Second Language Acquisition

Linguistics
• Theoretical/pure linguistics-Phonology, Morphology, Syntax,
Semantics, Pragmatics, Discourse Analysis
• Applied Linguistics-Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Translation,
Second Language Acquisition etc
Notion of Applied Linguistics
• The area of applied linguistics is extensive and multifaceted
• The scientific study of the principles and practices of Foreign language
teaching and learning.
• Recently, Applied Linguistics has been seen to include in addition to
Foreign language teaching, mother tongue teaching and learning,
testing, language planning, psycholinguistics, computational
linguistics, speech pathology, lexicography, translation etc.
• Corder (1974, p.5) defines applied linguistics as, “the utilization of the
knowledge about the nature of language achieved by linguistic
research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical tasks
in which language is a central component”.
• Such practical tasks include Foreign language learning, speech
pathology, language policy and terminology, lexicography (dictionary
making)
• Translation- translators must be well acquainted with all disciplines of
linguistics
• Speech pathology-relates to the study and alteration of speech
disorder.
• It is the study of speech abnormalities e.g aphasia loss of the ability
to use or understand language particularly due to brain damage. The
loss of this ability may be total or partial. There are different types of
aphasis
a. Agraphia-difficulty in writing
b. Lexia-difficulty in reading
c. Agramatism- difficulty in using grammatical words like prepositions,
articles
• Language policy and terminology-linguists inform the government on
matters related to language.
• Lexicography-those involved in dictionary making borrow heavily from
the findings of linguists
• Though applied linguistics borrows from other disciplines such as
psychology, sociology, education, its main focus is on language and
therefore theoretical linguistics will be the most source of discipline
Definitions
a. Language
Language can be defined both structurally and functionally.
i. From the functional approach, language is a medium of
communication. Speech is peculiar to human beings/species and
universal within it. Only human beings use verbal communication
and also learn it.
ii. Structurally, speech (language) is based on a linguistic code
The sender and the receiver must be vast with this code of
communication if communication is to occur. The linguistic code
consists of hierarchically ordered linguistic units (to be acquired)
• Texts
Sentences
Clauses
Phrases
Morphemes/words
Sound/phonemes

Phonemes- meaning distinguishing sounds in a language e.g /p/ push /b/ bush. Each
language has different sounds (vowels and consonants). These sounds have different
linguistic features. E.g +voice, +nasal and distributional attributes e.g occur initially, finally
• Morpheme/word- Each language has content and functional lexical items.
A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function e.g
laughed laugh+ ed
• Phrases- words combine to form phrases. This is a group of words that
function as a single element in a sentence e.g NP, VP
• sentences/clauses- a sentence is a group of words that expresses a
complete thought. A simple sentence is made up of an independent clause
(subject+predicate). Sentences perform various speech acts e.g question,
request, statements etc
• Texts (discourse)- sentences can be combined into texts e.g monologue,
dialogue, paragraphs etc. discourse/texts express main ideas/ thoughts.
Discourse analysis is the analysis of the language beyond the sentence
• Knowledge of language constitutes knowledge of the different levels
of linguistic analysis of study. Such knowledge is gained via language
learning or language acquisition.
• Language learning- is the internalization of rules and formulae of a
language. These rules and formulae are then used to communicate in
the language.
• The process by which a person learns a language is sometimes called
acquisition. Some researchers distinguishes ‘acquisition’ and
‘learning’ on the assumption that they are different processes
• Acquisition is the ‘picking up’ of a language through exposure, while
learning is used to refer to the conscious study of a language.
• Acquisition is seen as subconscious process by which a language is
internalized in a natural/ untutored setting. The primary source is
communication and not error detection and correction.
• Learning is a process of conscious internalization of the rules of a
language. Learning takes place in a tutored setting and there is great
concern with error detection and correction
• Second language acquisition refer to the subconscious or conscious
processes by which language other than mother tongue is learned in
natural or tutored setting.
