K19-1048

SE – A Operating Systems

OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating system is a bridge between your user and your hardware.

Your Laptop is a hardware and to communicate with that hardware the

bridge between you and the laptop is operating system.

It makes a platform over the hardware, a platform where the user can run his
application software to perform a specific task.

Operating system is responsible to manage:

1. RAM
2. Processor
3. Hard Disk
Etc.

OPERATING SYSTEM SERVICES

1. Program Execution
2. I/O Operations
3. File-System Manipulation
4. Communications
5. Error Detection
6. Resource Allocation
7. Accounting
8. Protection and Security

SYSTEM INTERRUPTS

Meaning: Stop the continuous progress of an activity.

The interrupt function in OS does the same.

Interrupts can be software or hardware.

INTERRUPT HANDLER
After a user makes an interrupt, some instructors are given for further to let
the system know why the interrupt was generated.

Interrupt Handler is a special type of code block, the control is directly given
to interrupt handler, it then executes the code that is placed in the handler.
INTERRUPT VECTOR
Interrupt vector are special type of codes, that contains the address to
interrupts.

It prioritizes the interrupts and saves them in a queue if more than one
interrupt is waiting to be handled.

KERNAL

Whenever we say OS is responsible for doing this and that, 99% of the times
we are referring to Kernal.

TWO TYPES OF KERNAL

1. Micro Kernal: Allows basic operations.
Example:
Smart Watches

2. Monolithic Kernal: Allows advance options.

Example:
Linux, Android, Chrome, Firefox.

Windows Kernal is a Hybrid Kernal.

MULTIPROGRAMMING VS. MULTITASKING

 USER-MODE AND KERNAL-MODE

User sends a system call, that is then executed in Kernal mode.

MODE BIT
Mode bit is a bit which tells you which mode you are in.

Kernal Mode = 0 bitq

User Mode = 1 bit

OPERATING SYSTEM GENERATION

In computing System generation or sysgen is the process of creating a

particular unique instance of an operating system by combining user-
specified options and parameters with manufacturer-supplied general-
purpose program code to produce an operating system tailored for a
particular hardware and software environment.

PERFORMANCE TUNING

Proper OS tuning improves system performance by preventing the

occurrence of error conditions. Operating system error conditions always
degrade performance. This performance can be improved by removing
bottlenecks.

An OS must provide means of measuring and identifying behavior of a

system,

For Example: “Top” program or Task Manager.

TRACING

Tracing involves a specialized use of logging to record information about a

program’s execution.

strace – trace system calls invoked by a process.

gdb – source-level debugger.

perf – collection of Linux performance tools

tcpdump – collects network packets.

PROCESS

A program in execution is process.

A passive sleeping calculator is a program, but when it is executed and the

user uses it, it become a process. An active program uses system resources,
GPU, Memory etc.
ATTRIBUTES OF A PROCESS
1. Program Counter: Used to keep track of the address of the next
instruction to be executed.
2. Stack: A stack is used to store the data of the program. E.g. Local
Variable.
3. Data Section: Used to store the global variables of the program.
4. Heap: Heap is used for Dynamic Memory Allocation.

PROCESS STATES

It states what the process is currently doing.

A process goes through 5 number of states.

1. New
2. Ready
3. Running
4. Waiting
5. Terminated.

NEW
At this stage it us just a program, which is newly created and not loaded into
the memory.

READY
Program is loaded into the memory and waiting to be executed.

The Ready and Running state shift depends upon the scheduling algorithms.

RUNNING
The program got the processor to start running.

It will perform all the number of instructions written into it.

Process keeps running until it finishes its task.

TERMINATION
Now the process has been run, it has completed the tasks for which it was
running, it will now be terminated.
WAITING
Suppose a process is in running state, but after execution of some tasks, the
process requires an input for the user to execute further, so now the process
will wait for an input from the user or some other program, so at this time
the process is in waiting state.

After waiting state, the program will not return to running state, it will go into
ready state. Cause during the waiting state, the CPU assigned the processor
to some other process since the previous one was waiting for an input.

PCB (PROCESS CONTROL BLOCK)

PCB in simple words is a data structure, and it is an ID Card of a process.

It is design to keep the data of a process, and every process has its own PCB.

Process use its PCB to store the data such as, Process state, Program
counter, CPU registers, Memory, I/O Status, etc.

WHAT KIND OF DATA IS STORED IN PCB?

Data which is used to control the execution of the process, data about the
resources allocated to process to perform any task.

PROCESS SCHEDULING

The number of processes is more than resources. We have only one

processor, but more than one process.

The processes are not sensible enough to schedule themselves one after
another, so the OS take this responsibility. OS Schedule these processes
using the scheduling algorithms.

SCHEDULING QUEUE
A place where the process waits to get the resources is known as Scheduling
Queue.

1. Job Queue: Queue of the processes in the secondary memory.

2. Ready Queue: Queue of the processes in the main memory.
3. Waiting Queue: If the process is waiting for I/O operations it will wait
here.

