, used in Wi-Fi networks)
2. Ad-Hoc Mode (peer-to-peer, temporary networks)

Components of WLAN Architecture (Infrastructure Mode)

🔸 1. Stations (STAs)

 Devices like laptops, phones, tablets, etc.

 Each device has a wireless network interface card (NIC).
 These devices connect wirelessly to an Access Point.

🔸 2. Access Point (AP)

 Acts as a central hub for a group of stations.

 Handles data transmission between STAs and between STA and the wired network.
 Each AP covers a specific area—called a Basic Service Set (BSS).

🔸 3. Basic Service Set (BSS)

 The basic building block of WLAN.

 A BSS consists of one Access Point and the stations connected to it.
 Identified by a BSSID, usually the MAC address of the AP.

🔸 4. Distribution System (DS)

 The wired or wireless backbone network that interconnects multiple APs.

 Allows users to roam from one BSS to another while staying connected.
 Usually based on Ethernet in enterprise setups.
🔸 5. Extended Service Set (ESS)

 Formed when multiple BSSs (each with its own AP) are connected through a DS.
 All BSSs share the same SSID (network name).
 Enables seamless coverage over a large area (e.g., a campus).

🔸 6. Router/Internet Gateway

 The APs and DS eventually connect to a router, which provides access to the Internet or
external networks.

🔄 How It Works:
1. STAs connect wirelessly to an AP.
2. The AP communicates with other APs and the Internet via the DS.
3. Multiple BSSs can coexist, and users can move between them (roaming).
4. All BSSs together form an ESS, enabling wide coverage.

Ad-Hoc Mode in WLAN

Definition:
Ad-hoc mode is a type of wireless network configuration where devices communicate
directly with each other without using an access point (AP) or centralized infrastructure.

Feature Description

No Access Point Devices connect directly without an AP.

Peer-to-Peer Each device (station) acts as both sender and receiver.

Temporary Network Ideal for short-term communication like file sharing or gaming.

Independent BSS (IBSS) The network formed in ad-hoc mode is called an IBSS.

👥 Use Cases of Ad-Hoc Mode:

 Connecting devices in areas with no infrastructure (e.g., remote locations).
 File sharing between laptops in a classroom or meeting.
  Disaster recovery communications when regular networks are down.
 Multiplayer gaming over Wi-Fi.

🔄 How It Works:
1. Devices with wireless capability are set to ad-hoc mode.
2. They search for other devices in the same mode and form a direct connection.
3. No routing through APs—communication is device-to-device.
4. All devices must be in range of each other for communication to happen.
5. Comparison with Infrastructure Mode:

Aspect Infrastructure Mode Ad-Hoc Mode

AP Required Yes No
Network Type Centralized Peer-to-peer
Scalability High Low
Stability Stable for large networks Best for small, quick setups
Mobility Support Good Limited

a) List three differences between 2G and 3G systems. (03)

1. Data Rate & Services: 2G offered low data rates (e.g., 14.4 kbps) supporting basic data
like SMS/WAP. 3G offered significantly higher data rates (kbps to Mbps) enabling
multimedia services like video calling and streaming mobile internet.
2. Core Technology: 2G was primarily circuit-switched focused (especially for voice), with
packet data added later (2.5G). 3G was designed with packet switching and IP
connectivity as core elements for data and voice.
3. Primary Design Focus: 2G was primarily designed for digital voice with data as an add-
on. 3G was designed from the outset to handle both voice and rich data/multimedia
services.
 b) A total of 33MHz of bandwidth is allocated to an FDD cellular system which uses two
25kHz simplex channels to provide full-duplex voice & control channels. Compute the
number of channels available per cell if the system uses 7-cell reuse. (03)
o Given: Total bandwidth = 33 MHz, Duplex channel requires two 25 kHz simplex
channels => Duplex channel bandwidth = 2 * 25 kHz = 50 kHz. Cluster size N = 7.
o Total number of available duplex channels (S) = Total bandwidth / Duplex channel
bandwidth
S = 33 MHz / 50 kHz = 33,000 kHz / 50 kHz = 660 channels.
o Number of channels available per cell (k) = Total system channels (S) / Cluster size (N)
k = 660 channels / 7 ≈ 94.28.
 o Since a fraction of a channel is not possible, approximately 94 channels are available per
cell. (Note: The example calculation in the notes for this exact scenario yielded 95
channels/cell after specific allocation considerations for control channels, but the direct
calculation gives 94).
 c) What is cell splitting? How does it improve system performance? (08)
o (This question is the same as the last 3-mark question. Please refer to the answer provided
for that question above.)
 Cell Splitting: Process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller microcells,
each with its own base station, lower transmitter power, and reduced antenna
height.
 Performance Improvement: Increases system capacity by increasing the
frequency reuse density (more channels per unit area). This accommodates more
users in high-traffic areas and alleviates congestion.

5.1 (Aug 2024 - Q11)

 a) Describe the evolution of wireless communication systems through the generations (2G,
3G, 4G, and 5G). List out the key technological advancements and capabilities introduced
in each generation. (07)
o (This question combines information from previous answers comparing generations.
Synthesize from 1G-4G descriptions and the limited 5G info).
o 1G (Analog - reference point): Analog voice, FDMA.
o 2G (Digital Voice & Basic Data):
 Advancements: Digital modulation, digital voice coding, TDMA & CDMA.
 Capabilities: Clearer voice than 1G, basic data services (SMS, Fax, WAP),
increased capacity, improved security (implied), introduction of BSC, MAHO.
Data rates ~10s kbps. Standards: GSM, IS-95 (CDMA), IS-136 (TDMA).
o 2.5G (Packet Data Enhancement):
 Advancements: GPRS, EDGE technologies added over 2G.
 Capabilities: Packet-switched data, higher data rates than 2G, enabled early
mobile internet, email, WAP over GPRS.
o 3G (Mobile Broadband & Multimedia):
 Advancements: W-CDMA, packet-switched core network design, IP
connectivity.
 Capabilities: Significantly higher data rates (kbps to Mbps), support for voice,
data, and video, multimedia streaming, video calling, full internet access,
location-based services. Standards: UMTS (W-CDMA), IMT-2000. Required
new infrastructure.
o 4G (True Mobile Broadband - All-IP):
  Advancements: OFDMA, MIMO, LTE, WiMAX, all-IP network architecture,
IPv6 support, VoLTE.
 Capabilities: Very high data rates (targets 100s Mbps to 1 Gbps), low latency,
optimized for data, HD video streaming, online gaming, high-quality voice over
IP (VoLTE), smooth handovers.
o 5G (Next Generation):
 Advancements: Builds on 4G, likely uses higher frequencies, advanced antenna
technologies.
 Capabilities: (Based on diagram/context) Further increases in data rates, lower
latency, massive device connectivity (IoT), potentially enabling new applications
like VR/AR, autonomous vehicles.
 b) Describe the role of Bluetooth technology in the development of personal area networks.
What are the main features that distinguish Bluetooth from other wireless technologies?
(07)
o Role in PANs: Bluetooth technology is presented as a key enabler for Wireless Personal
Area Networks (WPANs). Its purpose is to replace cables for connecting devices like
mobile phones, computers, peripherals (printers, headsets), GPS receivers, cameras, and
game consoles over short distances (typically within 10m). It allows these devices, often
carried or used by an individual, to interconnect wirelessly, forming a network centered
around the person (a piconet).
o Distinguishing Features:
1. Short Range: Designed specifically for communication within a nominal range
of 10 meters, distinguishing it from longer-range technologies like WLAN or
cellular.
2. Standard: Operates under the IEEE 802.15 standard for WPANs.
3. Technology: Uses Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) in the 2.4 GHz
ISM band, which provides resistance to interference.
4. Low Power Consumption: (Implied by short-range/mobile use, though not
explicitly stated as a comparison point).
5. Topology: Forms small networks called "piconets" with a master-slave structure
(up to 8 devices).
6. Data Rate: The text specifies a data transfer rate of 1 Mbps for the version
described.
7. Unifying Goal: Intended as a universal standard to connect a broad range of
devices across different industries, simplifying connectivity.
8. Modulation: Uses Gaussian FSK (GFSK).
 These features differentiate it from WLAN (longer range, higher data rates
typically, different standards like 802.11), WiMAX (metropolitan range,
broadband focus, 802.16 standard), and Cellular (wide area, licensed spectrum,
higher mobility focus).
5.2 (Aug 2024 - Q12 - OR)