The concepts of First, Second and Foreign
language
1. First language/ native Language- is the learner’s mother tongue or the
language acquired first. In multilingual situation, a first language is one
that one feels comfortable with.
2. Second language-language not native to a country but which is widely
used as a medium of communication e.g in education and in government
and used alongside other languages e.g English in Kenya. It can be
acquired in a tutored or untutored environment. It is however most
typically acquired in a social environment where it is spoken.
3. Foreign language- language that is not native to a country but is studied
either for communication with foreigners who speak it or for reading
printed material in a language. It is mostly taught as a subject in schools
and is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language
of communication within a country e.g government, business, industry
e.g English in France, Japan, China;In Kenya Chinese, French, German
Second language Acquisition-SLA
• Study of SLA aims at accounting for the learner’s competence in a L2
• The competence is investigated through the learner’s performance in the
L2 by analyzing empirically L2 corpus. Since the head cannot be opened up
for investigation, the data serve as window through which the internalized
system is viewed. Performance (actual utterances/ language produced)
mirrors competence (internalized knowledge/rules of language).
• According to Mitchell & Myles (2004) second language learning included
learning of any language, to any level, provided that the learning of the 2nd
language takes place later than the acquisition of the first language. 2nd
languages are any languages other than the learners native language. They
include both languages of wider communication encountered within the
local region or community e.g workplace, media and foreign languages
which have no immediate users
The Recent History of second Language
Learning (SLL)Research
• In order to understand current developments in 2nd language learning
research, its important to explore its theoretical foundations.
• The area of SLL research developed into an autonomous field of research in
the post war periods i.e the 1950s. Before that SLL was seen as part of
language pedagogy/ education
• In the 1950s and early 1960s, theorizing about SLL was still very much
adjunct to practical, business of language teaching. However, the idea of
language teaching methods had to be justified in terms of an underlying
learning theory was well established sine the pedagogic reform movement
of the 19th C
• During these early days, the language teaching experts appealed to the
general learning theory of behaviorism.
Behaviourist Learning Theory
• B. F Skinner (1957), John Watson (1923)
• The theory holds that knowledge is the product of interaction with the
environment through Stimulus-Response conditioning
• An event in the environment (unconditioned stimulus-UST) brings out
unconditioned response (URE) from an organism capable of learning.
• That response is then followed by another event appealing to the
organism, i.e the organism’s response is positively reinforced (PRE)
• If the sequence UST-URE-PRE recurs a sufficient number of times, the
organism will learn how to associate its response to the stimulus with the
reinforcement.
• This will consequently cause the organism to give the same response when
it confronts with the same stimulus. In this way the stimulus becomes
Conditioned Stimulus (CST) and the response, Conditioned Response (CRE)
• Behaviourist view of language acquisition simply claims that language
development is the product of interaction with the environment
through stimulus-response conditioning.
• Learning a 2nd language involves developing new habits wherever the
stimulus –response links of L2 differs from those of the L1. A habit is
formed when a particular stimulus becomes regularly linked with a
particular response. The habit is concrete and observable.
• According to Watson, the stimulus ‘elicit’ the response. If the stimulus
occurred sufficiently frequently, the response is practised and
automatic.
• Skinner argued that the learning of a habit could occur through
imitation or reinforcement.
• Imitation involves the learner copying the stimulus behaviour
sufficiently until it becomes automatic.
• Reinforcement involves the response of the learner being rewarded
or punished depending on whether it is appropriate or otherwise
until only appropriate responses are given
• Imitation and reinforcement were the means by which the learner
identified the stimulus-response associations that constituted the
habits of L2
• Language learning (1st and 2nd) was most successful when the task
was broken down into a number of stimulus-response links
• The theory claims that both L1 and L2 acquirers achieve linguistic
input from speakers in their environment and reinforcement for their
repetition and imitation. When language learners’ responses are
reinforced positively, they acquire the language relatively easily.
• The properties of the L1 influences the course of L2. The learner
transfers sounds, structures, meaning etc from L1 to L2. This transfer
could be either positive or negative
• Positive transfer enables the learner to learn the target structures
faster and easier.