SCHEDULING ALGORITHM
The role of scheduling algorithm is to:

1. Arrange them in a queue depending on their priority.

2. Assign them to processor.
3. To swap in swap out from processor.

There are three different scheduling algorithms:

1. Long Term Schedular

Responsible for managing the process in the job queue which is in the
secondary memory.
Check which process wants to go first and prioritizes that process in
the list.
Sends the process from job queue to ready queue.

2. Short Term Schedular

This is responsible for managing the processes in the ready queue,
which is in the main memory.
Processor gets the processes from this queue because it is near the
processor.
Prioritize them accordingly.

3. Medium Term Schedular

Responsible for keeping the things in smooth flow.
Sometimes it might happen that a process come into the main memory
(Ready queue) and may do nothing other than keeping the memory
reserve.
Medium term schedular takes those processes out of the main
memory.

CONTEXT – SWITCH

Processor keeps switching between process, so this is known as context

switching.

A processor switch from one process to another when the one process
terminates or goes into waiting state.

A processor knows nothing about a process when it comes to the processor,

it reads its PCB and check if it is new, or it is coming from the waiting state
and all those things. So, every time before switching the system stores all
the details of the process to its PCB.

THREADS

Thread is also known as lightweight process.

It is a sequence of instructions within a process, thread itself behaves like a

process inside a process.

It does not have a PCB it relays on the PCB of the process under which it is
behaving like a process.

A thread passes through 3 states:

1. Running
2. Ready
3. Blocked

PROCESS CREATION

If a process creates a child process that child uses the resources of the
parent process, Parent can also limit the resource usage of child process. A
child process can further create more child and form a complete tree.

PROCESS TERMINATION

Process termination means the closing of a process after it is done

performing all the tasks it was assigned to do, or due to some other reason.

It tells the OS by issuing Exit() call that it is going to be terminated.

CHILD PROCESS TERMINATION

Usually, child also finishes after completing its task.

One addition thing that it does is that at normal termination it returns some
data to its parent process. That is the result of the tasks it was assigned to
do so.

If sometimes parent wants to terminate the child process due to any reason,
the parent will issue the Abort () call to its child and kill it.

ORPAN PROCESS
Usually when a parent is terminated the children also terminate with it, but it
not always the case, sometimes the child chose to continue its execution,
such child processes are known as Orphan process.

ZOMBIE PROCESS
On Unix and Unix-like computer operating systems, a zombie
process or defunct process is a process that has completed execution
(via the exit system call) but still has an entry in the process table: it is
a process in the "Terminated state".

THREAD VS. PROCESS

MULTI-THREADING
Multithreading allows you to execute different threads at the same time.

Web Browser is an example of multithreading, one thread is working to get

the data from the server, other thread is working to display the images and
UI to the user.

ADVANTAGES OF MULTITHREADING
1. Responsive
2. Resource sharing
3. Multiprocessor Architecture Utilization

TYPES OF THREADING
1. Kernel-Level threads
They allow kernel to perform all kernel level tasks in parallel manner.
2. User-Level threads
 These threads are so fast, most of the times kernel do not have
complete information of these threads.
They manage themselves without interrupting operating system and
kernel too much.

MULTITHREADING MODEL
User thread must be mapped to kernel thread, so the operating system
remains aware of what is going on in user mode and provide resources if
needed from kernel.

We have three models to link User level thread to kernel level:

1. Many to One

2. One to One

3. Many to Many
 CHAPTER 4

PRE-EMPTION VS. NON-PREEMPTION

PRE EMPTIVE
From Ready Queue (Main Memory) to CPU, and the process is removed from
the queue, even if it is still executing.

In Pre Emptive scheduling the CPU is allocated to a process for a limited

time.

The first factor due to which we do this switch is Time Quantum, it means the
CPU has already decided that it will execute the certain process for n
seconds.

We use this to enhance responsiveness.

Algorithms:

1. SRTF (Shortest Remaining Time First) Also Known as SJF

(PreEmptive)
2. LRTF (Longest Remaining Time First)
3. Round Robin
4. Priority Based

NON-PRE-EMPTIVE
The CPU is allocated to the process until the process terminates or switches
to waiting state.

Algorithms:
1. FCFS (First Come First Serve)
2. SJF (Shortest Job First)
3. LJF (Longest Job First)
4. HRRN (Highest Responsive Ration Next)
5. Multilevel Queue

TIMES

1. Arrival Time: The time at which the process enters ready Queue or
state.
2. Burst Time: Time required by process to get executed on CPU.
3. Completion Time: The Time at which the process completes its
execution.
4. Turn Around Time: (Completion Time – Arrival Time)
5. Waiting Time: (Turn Around Time – Burst Time)
6. Response Time: (The at which the process got CPU first time – Arrival
Time)

FIRST COME FIRST SERVE (FCFS)

SHORTEST JOB FIRST (SJF)

 SHORTEST JOB FIRST (PRE EMPTIVE)

SHORTEST REMAINING TIME FIRST (SRTF)

PRIORITY SCHEDULING
 ROUND ROBIN

DISPATCHER

 Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the process selected by

the short-term scheduler, this involves:

◦ switching context

◦ switching to user mode

◦ jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that

program.