 a) Describe different types of handoff techniques. How do these techniques address the
challenges associated with maintaining seamless connectivity during mobility? (08)
o (This question is very similar to 5.2 a). Refer to the answer for 5.2 a) above).
o Types: Hard Handoff (break-before-make), Soft Handoff (make-before-break), Mobile
Assisted Handoff (MAHO), Intersystem Handoff.
o Addressing Seamless Connectivity: Handoffs are essential for maintaining calls as
users move between cell coverage areas. The challenge is to switch the connection
without dropping the call and without causing excessive network load.
 Hard Handoff aims for a quick switch but has a brief interruption where the call
could drop if the new connection isn't established fast enough.
 Soft Handoff improves reliability by maintaining the old link until the new one is
active, reducing the chance of drops, though potentially more complex.
 MAHO allows faster and more accurate handoff decisions based on the mobile's
actual signal environment, improving success rates, especially in fast-changing
conditions (like microcells).
 Intersystem Handoff provides continuity even when moving between completely
different networks.
 Proper setting of handoff thresholds (the signal levels triggering a handoff) is
crucial. If the threshold is too low or the process delayed, calls can drop due to
weak signal. If too high, unnecessary handoffs occur, burdening the network.
 The Microcell Zone concept also addresses this by handling intra-cell movement
between zones locally at the base station, avoiding full MSC handoffs and
reducing signaling load, contributing to smoother intra-cell mobility.
 b) A cellular service provider uses a digital TDMA scheme with a worst-case tolerance of 23
dB signal-to-interference ratio. Calculate the optimal value of cluster size N and frequency
reuse factor Q that should be used for maximum capacity for omnidirectional antennas. (No
of co-channel cells = 6, path loss exponent n = 4.) (06)
o Given: Required SIR = 23 dB, number of first-tier co-channel interferers i₀ = 6, path loss
exponent n = 4.
o Convert required SIR to linear scale: SIR_linear = 10^(23/10) = 10^2.3 ≈ 199.5.
o Formula: SIR = Qⁿ / i₀
o Substitute values: 199.5 = Q⁴ / 6
o Solve for Q: Q⁴ = 199.5 * 6 ≈ 1197 => Q = (1197)^(1/4) ≈ 5.88.
o This is the minimum required frequency reuse factor Q.
o For maximum capacity, we need the smallest N satisfying this Q. Formula: Q = √(3N).
o Solve for N: N = Q² / 3 = (5.88)² / 3 ≈ 34.57 / 3 ≈ 11.52.
o Find the smallest standard N (from i²+ij+j²) such that N ≥ 11.52.
 o Check N=12 (i=2, j=2): Q = √(3 * 12) = 6. SIR = 6⁴ / 6 = 1296 / 6 = 216. SIR_dB ≈ 23.34
dB (≥ 23 dB).
o Check N=9 (i=3, j=0): Q ≈ 5.196. SIR = (5.196)⁴ / 6 ≈ 121.45. SIR_dB ≈ 20.8 dB (< 23
dB).
o Check N=7 (i=2, j=1): Q ≈ 4.58. SIR = (4.58)⁴ / 6 ≈ 73.3. SIR_dB ≈ 18.6 dB (< 23 dB).
o The optimal (smallest standard) value of N that meets the SIR requirement is 12. The
corresponding Q is 6.
o Answer: Optimal Cluster Size N = 12, Optimal Frequency Reuse Factor Q = 6.

6.1 (May 2024 - Q11)

 a) Name any two methods to improve capacity in a cellular system. Explain the features
with diagrams. (08)
o The notes mention three main techniques: Cell splitting, Sectoring, and Coverage zone
(Microcell Zone Concept). Choose any two:
1. Cell Splitting:
 Method: Subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells (microcells),
each with its own base station operating at lower power and reduced
antenna height.
 Features: Directly increases capacity by increasing the density of
channel reuse. Addresses traffic congestion in specific areas. Requires
adding new base station sites. Scales the cell geometry down.
 Diagram: Refer to the figure illustrating the subdivision of a larger cell
pattern into smaller cells, typically titled "Before cell splitting" and
"After cell splitting".
2. Sectoring:
 Method: Using directional antennas at the base station site to divide the
cell coverage area into multiple sectors (commonly 3x120° or 6x60°).
Channels allocated to the cell are divided among the sectors.
 Features: Reduces co-channel interference by limiting
transmission/reception to a specific direction. Improved SIR allows for
smaller cluster size (N), which increases channels per cell (k=S/N), thus
boosting capacity. Does not require adding new BS sites but uses
different antennas. Increases handoffs within the cell (inter-sector).
 Diagram: Refer to the figures labeled "(a) 120° sectoring" and "(b) 60°
sectoring", showing the directional coverage patterns.
b) Define trunking and grade of service with relevant formulae. (06)
Trunking: Trunking allows a large number of users to share a relatively small number of channels in a
cell by providing access on demand from a common pool. It accommodates more users than dedicated
channels by relying on the statistical probability that not all users require service simultaneously.
Grade of Service (GOS): GOS measures the quality of a trunked system from the user's perspective,
specifically the probability of failing to get service during the busiest hour. It is often expressed as the
probability of a call being blocked (for systems that don't queue calls) or the probability of a call being
delayed beyond a certain time (for systems that queue calls).
Relevant Formulae:

6.2 (May 2024 - Q12 - OR)

 a) Compare the important features of 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G systems. (10)
o (This is very similar to 6.2 a, but worth 10 marks, suggesting more detail or structure.
Use the table on page 21 and augment with details from the text).
Feature 1G 2G 3G 4G