• It would be negative if the transfer inhibits the learning of the the
target structures. Such interferences are and L2 are sim as a result of
proactive inhibition i.e the way in which previous learning prevents/
inhibits learning of new habits
• In SLA, where the L1 and L2 share a meaning but express it in
different ways, for example, an error is likely to arise in the L2
because the learner will transfer the realization devise from his 1 to
L2. This negative transfer.
• Positive transfer will occur when L1 and L2 are similar, while
differences between L1 and L2 create learning difficulty which results
in errors, hence negative transfer.
• In behaviourist accounts of SLA, errors are considered undesired
They were considered evidence of non-learning, of the failure to overcome
proactive inhibition
The goal of instruction is to help the learner form new and correct linguistic
habits through intensive practice, eliminating interference errors in the
process.
The correct linguistic habits are encouraged through positive reinforcement
and the wrong ones (interference errors) are eliminated through negative
reinforcement.
-to predict possible areas of difficulty in L2 learning, L1 and L2 were
compared. The differences were seen are areas of potential errors. This
prediction was made possible through contrastive analysis.
Criticism
1. It breaks down language into small structures
2. Kills creativity because it confines learners to what the teacher
produces
3. Saw language learning as a process of habit formation-concrete and
observable-mental processes were overlooked
4. Stimulus from the environment is not always adequate and
feedback is not always guaranteed
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS (CA)
DEFINITION- The comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages e.g sound systems or the grammatical system
Sound system- English 26 alphabets, 21 consonants, 5 vowels
Gikuyu- 7 vowels, Dholuo 18 consonants
English- a e i o u
Gikuyu - a e ĩ i ũ o u
Syntactic structure
John kicked the ball- English
S V O
John ogweyo mpira-Dholuo (positive transfer)
S V O
Yohana alipiga mpira-Swahili
S V O
Kityar John cheptulit (negative transfer)- Kalenjin
V S O
ASSUMPTIONS OF CA
i. The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by
interference from the first language, L1.
ii. These difficulties can be predicted by CA
iii. Teaching materials can make use of CA to reduce the effect of
interference
-Lado comparison btn the L1 and L2 would isolate areas of the new
habits to be learnt as they would confront the learner with learning
difficulty. The most difficult areas of the L2 are those that differ most
from the L1. Those elements that are similar to L1 will be simple.
ASPECTS/RATIONALE OF CA
• Lado argues that, ‘the teacher who has made a comparison of the
foreign language with the native language of the student will know
better what the real problems are and can provide the teaching for
them.’
• CA is based on educational methodologies/ pedagogies
i. Psychological Rationale
ii. Linguistic Rationale
Psychological Rationale
• Psychological rationale take the form of Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
(CAH). This hypothesis is based on Transfer Theory.
• Transfer Theory postulates that prior learning affects later learning
• CA is seen as a prediction tool and a diagonistic tool
• As a prediction tool, it is claimed that all L2 errors can be predicted by
identifying the differences between the target language and the learner’s
first language. This is based on the assumption that the prime cause or
even the sole cause of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is
interference coming from the learner’s native language. CA is done with an
aim of predicting potential areas of difficulties.
• The view of CA as a prediction tool is the strong form of CAH
Diagnostic tool
As a diagnostic tool, CA can be used to identify which errors are the
results of interference. In this case, CA works hand in hand with error
analysis. Errors are first identified and then contrastive analysis used to
establish which errors can be put down to differences between L1 and
L2. This is the weak form of CAH.
