CLASSFUL ADDRESSING
What is Classful Addressing?
Classful addressing was introduced in 1981, with classful
routing, IPv4 addresses were divided into 5 classes (A to E), each with a
predetermined range. The class of an IP address determines the network
portion and the host portion based on its class-specific subnet mask. Classful
addressing was inflexible and led to inefficiencies in address allocation, which
prompted the development of classless addressing (CIDR) for more efficient
use of IP address space.
CONGESTION CONTROL
• Congestion in a computer network happens when there is too much data
being sent at the same time, causing the network to slow down. Just like
traffic congestion on a busy road, network congestion leads to delays and
sometimes data loss. When the network can’t handle all the incoming
data, it gets “clogged,” making it difficult for information to travel
smoothly from one place to another.
Congestion control is a crucial concept in computer networks. It refers to the
methods used to prevent network overload and ensure smooth data flow.
Congestion control techniques help manage the traffic, so all users can enjoy a
stable and efficient network connection. These techniques are essential for
maintaining the performance and reliability of modern networks.
• In computer networking, an address space defines a range of unique
identifiers, such as IP addresses, used to distinguish network devices and
resources. This space allows for the efficient routing and communication
of data packets between different networks and hosts.
• Dotted decimal notation is a way of representing a 32-bit IP address
(IPv4) as four decimal numbers separated by periods (dots), making it
easier for humans to read and understand. Each number represents an
8-bit byte (octet), and the entire IP address is made up of 32 bits.
• Address space notation refers to how memory addresses, either physical
or virtual, are represented and organized within a computer system. It's
essentially the way in which the system identifies and manages specific
locations in memory. There are two main types of address spaces: flat
address spaces and segmented address spaces. Flat address spaces use a
single, continuous sequence of integers starting from zero, while
segmented address spaces break down memory into smaller,
independent segments.
• Routing in networking is the process of determining the best path for data to travel
from one device to another within or across networks.
• In a network, data is transmitted in the form of packets, and routing is responsible
for directing these packets through multiple networks and routers, ensuring they
reach their destination efficiently and accurately.
• It is particularly important in large-scale networks like the Internet, where
millions of devices need to communicate across vast distances.
What is Routing?
Routing is the process of selecting paths within a network over which
data packets can travel from a source to a destination.
It is a fundamental aspect of networking, ensuring that data sent from
one device reaches its intended destination through a complex web of
intermediate devices and networks.
The devices involved in routing are generally routers, which work in
concert with networking protocols to analyze and choose the best
possible path for data. In a well-configured network, routing plays a
crucial role in ensuring optimal performance, reduced latency, and
effective bandwidth utilization.
1. Static Routing
Static routing involves manually configuring the routing table entries by a
network administrator. The paths are fixed and do not change unless
manually adjusted.
Static routing is simple and consumes fewer resources but lacks
flexibility, as it cannot automatically adapt to network changes such as
link failures or route congestion.
Advantages of Static Routing:
● No overhead from routing algorithms.
● Greater control over routes.
2. Dynamic Routing
Dynamic routing uses algorithms and routing protocols to automatically
adjust routing paths based on the current state of the network. It can
respond to network changes, such as traffic congestion or broken links, in
real time.Common dynamic routing protocols include RIP (Routing
Information Protocol), OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), and BGP
(Border Gateway Protocol).
Advantages of Dynamic Routing:
● Automatically adapts to network topology changes.
● Scalable and reduces manual configuration efforts.
3. Default Routing
Default routing is a method where a router is configured to send all
packets destined for unknown networks to a default route. This is
typically used in smaller networks where it is impractical to maintain a
complete routing table.
Advantages of Default Routing:
● Simplifies the routing process.
● Reduces routing table size.
1. The leaky bucket algorithm is a "traffic shaping" algorithm to
reduce the load the transport layer places on the network
layer and reduce congestion in the network. Commonly used in
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) networks, the algorithm
provides a way to temporarily store a variable number of requests
and then organize them into a set-rate output of packets.
2. Token bucket algorithm is one of the techniques for congestion
control algorithms. When too many packets are present in the
network it causes packet delay and loss of packet which degrades
the performance of the system. This situation is called congestion.
3. The network layer and transport layer share the responsibility for
handling congestions. One of the most effective ways to control
congestion is trying to reduce the load that transport layer is
placing on the network. To maintain this network and transport
layers have to work together.
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Asymmetric routing
The traditional/normal way that your IP stack decides where an
outgoing IP packet should be sent is based (only) on the
destination IP address. If the destination IP is in a directly attached
network, your system sends it to the relevant interface. If there’s a
specific route that applies to the destination IP, the packet is sent
to the gateway the route lists. And if all else fails, the packet is sent
to your default route’s gateway (or dropped, if you have no default
route).
However, if you have a multi-homed host, a host with multiple
interfaces and IP addresses, this approach to routing outgoing
traffic can create a situation where outgoing and incoming packets
for the same connection (or flow) use different interfaces. For this
to happen, you normally need at least two of your networks to be
routable, which is to say that hosts not on those networks can
reach them and hosts on those networks can reach other
networks.
Symmetric routing
In symmetric routing, we arrange (somehow) for packets to take
the same path in both directions in all of these situations. If you’re
pinged at 192.168.100.1, your replies always go out on
192.168.100.0/24 even if they’re from a host in 10.20.0.0/16. If
you’re pinged at 10.20.0.10 by some random IP, your replies
always go out on 10.20.0.0/16 even if your normal default route is
through 192.168.100.254 (you’ll need a second default route for
10.20.0.0/16 to make this work).
This also extends to traffic that your host originates. If you ping a
host in 10.20.0.0/16 with the source IP of 192.168.100.1, your
pings should go to 192.168.100.0/24’s default gateway of
192.168.100.254, not directly out your 10.20.0.0/16 interface. If
your ‘source IP 192.168.100.1’ pings did go out of your
10.20.0.0/16 interface, the ICMP replies from the innocent
10.20.0.0/16 host would take a different return path and create
asymmetric routing.
RSA Algorithm
RSA Algorithm is based on factorization of large number and
modular arithmetic for encrypting and decrypting data. It consists
of three main stages:
1. Key Generation: Creating Public and Private Keys
2. Encryption: Sender encrypts the data using Public Key to get cipher text.
3. Decryption: Decrypting the cipher text using Private Key to get the
original data.
Cryptography is the practice of securing information through
coding and decryption, ensuring only authorized parties can
access it. It involves using mathematical algorithms and
techniques to transform data into an unreadable format
(ciphertext) that can only be decoded with a key. This process
protects information at rest, in transit, and in use