Digital (All-
Technology Analog Digital Digital
IP)

Optimized for
Voice, SMS, Voice,
Core Broadband
Voice Basic Data Multimedia
Service Data, Voice
(WAP) Data, Video
(VoLTE)

Circuit
Packet (core),
(Voice),
Switching Circuit Circuit (legacy Packet (All-IP)
Packet (2.5G
support)
Data)

Multiple TDMA, W-CDMA, OFDMA, SC-

FDMA
Access CDMA CDMA2000 FDMA (LTE)

~100 Mbps
~10s kbps (up (mobile) - 1
~384 kbps - 2
Data Rates ~1.9 kbps to ~100s kbps Gbps
Mbps
in 2.5G) (stationary)
targets

GSM, IS-95
AMPS, UMTS (W-
(cdmaOne),
Standards TACS, CDMA), LTE, WiMAX
IS-136 (D-
NMT CDMA2000
AMPS)

High speed
First Mobile
Digital voice broadband,
Key mobile internet, video
quality, SMS, low latency,
Features phones, calls,
roaming HD video,
voice only multimedia
VoLTE

Poor Spectrum cost,

Low data Infrastructure
quality, complex
rates, cost,
Limitations low devices,
inefficient compatibility
capacity, deployment
bandwidth issues
insecure time

PSTN +
Evolved
Core Packet Evolved Packet
PSTN Packet Core
Network overlay Network
(EPC) - All-IP
(2.5G)
  b) In a cellular system using a 4-cell reuse pattern with a total bandwidth of 60 MHz, if 2
channels of 30 kHz each are needed for a call, how many simultaneous calls can be
accommodated in one cell and in one cluster? (04)
o (This is identical to question 2.1 b, adding the cluster calculation).
o Given: N = 4, Total bandwidth = 60 MHz, Duplex channel BW = 2 * 30 kHz = 60 kHz.
o Total available duplex channels (S) = 60 MHz / 60 kHz = 1000 channels.
o Channels per cell (k) = S / N = 1000 / 4 = 250 channels/cell.
o Simultaneous calls per cell = k = 250 calls.
o Simultaneous calls per cluster = S = N * k = 4 * 250 = 1000 calls.

MODULE -2

3 Marks Questions

 Find the Fraunhofer distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of one meter and
operating frequency of 900MHz. What is the significance of Fraunhofer distance?
o From the example provided in the notes:
 Maximum dimension D = 1 m.
 Operating frequency f = 900 MHz.
 Wavelength λ = c/f = (3x10⁸ m/s) / (900x10⁶ Hz) = 0.33 m.
 Fraunhofer distance df = 2D²/λ = 2*(1)² / 0.33 = 6 m.
o Significance: The Fraunhofer distance defines the boundary of the far-field region of a
transmitting antenna. The Friis free space propagation model is only a valid predictor for
received power (Pr) for distances (d) that are in the far-field region (d ≥ df).
 What is meant by coherence bandwidth of the channel? Define coherence bandwidth in
terms of rms delay spread of the channel.
o Meaning: Coherence bandwidth (Bc) is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies
over which the channel can be considered "flat," meaning it passes all spectral
components with approximately equal gain and linear phase. It's the range of frequencies
where different frequency components have a strong correlation in amplitude.
o Definition in terms of RMS delay spread (στ): Coherence bandwidth is inversely
proportional to the rms delay spread. The notes give two approximations:
 Bc ≈ 1 / (50στ) (if the frequency correlation function is above 0.9)
 Bc ≈ 1 / (5στ) (if the frequency correlation function is above 0.5)
 Explain the concept of multipath fading in wireless communication systems.
o Fading is the rapid fluctuation of the amplitude of a radio signal over short time periods
or travel distances. It is caused by interference between two or more versions (multipath
waves) of the transmitted signal that arrive at the receiver at slightly different times.
 These waves combine at the receiver antenna, and their constructive and destructive
addition results in a signal that varies widely in amplitude and phase.
 Express the relationship between channel capacity and bandwidth with suitable equation
and explain.
o For an Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel, the relationship is given by
Shannon's formula:
C = B log₂(1 + γ)
o Explanation:
 C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps), representing the maximum
theoretical data rate achievable with arbitrarily small error probability.
 B is the channel bandwidth in Hertz (Hz).
 γ is the received Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), which is the ratio of received
signal power (P) to noise power (N₀B).
 The equation shows that capacity increases with bandwidth and with the
logarithm of the signal-to-noise ratio.
 How does fading occur? Derive the expression for doppler shift.
o How fading occurs: Fading occurs due to multipath propagation. Transmitted signals
travel along multiple paths (due to reflection, diffraction, scattering). These different
paths result in multiple versions of the signal arriving at the receiver at slightly different
times and with different phases. The superposition (constructive and destructive
interference) of these multipath components causes fluctuations in the received signal
amplitude, which is known as fading.
o
Assume a receiver is located 10km away from a 50W transmitter. Given f = 900 MHz, Gt = 1 and
Gr= 2. Find the power at receiver and RMS voltage at receiver antenna matched with 50 Ω resistor.
 Explain the notion of delay spread and coherence bandwidth.
o Delay Spread: This describes the time dispersive nature of a multipath channel. When a
signal is transmitted, multiple versions arrive at the receiver via different paths, each with
a different delay. Delay spread quantifies the difference in arrival times among these
paths. Key parameters derived from the power delay profile are:
 Mean excess delay (τ̄): The first moment of the power delay profile.
  RMS delay spread (στ): The square root of the second central moment,
measuring the standard deviation of the delay times.
 Excess delay spread (X dB): The time duration over which multipath energy falls
to X dB below the maximum.
o Coherence Bandwidth (Bc): This characterizes the channel in the frequency domain. It's
the range of frequencies over which the channel's response is relatively constant or "flat"
(signals within this bandwidth experience similar amplitude gain and linear phase).
Signals with frequency separation greater than Bc experience different fading effects.
o Relationship: RMS delay spread and coherence bandwidth are inversely proportional
(Bc ≈ 1 / (5στ) or Bc ≈ 1 / (50στ)). A large delay spread implies a small coherence
bandwidth (frequency selective channel), while a small delay spread implies a large
coherence bandwidth (flat fading channel).
 Give the expression for capacity of flat fading AWGN channel with CSIR. Describe how it
is obtained assuming AWGN capacity.
o

 Interpretation:
 This integral gives the average (ergodic) capacity over all possible channel fading
states, assuming perfect channel knowledge at the receiver.