Linguistic Aspect
• It is based on the fact that a comparison of two languages can be
done using any of the models of grammar e.g structural grammar
• Linguistic tactics are used in deriving the concept of ‘language’ into
smaller manageable areas e.g phonology, grammar, lexis. Each level is
then described using the following procedure:
i. Description- a formal description of the two languages is done e.g
Gikuyu, Bantu language, spoken by people around Mt. Kenya
region. It has different dialects such as Murang’a, Kiranyanga.
ii. Selection- certain items, which may be entire sub-systems such as
the auxiliaries or areas known through error analysis to present
difficulty, are selected for comparison
iii. Comparison- identification of areas of differences and similarities-CA
iv. Prediction- identifying which areas are likely to cause errors-CAH
These predictions can be the basis of determining which language
items require special treatment in the L2, courses to be taught or the
methodology to be employed and assist the learner
Criticism CA
i. Empirical-relates to research and predictability of errors. There
were doubts concerning the effectiveness of CA to predict errors.
This because some errors were found to occur without any
interference.
ii. Theoretical- a number of questions were raised
a. Validity of equating ‘differences’ with ‘difficulty’ and ‘difficulty’ with
‘error’
b. Translation equivalence- CA structural features
i. Practical
Mentalists perspective/Nativist
• Chomsky children have an innate faculty that guides them in learning
language.
• Innate faculty (LAD)Language Acquisition Device- language acquisition
devise-universal grammar (UG)
• UG is a set of innate linguistic principles comprising the initial state and it
controls the form, which sentences of any given language could take.
• The child’s brain was specifically adapted to the process of language
acquisition.
• This ability reduces as a child matures
• A child builds up knowledge of his mother tongue by means of hypothesis
testing.
Mentalist view of L1
• Language is human-specific faculty
• Language exists as an independent faculty in the human mind. It separates
from the general cognitive mechanisms responsible for intellectual
development.
• The primary determinant of L1 acquisition is the child’s acquisition device,
which is generally endowed and provides the child with set of principles
about grammar.
• This acquisition devises atrophies with age
• The process of acquisition consists of hypothesis testing, by which means
the grammar of the learner’s mother tongue is related to the principles of
UG
Effects of mentalist View on L2 acquisition
Research
1. Language devt was continuous and incremental and could be characterised as a series of stages.
It seems all children go through similar stages, use similar meanings and make the same kind of errors
Language stage beginning age
Crying birth
Cooing 6 weeks
Babbling 6 weeks
Intonation patterns 8 weeks
One word 1 year
Two words 18 months
Word inflections 2 years
Questions, negatives 2 years, 3 months
Rare and complex construction 5 years
Mature speech 10 years
2. Structures acquired in a consistent order
• Brown (1973) compared 14 grammatical morphemes in English children
from different language backgrounds. He found out that thought the rate
of acquisition varied, the order of acquisition remained the same for all the
children.
• Present progressive –ing playing
• Preposition-in
• Plural –s
• Possessive
• article
3. Children follow fairly rigid stages during the acquisition of a given
area of grammar e.g children all over the world acquire negatives
around the same age and they mark negatives in similar ways in all
languages.
Stage 1: negative utterances with the positive proposition either
preceded or followed by a negator e.g wear cap no, not a teddy bear
Stage 2: negatives incorporated into affirmative clauses e.g there no
food, don’t bite me yet
Stage 3: negatives incorporated into affirmative clauses e.g I not crying
4.Child language is rule governed, even if initially the rules children
create do not respond to adult ones.
5. Children do not seem to correct their errors on the basis of adult
overt or implied correction of children’s utterances.
Child: want other one spoon, daddy
Dad: You mean you want the other spoon?
Child: I want other spoon, please, daddy.
Error and Learning
• Brown (1993) distinguishes between errors and mistakes.
• Mistakes are performance deviations that are random coz of guesses
and slips. Underlying cause is language failure to utilize a known
system correctly.
• Errors are noticeable deviations from the adult grammar of a native
speaker, or deviations from the established standard.
• Errors reflect a competence level that is below the standard or norm.
• Errors are consistent and not random
• Errors can arise as a result of simplification employed by learners.
Forms of simplification
• Knowing a language involves internalizing the rules of the language as well as being able to use
the language in communication.
• The learner employs various strategies to ease the burden of learning and the use of the L2.
These strategies are known as learner strategies.
1. simplification- consists of an attempt by the learner to control the range of hypotheses he
attempts to build at any single stage in his development by restricting hypothesis formation to
those hypotheses which are relatively easy to form and will facilitate communication.
