Chapter 1: Automatic Control

Closed-loop Control

The sensor would monitor the actual dryness of the clothes and compare it with (or
subtract it from) the input reference. The error signal (error = required dryness – actual dryness)
is amplified by the controller, and the controller output makes the necessary correction to the
heating system to reduce any error. For example if the clothes are too wet the controller may
increase the temperature, if the clothes are nearly dry it may reduce the temperature so as not to
overheat or burn the clothes, etc.
Then the closed-loop configuration is characterized by the feedback signal, derived from the
sensor in our clothes drying system. The magnitude and polarity of the resulting error signal
would be directly related to the difference between the required dryness and actual dryness of the
clothes.
Also, because a closed-loop system has some knowledge of the output condition, it is
better equipped to handle any system disturbances or changes in the conditions which may
reduce its ability to complete the desired task.
For example, as before, the dryer door opens and heat is lost. This time the deviation in
temperature is detected by the feedback sensor and the controller self-corrects the error to
maintain a constant temperature within the limits of the preset value. Or possibly stops the
process and activates an alarm.

1
 The term Closed-loop control always implies the use of a feedback control action in order
to reduce any errors within the system, and its “feedback” which distinguishes the main
differences between an open-loop and a closed-loop system.
The accuracy of the output thus depends on the feedback path, which in general can be
made very accurate and within electronic control systems and circuits, feedback control is more
commonly used than open-loop or feed forward control.
Closed-loop systems have many advantages over open-loop systems. The primary
advantage of a closed-loop feedback control system is its ability to reduce a system’s sensitivity
to external disturbances, for example opening of the dryer door, giving the system a more robust
control as any changes in the feedback signal will result in compensation by the controller.
Then we can define the main characteristics of Closed-loop Control as being:
 To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the systems input.
 To improve stability of an unstable system.
 To increase or reduce the systems sensitivity.
 To enhance robustness against external disturbances to the process.
 To produce a reliable, repeatable performance.

Whilst a good closed-loop system can have many advantages over an open-loop control
system, its main disadvantage is that in order to provide the required amount of control, a closed-
loop system must be more complex by having one or more feedback paths. Also, if the gain of
the controller is too sensitive to changes in its input commands or signals it can become unstable
and start to oscillate as the controller tries to over-correct itself, and eventually something would
break. So we need to “tell” the system how we want it to behave.

1.2 Types of Controllers

There are different controller types that can be used in control system. They can be
summarized as:

1. PID (Proportional Integral Differential).

2. Microcontroller.
3. PLC (Programmable Logic Controller).
4. DCS (Distributed Control System).
5. SCADA (Supervisor Control And Data Acquisition).

2
 1.2.1 PID (Proportional Integral Differential).

A PID (Proportional Integral Derivative) controller is a device that makes changes to a

system based on current and intended settings. PID controllers are used in a wide variety of
industrial control systems.

a. P Action

When P controller is used, large gain is needed to improve steady state error. Stable
system does not have problems when large gain is used. Such systems are systems with one
energy storage (1st order capacitive systems).

If constant steady state error can be accepted with such processes, than P controller can be used.
Small steady state errors can be accepted if sensor will give measured value with error or if
importance of measured value is not too great anyway.

b. PD Action.

In general, the process dynamics with large inertia is slow, derivative mode is required for
control of such processes. Integral mode would only already slow dynamics make more slowly.

c. PI Action

PI controllers are the most often type used today in industry. A control without D mode is
used when:
3
 (a) Fast response of the system is not required.

(b) Large disturbances and noise are present during operation of the process.

(c) There is only one energy storage in process (capacitive or inductive).

(d) There are large transport delays in the system.

2. Microcontroller

A Microcontroller is a computer implemented on a single chip, so it has the same hardware and
the same software requirements like the computer system.

Use a Microcontroller due to:

 Microcontrollers are inexpensive computers.

 The microcontroller's ability to store and run unique programs makes it extremely
versatile (small controllers).
 The microcontroller's ability to perform math and logic functions.
 Faster speed.
 Field Programmability, Flexibility.
 Easy to Use.