How it's obtained: This capacity is derived by averaging the Shannon capacity of an AWGN channel
over the fading distribution. For any instantaneous SNR γ, the capacity is B log₂(1 + γ) (the AWGN
capacity formula). Since γ varies randomly according to the probability distribution p(γ) due to fading,
the long-term average (Ergodic) capacity is found by taking the expected value of the instantaneous
AWGN capacity over all possible values of γ. This expectation is calculated by the integral expression
above.
 What is fading? List various types of small scale fading.
o Fading: Small-scale fading refers to the rapid fluctuations in the amplitude (and phase)
of a radio signal observed over short periods of time or short travel distances. It's caused
by the interference of multiple versions of the transmitted signal arriving at the receiver
via different paths (multipath).
o Types of Small-Scale Fading: Based on the diagrams/text, the four main types are:
1. Based on Multipath Time Delay Spread:
 Flat Fading
 Frequency Selective Fading
2. Based on Doppler Spread:
 Fast Fading
 Slow Fading
 A transmitter radiates a sinusoidal carrier frequency of 3GHz. For a vehicle moving at a
speed of 72Kmph, compute the received frequency if the mobile is moving i) Directly
towards the transmitter ii) Directly away from the transmitter.
o Given: Carrier frequency f = 3 GHz = 3 x 10⁹ Hz .
o Vehicle speed v = 72 Kmph = 72 * (1000 m / 3600 s) = 20 m/s.
o Wavelength λ = c/f = (3x10⁸ m/s) / (3x10⁹ Hz) = 0.1 m .
o Doppler shift formula: fd = (v / λ) cosθ.
o i) Directly towards: Angle of arrival θ = 0°, cosθ = 1.
fd = (20 m/s / 0.1 m) * 1 = 200 Hz.
Received frequency fr = f + fd = 3 GHz + 200 Hz = 3,000,000,200 Hz.
o ii) Directly away: Angle of arrival θ = 180°, cosθ = -1.
fd = (20 m/s / 0.1 m) * (-1) = -200 Hz.
Received frequency fr = f + fd = 3 GHz - 200 Hz = 2,999,999,800 Hz.
 How does multipath propagation cause small scale fading?
o Multipath propagation means the transmitted signal reaches the receiver via multiple
paths (e.g., direct path, reflections, diffractions). Each path has a potentially different
length, attenuation, and phase shift. When these multiple signal components arrive at the
receiver antenna, they combine vectorially. Because of the different phases, this
combination results in constructive and destructive interference. As the receiver or
surrounding objects move even small distances, the path lengths and phases change,
causing the resultant signal amplitude to fluctuate rapidly. This rapid fluctuation over
short distances or times is small-scale fading.
 Define Ergodic capacity in the context of wireless communication systems and explain its
significance.
o Definition: Ergodic capacity (also called Shannon capacity in this context) defines the
maximum average data rate that can be transmitted over a fading channel with an
 asymptotically small error probability, assuming coding can occur over a long duration
that spans many fading states. The transmission rate is constant and does not adapt to
instantaneous channel conditions (only receiver knows CSI).
o Significance: It represents the theoretical upper limit on the long-term average data rate
achievable over a time-varying fading channel when the transmitter doesn't adapt but the
receiver knows the channel state, and long codewords average out the channel variations.
It's a fundamental performance benchmark for systems operating over fading channels
where delay is not a primary constraint, allowing for averaging effects of fading.

Module 2 – 14 Marks Questions

1.1 (June 2023 - Q13)

 a) What is the importance of Two Ray model? Derive the expression for path loss in a two
ray ground reflection model. (08)
o Importance: The free space propagation model is often inaccurate in terrestrial
environments because it only considers the direct line-of-sight path. The Two-Ray
Ground Reflection model is important because it provides a more accurate representation
for scenarios like mobile radio channels by considering not only the direct path (LOS) but
also a significant secondary path: the one reflected off the ground. It helps explain
phenomena like the d⁴ power fall-off observed at larger distances, which the free space
(d²) model doesn't capture. It's a useful propagation model based on geometric optics.

b) A transmitter radiates a sinusoidal carrier frequency of 3GHz. For a vehicle moving at a
speed of 72Kmph, compute the received frequency if the mobile is moving i) Directly
towards the transmitter ii) Directly away from the transmitter. (06)
o (This is identical to 3-mark question 10)
o Given: Carrier frequency f = 3 GHz = 3 x 10⁹ Hz .
o Vehicle speed v = 72 Kmph = 72 * (1000 m / 3600 s) = 20 m/s.
o Wavelength λ = c/f = (3x10⁸ m/s) / (3x10⁹ Hz) = 0.1 m .
o Doppler shift formula: fd = (v / λ) cosθ.
 o i) Directly towards: θ = 0°, cosθ = 1. fd = (20 / 0.1) * 1 = 200 Hz. Received
frequency fr = f + fd = 3 GHz + 200 Hz.
o ii) Directly away: θ = 180°, cosθ = -1. fd = (20 / 0.1) * (-1) = -200 Hz. Received
frequency fr = f + fd = 3 GHz - 200 Hz.

1.2 (June 2023 - Q14 - OR)

 a) What is Fading? What are different types? What are the main factors affecting fading?
(09)
o Fading: Small-scale fading refers to the rapid fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of
a radio signal observed over short time intervals or travel distances. It is caused by
interference among multiple versions of the transmitted signal that arrive at the receiver
via different paths (multipath).
o Different Types: (From the notes)
 Based on Multipath Time Delay Spread:
 Flat Fading: Occurs when the signal bandwidth is less than the channel's
coherence bandwidth (Bs << Bc) or the symbol period is greater than the
RMS delay spread (Ts >> στ). The channel has constant gain and linear
phase over the signal bandwidth. Affects signal strength but not spectrum
shape (no ISI).
 Frequency Selective Fading: Occurs when Bs > Bc or Ts < στ. Channel
gain varies across the signal bandwidth. Causes Inter-Symbol
Interference (ISI) and distorts the received signal spectrum.
 Based on Doppler Spread:
 Fast Fading: Occurs when the channel impulse response changes rapidly
within the symbol duration (Tc < Ts). Caused by high Doppler spread
(Bs < BD). Leads to signal distortion due to frequency dispersion.
 Slow Fading: Occurs when the channel impulse response changes much
slower than the transmitted signal (Tc >> Ts). Caused by low Doppler
spread (Bs >> BD). Channel can be considered static over one or several
symbol periods.
o Main Factors Affecting Fading:
1. Multipath Propagation: The presence of reflectors and scatterers creates multiple
signal paths, which is the fundamental cause of interference leading to fading.
2. Speed of the Mobile: Relative motion between the transmitter and receiver causes
Doppler shifts on multipath components, leading to time variations (Fast/Slow
fading) and frequency dispersion.
3. Speed of Surrounding Objects: Moving objects in the channel also induce time-
varying Doppler shifts on multipath components, contributing to channel
variations.
 4. Transmission Bandwidth of the Signal: Compared to the channel's coherence
bandwidth, the signal bandwidth determines whether the fading is flat or
frequency selective.
 b) Calculate the coherence time of a channel, if doppler shift is produced due to the
movement of a mobile with a velocity of 50 m/sec and operating at 1900MHz. (05)
o Coherence time Tc is inversely proportional to the maximum Doppler spread fm. The
simplest relation given is Tc ≈ 1 / fm.
o Maximum Doppler shift fm = v / λ.
o Given: v = 50 m/s, f = 1900 MHz = 1.9 x 10⁹ Hz .
o Calculate wavelength: λ = c/f = (3x10⁸ m/s) / (1.9x10⁹ Hz) ≈ 0.1579 m .
o Calculate maximum Doppler shift: fm = 50 m/s / 0.1579 m ≈ 316.6 Hz.
o Calculate coherence time: Tc ≈ 1 / fm ≈ 1 / 316.6 Hz ≈ 0.00316 s = 3.16 ms.
o (Note: Other formulas like Tc ≈ 9/(16πfm) or Tc ≈ sqrt(9/(16πfm²)) could also be used if
specified, giving slightly different numerical values but the same order of magnitude).
Using Tc ≈ 9/(16πfm) ≈ 9/(16π * 316.6) ≈ 0.567 ms. Using the geometric mean Tc ≈
sqrt(9/(16πfm²)) ≈ sqrt(9/(16π * 316.6²)) ≈ 1.34 ms. The notes provide all three; Tc ≈
1/fm is the most direct inverse relation.)