Simplification is evidenced in a number of strategies:
a. Transfer- Ellis (1985) transfer is the process of using knowledge of the L1 in learning L2.
Transfer can be positive when L1 pattern is identical with L2 pattern . Negative transfer when
L1 pattern is different from L2 pattern e.g Swahili and English
e.g Mtoto anacheza
Child is now play
b. overgeneralization- the learner uses the previous knowledge of the L1 to deal with the new data
of the L2 or target language e.g English past tense learners continue extending the past tense rule
for regular verbs to irregular verbs–ed walked, goed, comed. Formation of English plurals -s
c. Semantic simplification-occurs when the learner simplifies the sentence plan by
reducing the prepositional elements that are linguistically coded. The learner uses
truncated sentences or utterance. The learner selects specific constituents for
encoding and leaves the others to be inferred by the listener from extra linguistic
cues. The constituents deleted are semantic consisting of cases such as agent,
object, patient etc (Content words-nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
e.g He is touching me
S V O
Shortened versions-
Touching- verb only
He touching- S+V
Touching me-V+O
He me-S+O
d. Redundancy reduction- redundancy refers to a situation where a
message contains more information than is needed for it to be
understood. Skipping an aspect that the learner feels is repeated and
not necessary e.g The boy has books. Yesterday we talked to him.
e. Linguistic simplification-involves omission of form words
(grammatical or functional words)-articles, prepositions, conjunctions
and affixes (prefixes, suffixes, infixes).
e.g He touching me (Auxiliary ‘be’ omitted)
Daddy want(s)(a) chair.
2. Pattern memorization- the learner commits to memory whole
utterances in terms of the context in which they are used. He is aided
by the fact that the patterns are highly frequent and each pattern is
linked to a communicative function, which the learner is motivated to
perform. Such patterns may include greeting patterns- Good morning,
Excuse me etc
3. Pattern imitation- involves deliberate and methodical copying of
whole utterances or parts of utterances used in speech of an
interlocutor.
Error analysis-EA
• Error analysis is study of learner errors.
• It is a methodology of dealing with data rather than theory of acquisition.
• From Contrastive analysis, CA error analysis borrows the idea of comparing and contrasting the
learners’s L1 and the TL. This comparison facilitates the prediction of possible areas of difficulty.
From behaviourism, error analysis borrow the use of observable aspects of linguistic behaviour
• Error analysis recognizes that errors are part of a learning process. Errors are also made in the
acquisition of L1 e.g assigning wrong meaning, pronunciation
• Corder (1967) points out that errors are important and are part of language learning. Errors
provide a researcher with evidence of how language is learned and evidence of strategies or
procedures learners employ in discovering the language. In classifying and describing errors, we
can determine the features of the target language. This can aid in planning, teaching e.g remedial
teaching, selecting and preparing materials, designing syllabus etc

• Error analysis involves observation, analysis, classification and evaluation of all learner errors.
• Sources- interlingual (From one linguistic system to another),
intralingual (from within the target language) (unfamiliar topics of
discussion), sociolinguistic context, psycholinguistic cognitive strategy,
affective variables ( emotional situations and circumstances-stress),
physiological factors (heavy tongue, lisping)
Techniques of error analysis

a. Use a list of pre-selected categories of errors.- In this approach one

devices classes and categories of errors based on the preconception
of the learner’s most common problems i.e the researcher attempts
to predict the kind of errors one is likely to encounter.
b. Collect errors and group them such that the errors determine the
classification. In this approach the researcher identifies the errors
and groups them into particular areas or classes e.g word order,
semantic, phonological etc
Procedure of Error Analysis
There are five basic steps in error analysis
1. Collection –of sample of learner language errors
Decide whether to use oral or written samples, consider nature of the sample-formal/informal
writing, composition, recording etc, sample size, how to obtain the sample, level e.g Grade 1, 6,
Area-geographical location. The purpose of the study determines what is collected.
