THERMODYNAMICS

General formulae

Q+W =∆U
m [ Z1g + ½ C12 + h1 ] +Q + W = m [ Z2g + ½ C22 + h2 ]
h = u + pv
m = CA/v
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Vapour Model Ideal Gas Model

h = hf + χ.hfg h = cpT
u = uf + χ.ufg u = cvT
s = sf + χ.sfg γ = cp/cv
sfg = sg - sf cv=R/(λ -1)
v = vf + χvfg ≈ χ.vg R = cp - cv
hfluid ≈ cT R = Ro/mo
pV = mRT
(a2-a1)/(a3-a1) = (b2-b1)/(b3-b1) m = n.mo

Ro = 8.3145 kJ.kmol-1.K-1

Expansion law
V=C p1/T1=p2/T2
PV=C p1V1=p2V2
PVn=C p1/p2=[V2/V1] n T1/T2=[V2/V1] n-1 T1/T2=[p1/p2] (n-1)/n
P=C V1/T1=V2/T2

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Gas Process
Process Law ∆U ∆H ∆S W Q
Isochoric V=C ----- ----- cv.ln (T2/T1) 0 ∆U
Isobaric p=C ----- ----- cp.ln (T2/T1) -p(V2-V1) ∆H
Isothermal pV=C 0 0 Q/T = R.ln (V2/V1) -C.ln(p1/p2) -W
Isentropic pVγ=C W ----- 0 -C[V21-γ- V11-γ]/(γ-1) 0
Polytropic pVn=C ----- ----- R.ln (V2/V1)+ c.ln (T2/T1) (p2V2-p1V1)/(n-1) W[(n-γ)/(γ-1)]

Vapour Process
Process Law ∆U ∆H ∆S W Q
Isochoric V=C ------ Tables Tables 0 ∆U
Isobaric p=C ------ Tables Tables p(V1-V2) ∆H
Isothermal T=C ------ Tables Q/T ∆U-Q T∆S
Isentropic ∆S=Q=0 ------ Tables 0 ∆U 0
Polytropic pVn=C ------ Tables Tables (p2V2-p1V1)/(n-1) -W + ∆U
pV=C -pV.ln(p1/p2)
Other None ------- Tables Tables ∆U-Q -W + ∆U
Steam plant
ηBoiler = ms×∆h / mf×C.V. C 
2 cos α i −  b 
ηPlant = ms×∆hturb / mf×C.V. C   C ai 
E.E. = ms/mf η REACTION = 2 b  × 2
 C ai  C  C 
E.E from & @ 100°C = E.E.×∆h/2257 1 −  b  + 2 b  cos α i
S.F.C = mf ×3600 / (ms×∆h)  Cai   C ai 
S.S.C. = ms ×3600 / (ms×∆h)
∆tbleed = (tb-tc)/(feed heaters + 1) C    C 
η IMPULSE = 4 b  ×  cos α i −  b  
 C ai    C ai  
Refrigeration
C.O.P= Q /W
C.O.PREF=T1/(T2-T1) Maximum Efficiency Conditions:
C.O.PHP=T2/(T2-T1) Cb/Cai =cosαi (reaction)
Cb/Cai =0.5cosαi (impulse)
Reciprocating Compressors Cb/Cai = 0.25cosαi (velocity, axial exit)
W = nmR(T2−T1)/(n−1) ηdiag = 2(cos2αi)/(1+ cos2αi) (reaction)
rp = (P1/P2)1/ z ηdiag = cos αi
2
(impulse & velocity; axial exit)
Wiso = mRTln(P2/P1)
ηvol = vi/vs = 1+(Vc/Vs)×(1-rp1/ n ) work factor = actual power input/diagram power
Slip factor = C′we/Cwe
Standard cycles Λ=∆hblades/∆hstage
ηcarnot = 1−T1/T2 Λturb=Cf (tanβe-tanβi)/2Cb
ηotto = 1−1/(rvγ−1) Λcom=Cf (tanβe+tanβi)/2Cb ∆Cw=Cf(tanβi-tanβe)
ηJoule =1−1/rp(γ−1)/ γ
Vortex blading Cf = constant
Efficiency Ratio = thermal η/Air
Cb∆Cw = constant
standard η
Cwir = constant
γ
Internal combustion engines  η s Cb ∆C wY  γ −1
FP=IP−BP rp y =  + 1
ηmech = BP/IP  c pT + ( y − 1)Cb ∆C wY 
ηBT = BP/(mf×CV)
ηIT = IP/(mf×CV) Nozzles
BMEP = BP/vs ho = h + 0.5C2 Tc/To = 2/(γ+1)
IMEP = IP/vs po = p+0.5ρC 2
pc/po = {2/(γ+1)}γ/(γ−1)
I = I1 + I2 +I3 + …. + In Cc = a = √γRT = √kpv
Ma = C/a
General po/p = {1+(γ−1)(Ma)2/2}γ/(γ−1)
ηcycle =Wturb/Qin
Work Ratio = net work/gross work h1-h2 = {k/(k-1) × (p1v1−p2v2)}
ηIsentropic = (h1−h2) / (h1−h2´) p1v1k = p2v2k
S.F.C. = mf ×3600 / BP kg=1.135 ksup=1.3
ηvol = vi/vs
V = cdA√(2000gh) Psychrometry
vsup ≈ 0.23(hsup − 1943)/pχ (steam) ω =0.622ps/(p−ps) ψ=ω/ωg
cps ≈1.88 kJ/kg.K (steam) ψ=100φ×(p-pg)/(p-ps) φ = ps/pg
h = ha + ωhs = cpmat cpma =cpa + ωcps
Turbines/Compressors
W=ΣCbCw F=m∆C hs = hsup≈ (hg at ps) + cps(t−tg at ps)
mvi=Caisinαi×nl ≈C+cpst
mve=(n/p)×(psinβe−t)lCre ≈hg at t
(Cb/Cai) = blade speed ratio C≈2500 kJ/kg.K(steam)
ηdiag =diagram power/ kinetic power Room ratio line = sensible heat load / total heat load
Mixtures Stephan-Boltzmann constant
m = ∑ mi n = ∑ ni
σ = 5.67 × 10 −8 Wm −2 K −4
mu = ∑ mi u i mc v = ∑ mi cvi
Boltzmann’s constant
mh = ∑ mi hi mc p = ∑ mi c pi
k = 1.3805 × 10 −23 J .K −1
ms = ∑ mi si mR = ∑ mi Ri
Planck’s constant
Vi p n
c~p = c p m
~
= i = i h = 6.625 × 10 −34 J .s
V p n
c~v = c v m
~ p = ∑ pi
~ ~ f λ1 −λ2 (T ) = f λ2 (T ) − f λ1 (T )
R = Rm V = ∑ Vi
ε (T ) = ε 1 f 0−λ + ε 2 f λ −λ (T ) + ε 3 f λ −∞ (T )
1 1 2 2