2.1 (Jan 2024 - Q13)

 a) What are the assumptions and limitations of the Two-Ray model? (07)
o Assumptions:
1. Geometric Optics: Assumes propagation follows straight lines (rays) for both
direct and reflected paths.
2. Single Ground Reflection: Considers only one reflected path off a smooth, flat
ground surface.
3. Flat Earth: Assumes the Earth is flat, which is reasonable for the typical T-R
separation distances in mobile communications (up to a few tens of kilometers).
4. Perfect Reflection (often simplified): The reflection coefficient is often
approximated (e.g., as -1 for small grazing angles), implying a perfect reflection
with a phase change.
o Limitations:
1. Ignores Diffraction and Scattering: Does not account for signal energy reaching
the receiver via diffraction around obstacles or scattering from rough surfaces or
objects.
2. Smooth Earth: Does not account for rough or uneven terrain which affects
reflections.
3. Single Reflection Only: Ignores multiple reflections from the ground or other
surfaces.
 4. Flat Earth Approximation: Becomes inaccurate for very long distances where
Earth's curvature matters.
5. Inaccuracy at Short Distances: The approximations made (like d' ≈ d" and small
angle approximations) are less valid at shorter distances relative to antenna
heights. The model predicts Pr goes to infinity as d goes to 0, which is physically
unrealistic.
 b) Explain the concept of frequency-selective fading in wireless systems. How does it
influence data transmission quality? (07)
o Concept: Frequency-selective fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted
signal (Bs) is greater than the coherence bandwidth (Bc) of the channel, or equivalently,
when the symbol period (Ts) is less than the RMS delay spread (στ). This means the
channel's gain and phase response are not constant across the bandwidth of the signal.
Different frequency components of the signal experience different amounts of attenuation
and phase shift. This is caused by multipath components arriving with delays that are a
significant fraction of, or larger than, the symbol period.
o Influence on Quality:
1. Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI): The primary detrimental effect. Because
different multipath components are delayed relative to each other by amounts
comparable to or greater than the symbol duration, symbols "smear" into adjacent
symbol time slots, causing interference between them at the receiver.
2. Signal Distortion: The received signal waveform is distorted because its different
frequency components are affected differently by the channel.
3. Reduced Data Rate: ISI limits the maximum symbol rate that can be transmitted
reliably without complex equalization.
4. Need for Equalization: Receivers must employ equalizers to mitigate the effects
of ISI, adding complexity.
5. Degraded Bit Error Rate (BER): ISI significantly increases the probability of
errors in detection.

2.2 (Jan 2024 - Q14 - OR)

 a) How can path loss models be used to design and implement wireless communication
systems? (07)
o Path loss models (like Free Space, Two-Ray) predict the average received signal strength
as a function of distance between the transmitter and receiver. Their uses in design and
implementation include:

📡 1. Link Budget Calculation

Path loss models help calculate received signal strength:

Received Power (dBm)=Transmitted Power−Path Loss+Gains

  Ensures the signal at the receiver is above sensitivity threshold.
 Helps determine maximum range and power requirements.

🗺️2. Coverage Planning

 Path loss models (like Free-space, Two-ray, Okumura-Hata, etc.) predict how far a signal can
travel reliably.
 Engineers use this to design cellular coverage, Wi-Fi hotspots, or satellite footprints.

🧱 3. Site Selection & Antenna Placement

 Determines optimal antenna height, orientation, and placement.

 Avoids dead zones, minimizes shadowing, and ensures line-of-sight (LOS) if needed.

🧠 4. Frequency and Band Selection

 Different frequencies experience different path loss.

 Models help decide whether higher frequencies (e.g., mmWave) or lower bands (e.g., sub-GHz)
are more suitable for a given environment.

📶 5. Interference Management

 Path loss helps estimate interference levels between nearby transmitters.

 Aids in frequency reuse, spectrum planning, and power control.

🏗️6. System Capacity and Quality of Service (QoS)

 Helps simulate SNR, BER, and throughput over distances.

 Ensures quality voice, video, or data delivery across users.

🧪 7. Simulation and Network Testing

 Used in network simulators (e.g., NS3, MATLAB, etc.) for designing and evaluating:
 o 4G/5G systems
o IoT networks
o Smart city deployments

 b) How does the time-varying channel impulse response affect the transmission of data?
(07)
o The time-varying nature of the channel impulse response c(τ, t) means that the channel's
characteristics (the amplitudes αn(t), delays τn(t), and phases Φn(t) of multipath
components) change over time. This variation is primarily due to the relative motion of
the transmitter, receiver, or surrounding objects/scatterers.
o Effects on Data Transmission:
1. Fading: Causes fluctuations in the received signal strength (amplitude fading)
and phase, potentially leading to deep fades where the signal level drops
significantly, causing errors.
2. Doppler Shift/Spread: Relative motion induces Doppler shifts on each multipath
component. The range of these shifts constitutes the Doppler spread (BD). High
Doppler spread characterizes a rapidly changing channel.
3. Time Selectivity (Fast/Slow Fading): If the channel changes rapidly compared to
the data symbol duration (Tc < Ts, high Doppler spread), it causes fast fading.
This leads to distortion within a symbol and requires robust modulation/coding or
rapid channel estimation. If the channel changes slowly (Tc >> Ts, low Doppler
spread), it causes slow fading, where the channel is relatively constant over many
symbols, potentially leading to prolonged error bursts if caught in a deep fade.
4. Frequency Dispersion (Fast Fading): Fast fading leads to frequency dispersion,
distorting the signal spectrum.
5. Need for Channel Estimation/Tracking: Receivers need to estimate and track the
changing channel conditions to demodulate the data correctly, adding
complexity.
6. Impact on Coherence Time (Tc): The rate of variation defines the coherence
time, the duration over which the channel is approximately constant. This
dictates how frequently channel estimation needs to be updated.