4
 It is a programmable chip in printed circuit with high power components. It is
programmed to control a particular plant by receiving the inputs and process them due to the
inside program and circuit connections and produces the outputs. It can be easily reprogrammed
according to the modifications or requirements in the control actions.

3. PLC (Programmable Logic Controller)

It is the same as a computer; it receives the inputs and produces the outputs due to the
stored program. PLCs like the microcontrollers but they are complicated, so they can be used in
complex plants. With invention of programmable controllers, much has changed in how a
process control system is designed. Many advantages appeared.

Advantages of control panel that is based on a PLC controller can be presented in few basic
points:

 Compared to a conventional process control system, number of wires needed for

connections is reduced by 80%.
 Consumption is greatly reduced because a PLC consumes less than a bunch of relays.
 Diagnostic functions of a PLC controller allow for fast and easy error detection.
 Change in operating sequence or application of a PLC controller to a different operating
process can easily be accomplished by replacing a program through a console or using a
PC software (not requiring changes in wiring, unless addition of some input or output
device is required).
 It is much cheaper compared to a conventional system, especially in cases where a large
number of I/O instruments are needed and when operational functions are complex.
5
 4. DCS (Distributed Control System)

A distributed control system (DCS) refers to a control system usually of a manufacturing

system, process or any kind of dynamic system, in which the controller elements are not central
in location (like the brain) but are distributed throughout the system with each component sub-
system controlled by one or more controllers. The entire system of controllers is connected by
networks for communication and monitoring. DCS is a very broad term used in a variety of
industries, to monitor and control distributed equipment.

DCS System consists of the following components.

1. Field Control station (FCS): It consists of input/output modules, CPU and communication
bus.
2. Operator station: It is basically human interface machine with monitor, the operator man
can view the process in the plant and check if any alarm is presents and he can change any
setting, print reports..etc.
3. Engineering station: It is used to configure all input & output and drawing and any things
required to be monitored on Operator station monitor.

5. SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition)

SCADA systems are highly distributed systems used to control geographically dispersed
assets, often scattered over thousands of square kilometers, where centralized data acquisition
and control are critical to system operation. They are used in distribution systems such as water
distribution and wastewater collection systems, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power grids, and
railway transportation systems. A SCADA control center performs centralized monitoring and
6
control for field sites over long-distance communications networks, including monitoring alarms
and processing status data.

Sensors

a. Analog sensors:

Communicate with the controller by sending it an electrical voltage along a wire. By measuring
where the sent voltage falls between zero and maximum voltage, the controller can interpret the
voltage as a numeric value for processing.

b. Digital sensor:

Sends a voltage, just like an analog sensor, but instead of sending a voltage between zero and
maximum, it will send only zero OR maximum. If the controller detects a voltage that is above a
guaranteed Low or below a guaranteed High the results cannot be determined, it can be reported
as a High or Low.

Features of Sensors

1. Accuracy - This is the maximum difference between the indicated and actual reading. For
example, if a sensor reads a force of 100N with a ±1% accuracy, then the force could be
anywhere from 99N to 101N.
2. Resolution - Used for systems that step through readings. This is the smallest increment
that the sensor can detect, this may also be incorporated into the accuracy value.
3. Repeatability - When a single sensor condition is made and repeated, there will be a small
variation for that particular reading. If we take a statistical range for repeated readings
(e.g., ±3 standard deviations) this will be the repeatability.

7
4. Linearity - In a linear sensor the input phenomenon has a linear relationship with the
output signal. In most sensors this is a desirable feature. When the relationship is not
linear, the conversion from the sensor output to a calculated quantity becomes more
complex.
5. Precision - This considers accuracy, resolution and repeatability or one device relative to
another.
6. Range - Natural limits for the sensor.
7. Dynamic Response - The frequency range for regular operation of the sensor. Typically
sensors will have an upper operation frequency, occasionally there will be lower frequency
limits.
8. Environmental - Sensors all have some limitations over factors such as temperature,
humidity, dirt/oil, corrosives and pressures.
9. Cost - Generally more precision costs more. Some sensors are very inexpensive, but the
signal conditioning equipment costs are significant.