2. Identification of errors- identify errors e.g underlining, circle, extract and note, transcribe etc.
Determine the deviation that qualifies the errors and mistakes
3. Description of errors- two levels i.e surface strategy taxonomy-errors are classified and described
on superficial bases (surface appearance)- omission, addition, selection. Linguistic level-errors
classified under phonology, syntactic, lexis, semantic, morphology
4. Explanation –One considers the possible causes of the errors e.g interlingual
5. Evaluation of errors- one considers the seriousness or gravity of the errors. In order to judge the
gravity of an error one uses a scale of seriousness of error gravity. High on such a scale would be an
error that leads to breakdown in communication and lexical errors that may cause
misinterpretation.
An error may be considered to be serious depending on whether it is
local or global.
Local error-affects a part of the sentence e.g phrase, clause, word e.g
The woman which we saw brought a gift for the boy.-relative pronoun
Global error- affects interpretation of a whole sentence e.g
The gift saw the bought for the boy woman.
Dealing with errors
• Advocate for tolerant to save time and avoid discouraging the learner
• Correct on the spot by interrupting the utterance
• Demonstration
• Use other students to correct
• Give samples of usages/ reference materials
• Explain the source or cause of the error
• Re-teach the topic
• Provide the correct answer
• Emphasize the error to draw the learner attention to it
• Explain the error
• Remedial teaching
• Negative reinforcement
• Sensitize other teachers to help learners correct errors
weakness
1. focuses on what learners do wrongly without considering what they
do right.

2. focuses on what learners do without investigating what learners

avoid.
Assignment (Group Work)
1. Perform error analysis in any area of learners difficulty. (Hint: collect
data, analyse and explain)
2. Demonstrate ways by which you would deal with the errors.
Interlanguage Model
• The term was coined by Selinker (1972) to describe the learner’s
language.
• The learner’s language at any given stage in the process of learning a
second language will be a system that is somewhere between the first
language and the target language.
• The interlanguage is constantly evolving towards the target language
system (mostly in normal circumstances).
• Interlanguage can also be referred to as interlingua emphasizing the
fact that at any given stage, the learner’s language will show features
of his/her internal system and those of the TL.
• It can also be referred to as an approximative system, emphasizes the
goal directed devpt of the learner towards TL.
• Transitional competence, emphasizes that the learner does posses a
body of knowledge which we hope is constantly developing, which
underlies the utterances the learner makes.
• The interlanguage system is the product of a psycholinguistic process
of interaction between two linguistic systems (L1 and L2). The system
can be envisaged as a continuum.
• According to Nemser (1971), the interlanguage Theory had the
following assumptions:
i. At any given time, the approximative system is distinct from the L1
and L2
ii. The interlanguage forms an evolving series (it is continuously
changing)
iii. In a given contact situation, the approximative systems of learners
at the same stage of proficiency roughly coincides.
• Selinker saw the interlanguage as resulting from five central cognitive
processes involved in L2 learning.
• It was further assumed that most of the L2 learners fail to reach TL
competence. They cease learning when their systems do not contain
all the L2 rules. This is called fossilization.
• When fossilization occurs it cannot be remedied by instruction. At this
stage if the features he/she is learning have correct TL terms, then
they fossilize as errors.
• sometimes the learner may produce the correct form, but revert to
the wrong form
• Cognitive and external factors may lead to fossilization
i. It can occur when the learner believes he does not need to develop
the interlanguage any further in order to efficiently communicate
what they want.
ii. Changes in the neutral structure of the learner’s brain-
age,restricting operations of hypothesis testing mechanisms. (LAD)
Features of interlanguage
• Permeable-rules that constitute learner’s language are not fixed, but
open to amendment
• TL is constantly changing- dynamic, the learner gradually revises the
system
• Systematic though constantly changing- it is possible to detect the
rules L2 learner’s use of the language
• According to this Theory, errors are evidence of an evolving system
and not unwanted forms. Errors are considered as important pieces
of evidence of the devt of TL.