3.1 (Oct 2023 - Q13)

 a) Consider a wireless channel, where power falloff with distance follows the formula
Pr(d)=Pt(do/d)³ for do=50m. Assume the channel has bandwidth B =50KHz and AWGN
with noise PSD No/2, Where No=10⁻⁹ W/Hz. For a transmit power of 2W, find the capacity
of this channel for a receive transmit distance of 200m and 1KM? What is your conclusion?
(07)
o Use Shannon capacity formula: C = B log₂(1 + γ).
o Noise power N = N₀ * B = 10⁻⁹ W/Hz * 50 * 10³ Hz = 5 x 10⁻⁵ W .
 o Received power Pr(d) = Pt * (d₀/d)³.
o Given: Pt = 2 W, d₀ = 50 m, B = 50 kHz.
o Case 1: d = 200 m
 Pr(200) = 2 * (50 / 200)³ = 2 * (1/4)³ = 2 / 64 = 1/32 W = 0.03125 W.
 SNR γ₁ = Pr / N = 0.03125 / (5 x 10⁻⁵) = 625 .
 Capacity C₁ = 50 * 10³ * log₂(1 + 625) = 50000 * log₂(626).
 log₂(626) ≈ 9.29.
 C₁ ≈ 50000 * 9.29 ≈ 464500 bps = 464.5 kbps.
o Case 2: d = 1 km = 1000 m
 Pr(1000) = 2 * (50 / 1000)³ = 2 * (1/20)³ = 2 / 8000 = 1/4000 W = 0.00025 W.
 SNR γ₂ = Pr / N = 0.00025 / (5 x 10⁻⁵) = 5 .
 Capacity C₂ = 50 * 10³ * log₂(1 + 5) = 50000 * log₂(6).
 log₂(6) ≈ 2.585.
 C₂ ≈ 50000 * 2.585 ≈ 129250 bps = 129.25 kbps.
o Conclusion: The channel capacity decreases significantly as the transmission distance
increases. This is because the received power decreases rapidly with distance (following
a d⁻³ law here), leading to a much lower SNR at 1 km compared to 200 m, which directly
reduces the achievable data rate according to Shannon's formula.

3.2 (Oct 2023 - Q14 - OR)

 a) What is the received power in dBm for a free space signal, whose transmit power is 1W
and carrier frequency is 2.4GHz. If the receiver is at a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km) from the
transmitter. What is the path loss in dB? (07)


  b) What is inferred by the channel capacity of AWGN channel? (04) What is meant by time
selective Fading? (03)
o Inference from AWGN Capacity: The channel capacity of an AWGN channel, given
by C = B log₂(1 + γ), infers the theoretical maximum rate at which information can be
transmitted over that channel with arbitrarily low error probability, given a specific
bandwidth B and signal-to-noise ratio γ. It represents a fundamental upper limit or
benchmark set by the physical characteristics of the channel. Achieving rates close to
capacity requires sophisticated coding techniques.
o Time Selective Fading: Time selective fading occurs when the channel's characteristics
(specifically its impulse response) change rapidly over time relative to the duration of a
transmitted symbol. This happens when the channel's coherence time (Tc) is less than the
symbol period (Ts). It is caused by high Doppler spread resulting from significant
relative motion. This rapid variation leads to distortion of the signal within a symbol
duration, also known as frequency dispersion.

4.1 (Model Paper - Q13)

 a) Explain the effect of multipath propagation using 2-ray model. (07)

o The 2-ray model simplifies multipath propagation by considering only two paths: the
direct Line-of-Sight (LOS) path and a single path reflected from the ground.
o Effect:
1. Multiple Arrivals: The signal arrives at the receiver via these two distinct paths.
2. Path Length Difference: The reflected path is longer than the direct path (d" >
d'). This difference (Δ = d" - d') depends on the antenna heights (ht, hr) and
separation (d).
 3. Time Delay: The path length difference results in a time delay (τ = Δ/c) between
the arrival of the LOS signal and the reflected signal (delay spread).
4. Phase Difference: This time delay corresponds to a phase difference (Δθ =
2πΔ/λ) between the two arriving waves.
5. Interference: The two waves interfere at the receiver antenna. Depending on the
phase difference (which changes with distance d), the interference can be
constructive (signals add up, stronger received signal) or destructive (signals
cancel out, weaker received signal). This causes variations in received signal
strength as the receiver moves.
6. Power Fall-off: For large distances, the model predicts received power falls off
proportionally to d⁻⁴ , which is faster than the free space d⁻² fall-off, due to the
interaction between the two rays.
 b) Assuming narrow band fading model, derive statistical characterization of in-phase and
quadrature components of a received signal when an unmodulated carrier is transmitted.
(07)
4.2 (Model Paper - Q14 - OR)

 a) Derive time-varying impulse response of multipath wireless channel. (07)

 b) Consider a flat-fading channel with iid channel gains g[i] which can take on values
g1=0.05 with probability p1=0.1, g2=0.5 with probability p2=0.5, and g3=1 with probability
p3=0.4. The transmit power is 10mW, noise spectral density N0 = 10⁻⁹ W/Hz, and channel
bandwidth is 30kHz. Assume instantaneous CSI-R, but transmitter does not have CSI.
Compute the capacity of the channel. (07)
o This is the Ergodic Capacity calculation with CSIR for a discrete fading channel, as given
in the example exercise.
o Channel power gains are g₁=0.05, g₂=0.5, g₃=1 (Note: the text says √g, but the
calculation uses these values as power gains gᵢ). Let's assume the values 0.05, 0.5, 1 refer
to the power gains gᵢ, consistent with the example calculation.
o Transmit Power Pt = 10 mW = 0.01 W.
o Noise Power N = N₀ * B = 10⁻⁹ W/Hz * 30 * 10³ Hz = 3 x 10⁻⁵ W .
o Calculate instantaneous SNRs γᵢ = Pt * gᵢ / N:
 γ₁ = 0.01 * 0.05 / (3 x 10⁻⁵) = 0.0005 / (3 x 10⁻⁵) ≈ 16.67 . (Note: The example
calculation seems to use gᵢ values squared, suggesting the given values might be
voltage gains. Re-calculating using the example's method where √g values are
given and SNR is Pt*g/N where g = (√g)²).

5.1 (Aug 2024 - Q13)

 a) What is the importance of Two Ray model? Derive the expression for path loss in a two
ray ground reflection model. (07)
o (Same as 1.1a)
 b) Describe the concept of ergodic capacity in flat fading channels. Give the expression for
capacity of flat fading AWGN channel with CSIR. Describe how it is obtained assuming
AWGN capacity. (07)
o (Same as 3-mark question 8, elaborated)
o Concept: It represents the average maximum data rate that can be reliably transmitted
over a channel with random fading, assuming the channel changes sufficiently fast and
the receiver has perfect channel state information (CSIR).

What is Flat Fading?