Heat transfer α + ρ +τ = 1
Q = UA∆T = ∆T/R
RT = 1/haA +∑χ/kA + 1/hbA + R J i = ε i Ebi + ρ i Gi = ε i Ebi + (1 − ε i )Gi
Rplate = χ/kA
E − Ji
Rcylinder = ln(r2/r1)/2πk Q& i = bi
Rsphere = (r2-r1)/(4πkr1r2) Ri

Nu =hl/k 1− εi 1
Ri = Ri → j =
Re =ρCd/µ = Cd/ν=Gd/µ Ai ε i Ai Fi → j
Pr = cν/k n
St = h/ρcC ∑F 1→ j =1
St = Nu/RePr 1

StPr2/3 = ƒ/2 Ai Fi → j = A j F j →i
Gr = βgρ2l3∆t÷µ2 = βgl3∆t÷ν2 F1→( 2,3) = F1→2 + F1→3

∆tln = (∆t1−∆t2)/ln(∆t1/∆t2)
Ntu = UA/Cmin = ∆tfluid / ∆tln Exergy

Qmax =Cmin (tmax−tmin) φ = (u − u o ) − To ( s − s o ) + p o (v − vo )

ϕ = (h − ho ) − To ( s − s o ) + 0.5C 2 + gz
R=Cmin/Cmax
wrev = φ 2 − φ1 = ϕ 2 − ϕ 1
ε=Q/Qmax wu = w − wsurr
ε= Ntu/(1+Ntu) (R=1) i = wrev − wu = To s gen
−NTU(1−R) −NTU(1−R)
ε=(1−e )/(1−R.e ) (counter flow)
q surr
ε = (1-e−NTU(1+R))/(1+R) (parallel flow) s gen = ( s 2 − s1 ) sys +
Tsurr
ε = 1−e−NTU (cond/evap)
wrev
η2 =
wu
Radiation
E = εσT 4 (λT ) max = 2897.8µm.K

C1
E bλ (T ) =
λ [exp(C 2 / λT ) − 1]
5

C1 = 2πhco2 = 3.742 × 108 Wµm 4 m −2

hco
C2 = = 1.439 × 10 4 µm.K
k