Criticism
i. Methodological problem in defining interlanguage
ii. Changes are rapid and stable
iii. Difficulty in collecting data-in classsroom coz produce different set
of errors
iv. Difficult to make firm generalization about interlanguages because
they are not stable languages
v. Difficult to apply linguistic theory in the description of
interlanguage.
Application to syllabus design
• Informs on error treatment
• It highlights the learner’s possession of language
• It focus on the process rather than the product
• Highlights possible levels in interlanguage, hence it informs levels of
content from sequences
• It highlights importance of communicative activities
• Effects or needs analysis
• Appreciate learner’s variability
Acculturation Model
• Acculturation is the process of becoming adapted to a new culture.
• 2nd language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the
degree to which a learner acculturates to the target language will
control the degree to which he acquires L2.
• SLA is determined by the degree of social and psychological distance
between the learner and the TL culture.
• Social distance is a result of a number of factors which affect the
learner as a member of a social group in contact with the TL group.
These factors govern whether the learning situation is good or bad
A good learning situation
i. TL and L2 groups are both desirous that the L2 group will assimilate
ii. TL and L2 group view each other as socially equal
iii. Both groups expect to share social facilities
iv. L2 group is small and not very cohesive
v. L2 group’s culture is congruent with that of TL group
vi. Both groups have positive attitude to each other
vii. L2 group envisages staying in the TL area for an extended period
Cont’
• Psychological distance is the result of various factors which concern
the learner as an individual.
i. Language shock i.e the learner experiences possible doubt and
confusion when using L2
ii. Culture shock i.e stress, fear as a result of differences between own
culture and that of TL community
iii. Motivation-lack intrinsic
iv. Ego/self esteem/value of oneself
• Social and Psychological distance influence SLA by determining the
amount of contact with the TL the learner experiences and also the
degree to which the learner is open to that input which is available.
• When the psychological distance is great, the learner will fail to covert
available input into intake.
• Schumann gives the pidginization hypothesis in SLA. He argues that
when social distance beyond the early stages and psychological
distances are great, the learner fails to progress beyond the early
stages. The learner ends up with a pidginized language.
Nativization Model
• Anderson
• It is built on acculturation model (social and psychological dimension-
pidginized) by providing a cognitive dimension.
• Concerns with the learning process. In learning a second two factors
could be considered: nativization, denativization
i. Nativization-consists of assimilation; the learner makes the input
conform to his own internalized view of what constitutes the L2
system. The learner simplifies the learning task by building
hypothesis based on the knowledge he already posses e.g L1
knowledge, knowledge of the world. The learner attends to an
‘internal norm.’
ii. Denativization- It involves accommodation; the learner adjusts his
internalized system to make it fit the input- the learner makes use of
inferencing strategies which enable him to remodel his interlanguage
system in accordance with the ‘external norm’ (linguistic features
represented in the input language)
• Denativization is apparent in depidginization (i.e the elaboration of
the pidgin which occurs through the gradual incorporation of forms
from an external language source) and also in later 1st and 2nd
language acquisition.
Evaluation
• The acculturation and nativist models provide explanation of why L2
learners, unlike L1 learners often fail to achieve a native-like
competence.
• The models indicate that SLA involves processes of a very general
kind, which are found in the formation and elaboration of pidgin
languages.
• These models do not shed light on how L2 knowledge is internalized
and used.
• They address naturalistic SLA where the learner has contact with the
target language community. It is not clear whether these models can
be applicable in a classroom situation.
The Monitor Model- By Stephen Krashen
• This theory is made up of five hypotheses:
i. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
ii. The Monitor Hypothesis
iii. The Natural Order Hypothesis
iv. The input Hypothesis
v. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
• At the center of this hypothesis is the distinction between acquisition
and learning.
• Language acquisition is a subconscious process. The language
acquirers are not aware that they are acquiring a language but use it
for communication. They are consciously aware of the rules of the
language; instead they have a ‘feel’ for correctness.