 Flat fading occurs when the channel bandwidth is less than the coherence bandwidth, so all
frequency components of the signal experience the same fading.
 Only the amplitude of the signal varies due to multipath; the shape of the signal is preserved.
 In a flat fading channel, the instantaneous channel capacity (bits/sec) at any time depends on
the instantaneous SNR γ\gammaγ. The ergodic capacity is the expected value of this
instantaneous capacity over all possible channel states (fades):

o Expression: C = ∫[0 to ∞] B log₂(1 + γ) p(γ) dγ, where B is bandwidth, γ is

instantaneous SNR, p(γ) is the PDF of SNR.
o How Obtained: It's the statistical average of the instantaneous AWGN capacity. At any
moment the channel has an SNR γ, the capacity for that instant is C_inst = B log₂(1 + γ).
Since γ varies randomly with PDF p(γ), the long-term average capacity (Ergodic
capacity) is the expected value E[C_inst] = E[B log₂(1 + γ)], which is computed by the
integral expression.

5.2 (Aug 2024 - Q14 - OR)

 a) Derive the expression for the impulse response model of a multipath channel. (07)
o (Same as 4.2a)
 b) Compare and contrast flat fading with frequency-selective fading in wireless
communication channels. (04) Calculate the coherence time of a channel, if doppler shift is
produced due to the movement of a mobile with a velocity of 50 m/sec and operating at
1800MHz. (03)
o Comparison (4 marks):

o
o

o
o

o 6.1 (May 2024 - Q13)

 a) Define small scale fading. What are the main types of small scale fading? Differentiate
between flat fading and frequency selective fading. (06)
o Definition: Small-scale fading describes the rapid fluctuations of the amplitude (and
phase) of a radio signal over short periods of time or travel distances.
o Main Types: Flat fading, Frequency selective fading, Fast fading, Slow fading.
o Differentiation:
 Flat Fading: Channel gain is constant across the signal bandwidth (Bs << Bc).
Affects all frequency components similarly. Causes amplitude variation but no
ISI. Occurs when delay spread is small (Ts >> στ).
 Frequency Selective Fading: Channel gain varies across the signal bandwidth
(Bs > Bc). Affects different frequency components differently. Causes signal
distortion and ISI. Occurs when delay spread is large (Ts < στ).
 b) A communication link is to be established between two station using half wave length
antenna for maximum directive gain. Transmitter power is 2 KW, distance between
transmitter and receiver is 200 Km. What is the maximum power received by the receiver.
Frequency of operation is 150 MHz. Gain of transmitter and receiver = 1.64. (08)
o Use Friis transmission equation: Pr = Pt * Gt * Gr * λ² / ((4π)² * d² * L). Assume L=1.
o Given: Pt = 2 KW = 2000 W, d = 200 Km = 200000 m, f = 150 MHz = 1.5 x 10⁸ Hz, Gt
= 1.64, Gr = 1.64.
o Calculate wavelength: λ = c/f = (3x10⁸ m/s) / (1.5x10⁸ Hz) = 2 m.
o Calculate Received Power:
Pr = 2000 * 1.64 * 1.64 * (2)² / ((4π)² * (200000)² * 1)
Pr = 21510.4 / (157.91 * 4x10¹⁰)
Pr = 21510.4 / 6.3165 x 10¹² ≈ 3.405 x 10⁻⁹ W .
o Maximum power received is approximately 3.405 nW.

6.2 (May 2024 - Q14 - OR)

 a) With neat figure derive the expression for path loss in a Two-ray ground model. (08)
 o (Same as 1.1a, ensure to draw/refer to the figures showing the direct and reflected paths,
and the image method).

 b) A wireless channel has channel bandwidth B = 320 kHz and AWGN with noise power
spectral density No/2. It is required to obtain a data rate of 1.6Mbps. Calculate the
minimum value of SNR required. (06)
o Use Shannon capacity formula C = B log₂(1 + SNR). We need SNR when C =
R (required data rate).
o Given: R = 1.6 Mbps = 1.6 x 10⁶ bps, B = 320 kHz = 320 x 10³ Hz.
o 1.6 x 10⁶ = 320 x 10³ * log₂(1 + SNR)
o log₂(1 + SNR) = (1.6 x 10⁶) / (320 x 10³) = 1600 / 320 = 5.
o 1 + SNR = 2⁵ = 32.
o SNR = 31.
o Minimum SNR required is 31 (or 10log₁₀(31) ≈ 14.9 dB).
MODULE-3
14 marks
✅ 1.2 (June 2023 - Q16 - OR)

(a) Block diagram of Multicarrier Modulation in OFDM (Tx and Rx) (09 Marks)
(b) Advantages and Disadvantages of OFDM (05 Marks)

Advantages:

 ISI Elimination via Cyclic Prefix

 Spectral Efficiency using overlapping subcarriers
 Simple Equalization using FFT
 Robust to multipath fading

Disadvantages:

 High PAPR
 Sensitive to frequency offsets
 Requires precise synchronization
(b) Describe how PAPR affects OFDM performance (07 Marks)

 High PAPR leads to:

o Nonlinear distortion in power amplifiers
o Signal clipping
o Lower energy efficiency
o Need for expensive PA hardware
 Impact: Causes BER degradation, spectral spreading, and inefficiency.
(b) OFDM Block Diagram and Explanation (07 Marks)

Same as 1.2 (a), but recap briefly:

Transmitter:

 Input → Modulation → Serial to Parallel → IFFT → Cyclic Prefix → P/S → DAC → Channel

Receiver:

 ADC → S/P → Remove Cyclic Prefix → FFT → Equalization → P/S → Demodulation →

Output
✅ 3.2 (Oct 2023 - Q16 - OR)

(a) How to mitigate subcarrier fading in multicarrier modulation (07 Marks)

Same as 1.1 (b):

 Time & frequency interleaving with coding

 Equalization in frequency domain
 Adaptive bit/power loading
 Precoding

(b) Techniques to reduce PAPR in OFDM (07 Marks)

 Clipping: Hard limit signal power

 Peak cancellation: Add inverse waveform
 Selective mapping: Transmit least-PAPR version
 Tone reservation: Reserve subcarriers for peak reduction
 Coding: Use codes that avoid high-PAPR symbols
 Companding: Logarithmic amplification
✅ 5.2 (Aug 2024 - Q16 - OR)

(a) Block diagram of OFDM implementation (09 Marks)

Transmitter Section:

1. Input Data
2. Modulator (QAM/PSK)
3. Serial to Parallel Converter
4. IFFT Block – Combines subcarriers
5. Cyclic Prefix Addition
6. Parallel to Serial
7. DAC + Upconversion to RF
Receiver Section:

1. Downconversion + ADC
2. Serial to Parallel
3. Remove Cyclic Prefix
4. FFT Block – Separates subcarriers
5. Channel Equalization
6. Demodulator
7. Output Data

✅ 6.1 (May 2024 - Q15)

(a) What is OFDM? Explain with block diagrams. (10 Marks)

OFDM = Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

A type of multicarrier modulation using orthogonal subcarriers with IFFT/FFT.

Key Features:

 Converts a frequency-selective channel into flat fading subchannels

 Uses cyclic prefix to avoid ISI
 Spectrally efficient due to subcarrier overlap
Transmitter:

 Input → Mapping (QAM) → IFFT → Add Cyclic Prefix → DAC

Receiver:

 ADC → Remove CP → FFT → Channel Equalization → Demapping

(b) Applications of OFDM (04 Marks)

 4G/5G cellular systems (LTE, NR)

 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11a/g/n/ac)
 Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB-T)
 DSL broadband
 WiMAX

MODULE-4
14 marks
b) List advantages of Adaptive Equalization. (05 Marks)

 Tracks time-varying channels (e.g., mobile).

 Reduces ISI dynamically.
 Improves bit error rate.
 Supports high data rate transmission.
 Compatible with LMS, RLS, ZF, MMSE algorithms.
 MODULE-5

✅ 3 Marks Questions – Answers

1. What do you mean by virtual height of an ionospheric layer?

Virtual height is the apparent height to which a vertically sent pulse would reach (at speed of
light) in the same two-way time as the actual signal reflected from the ionosphere. It is greater
than actual height due to gradual bending of the wave in the ionosphere.
2. Which mode of propagation is used by radio waves of frequency above 300 MHz? Explain.
Space wave propagation (including LOS/Tropospheric) is used above 300 MHz. These waves
travel directly or after ground reflection and are used in VHF, UHF, TV, radar, and microwave
communications.
3. Explain the concept of surface wave propagation?
Surface waves travel along the Earth's surface, guided like in a waveguide. They are used
below 2 MHz and permit communication beyond the horizon due to diffraction.
4. Describe the factors affecting around-the-Earth radio wave propagation.
Factors include:
o Earth’s curvature (limits LOS)
o Tropospheric conditions
o Ionospheric layers and electron density
o Frequency and power of the wave
o Magnetic field of Earth
10) Define critical frequency and maximum usable frequency and establish the relation between them.
14 marks

🔷 1.1 (June 2023 – Q19)

a) Derive an expression for the LOS distance in km when the antenna heights above ground are hth_tht
and hrh_rhr for the transmitter and receiver antennas. (07 marks)

✅ Line-of-Sight (LOS) Distance Derivation

LOS communication is possible only if both antennas are within each other's radio horizon.

Let:

 RRR = Radius of Earth = 637063706370 km

 hth_tht, hrh_rhr = Heights of transmitter and receiver antennas (in meters)
b) Analyze the effect of Earth’s magnetic field on radio wave propagation. (07 marks)

✅ Effects of Earth's Magnetic Field on Propagation

1. Influence on Ionosphere:
o The Earth's magnetic field alters the behavior of free electrons in the ionosphere.
o Causes circular or spiral motion of electrons, which in turn affects the refractive
index.
2. Splitting of Radio Waves (Magneto-Ionic Effect):
o An incident wave in the ionosphere splits into two components:
 Ordinary Wave (O-mode): unaffected by magnetic field direction.

o These waves travel at different speeds ⇒ birefringence occurs.

 Extraordinary Wave (X-mode): affected by magnetic field.

3. Faraday Rotation:
o The polarization plane rotates when linearly polarized waves pass through the
ionosphere.
o The angle of rotation depends on:
 Magnetic field strength
 Electron density
 Path length through ionosphere
o It affects satellite communication (polarization mismatch).
4. Signal Deviation and Scintillation:
o Varying ionization due to magnetic influence causes fluctuations in signal strength,
called ionospheric scintillation.

🔸 Summary:

Effect Result

Electron motion Spiral under Lorentz force

Wave Splitting Ordinary & Extraordinary modes

Faraday Rotation Rotation of polarization

Scintillation Signal fading/fluctuation

🔷 2.1 (Jan 2024 – Q19)

a) Discuss the effect of ionosphere on the propagation of radio waves around the Earth. (07 marks)

✅ Effect of Ionosphere on Radio Wave Propagation

The ionosphere, located ~50–400 km above Earth, contains ionized gases (free electrons and ions) which
interact with radio waves.

🔸 Key Effects:

1. Refraction of Waves:
o Ionosphere bends radio waves back to Earth due to variation in electron density.
o Lower frequency waves bend more → suitable for long-distance communication.
2. Sky Wave Propagation:
o Enables HF (3–30 MHz) waves to reflect off the ionosphere and return to distant points
on Earth.
o Used for transcontinental and maritime communications.
3. Critical Frequency Limitation:
o Only waves with frequency below critical frequency (fc) are reflected.
o Waves with f>fcf > f_cf>fc penetrate the ionosphere.
4. Day and Night Variation:
o Ionization density changes with solar radiation.
o At night: D layer disappears → less absorption, better range.
5. Ionospheric Layers (D, E, F1, F2):
o Different layers dominate at different times.
o F2 layer (250–400 km) is most important for long-range HF propagation.
6. Polarization Rotation (Faraday Effect):
o Polarization of waves changes due to Earth's magnetic field → important in satellite
comm.

🔸 Benefits for Communication:

 Supports long-range, over-the-horizon communication.

 Reduces need for satellite or relay towers.
🔸 Limitations:

 Fluctuations in ionosphere cause signal fading or scintillation.

 Affected by solar flares, geomagnetic storms.

✅ Diagram (Optional in exam):

Include a labeled sketch showing:

 Transmitting antenna → ionosphere → refraction → receiving antenna

3.Ionospheric Conditions:

o Electron density in ionosphere affects critical frequency.

o Solar activity, time of day, and season change ionospheric behavior.
o Better reflection at night due to less absorption (D-layer weakens).

4.Terrain and Obstacles:

o Mountains, buildings can obstruct or reflect signals.

o Affects ground wave and space wave paths.

5.Earth’s Curvature:

o Limits direct line-of-sight communication.

o Surface waves must diffract around Earth.

6.Atmospheric Conditions (Troposphere):

o Temperature and humidity variations cause refraction, ducting, or scattering.

o Used in tropospheric scatter communication beyond LOS.

7.Magnetic Field:
 o Causes Faraday rotation and signal polarization changes, especially for ionospheric
waves.

🔸 Summary Table:

Factor Effect

Frequency Determines mode (ground/sky/space)

Antenna height Increases LOS range

Ionosphere Enables long-distance via skywave

Terrain Causes shadowing or reflection

Earth curvature Limits surface/space wave range

Atmosphere Causes additional refraction

Magnetic field Polarization rotation, affects ionosphere

🔷 3.2 (Oct 2023 – Q20 – OR)

a) List out the features of the various modes of radio wave propagation. (08 marks)
🔷 4.1 (Model Paper – Q19)

a) Derive an expression for the LOS distance in km when the antenna heights above ground are hth_tht
and hrh_rhr for the transmitter and receiver antennas. (07 marks)

This is similar to Q1.1a, but here's a fresh walkthrough.