• Acquired competence is subconscious-implicit learning, informal
learning, natural learning- ‘picking up’ language
• Learning- conscious knowledge of a language, knowing the rules,
being aware of them and being able to talk about them-formal
knowledge of a language or explicit meaning
• Acquisition comes about through meaningful interactions in a natural
communication setting. Speakers are not concerned with form, but
with meaning; nor are there explicit concerns with error detection
and correction.
• In language learning situation, error detection and correction are
central
• The adult learner can either use acquisition or learning to develop
competence in a language.
Weaknesses
• Vague definition of what constitute conscious verses unconscious
processes as they are difficult to test in practice.
• Not true that learning can turn into acquisition
The Monitor Hypothesis
• Posits that acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways.
• Acquisition ‘initiates’ our utterances in a L2 and is responsible for our
fluency.
• Learning functions as a monitor or editor. It comes into play only to
make changes in the form of our utterances, after it has been
produced by the acquired system.
• Monitor hypothesis implies that formal rules or conscious learning,
play only a limited role in L2 performance. The use of the monitor
depends on the following conditions:
i. Time – to use conscious rules effectively L2 require sufficient time.
ii. Focus on form-correctness
iii. Know the rules-conscious knowledge of the rules
The use of the monitor allows the use of rules and not acquisition.
Individuals may vary in their use of the monitor:
i. Monitor over-users-monitor all the time
ii. Monitor under-users-have not learned
iii. Optimal monitor user-use the monitor when it is appropriate and
when it does not interfere with communication
Weaknesses
• The pressure of conversing in the 2nd language in real time does not
allow for the use of the monitor.
• Cannot test empirically the monitor
• under, over and optimal users
The Natural Order Hypothesis
• It has been found that acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a
predictable order.
• Acquirers of a given language tend to acquire certain grammatical
structures earlier than others.
• The acquisition in different individuals may not be totally be the same but
clear, statistically significant similarities.
• Brown (1973) children acquiring English L1 tended to acquire certain
grammatical ,morphemes, or function words, earlier than others e.g
i. Progressive marker –ing- she is singing
ii. Plural marker ‘s’-dogs, books are acquired earlier than others
iii. Possessives ‘s’- John’s book
• The natural order shows that there is uniformity in the developmental
errors of learners acquiring language e.g in acquiring English negation,
many L1 and L2 acquirers pass through the following stages:
i. Place –ve markers outside the sentence
No mum sharpen it
Not like it now
ii. Place –ve marker between the subject and verb
I no like this one
This no have calender
• The stages for a given target language appear to be strikingly similar
despite the L1 of the acquirer.
The Input Hypothesis
• It states that ‘acquisition’ takes place as a result of the learner having
understood input that is a little beyond the current level of his
competence.
• The input must be comprehensible-we acquire only when we
understand a language that contains structure that is a ‘little beyond’
where we are now. This is possible coz we use context (our
knowledge of the world) and extra linguistic knowledge that helps
understand language directly.
• Speaking fluently cannot be taught directly.It emerges over time on
its own. The best way to reach fluency is to provide comprehensible
input.
Affective-Filter Hypothesis
• Deals with how affective factors relate to SLA
• The filter controls how much input the learner comes into contact
with, and how much is converted into intake.
• Affective- learner’s motivation, self confidence, anxiety state
• Learners with high motivation and self confidence and with low
anxiety have low filters and so they obtain and let in plenty of input
• Learners with low self esteem, motivation, little confidence and high
anxiety have high filters and so receive little input
• It implies pedagogical goals should include supplying comprehensible
input, as well as creating a situation that encourages a low filter.
• The input and affective filter hypothesis define the language teacher
in a new way. The effective language teacher is one who can provide
input and help make it comprehensible in a low anxiety situation.
• Relationship to Language acquisition
i. Provide naturalistic and classroom situation for learning
ii. Order items along the natural order
iii. Provide comprehensive input
iv. Give metalinguistic knowledge for the monitor
v. Lower negative affective factors and increase positive affective
factors e.g motivation=self confidence
Weaknesses