1.

Vocabulary Building
• Contextual Usage: Contextual usage refers to understanding how words are used in different
situations or contexts. The meaning of a word can change depending on the context in which it is used.
For example, the word "light" can mean something that is not heavy or it can refer to illumination.
Understanding contextual usage helps in interpreting the correct meaning of words in sentences. This
skill is essential for effective communication and comprehension.

• Synonyms: Synonyms are words that have similar meanings. They are useful for avoiding repetition
and adding variety to language. For example, the words "happy," "joyful," and "content" are synonyms
because they all convey a sense of positivity. Using synonyms can make writing and speaking more
engaging and expressive. However, it is important to choose the right synonym based on the context.

• Antonyms: Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. They are used to express contrast or
opposition. For example, "hot" and "cold," "happy" and "sad," or "light" and "dark" are pairs of
antonyms. Understanding antonyms helps in building a richer vocabulary and enhances the ability to
express contrasting ideas clearly. They are often used in comparisons and debates.

• Idiomatic Expressions: Idiomatic expressions are phrases whose meanings cannot be deduced
from the individual words. These expressions are unique to a language and often carry cultural
significance. For example, "break the ice" means to start a conversation in a social setting, and "kick the
bucket" is a euphemism for dying. Idioms add color and depth to language but can be challenging for
non-native speakers to understand.

2. Communicative Grammar
• Subject-Verb Agreement: Subject-verb agreement is a grammatical rule that states that the
subject and verb in a sentence must agree in number. If the subject is singular, the verb must be
singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. For example, "She runs" (singular) and
"They run" (plural). Errors in subject-verb agreement can lead to confusion and make sentences
grammatically incorrect. This rule is fundamental to constructing clear and coherent sentences.

Rules of Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Basic Rule:
o A singular subject takes a singular verb.

o A plural subject takes a plural verb.

 o Example:

▪ Singular: "The cat runs fast."

▪ Plural: "The cats run fast."

2. Compound Subjects Joined by 'And':

o When two or more subjects are joined by "and," they usually take a plural verb.

o Example:

▪ "John and Mary are going to the park."

3. Compound Subjects Joined by 'Or' or 'Nor':

o When two or more subjects are joined by "or" or "nor," the verb agrees with the subject closest
to it.

o Example:

▪ "Neither the teacher nor the students are ready."

▪ "Either the students or the teacher is responsible."

4. Indefinite Pronouns:
o Indefinite pronouns like "everyone," "someone," "nobody," and "each" are singular and take
singular verbs.

o Example:

▪ "Everyone has finished the assignment."

5. Collective Nouns:
o Collective nouns (e.g., "team," "family," "group") can take a singular or plural verb depending on
whether the group is acting as a single unit or as individuals.

o Example:

▪ Singular: "The team is winning." (acting as one unit)

▪ Plural: "The team are arguing." (acting as individuals)

6. Subjects Separated from Verbs:

o When words or phrases come between the subject and verb, the verb still agrees with the
subject, not the intervening words.

o Example:

▪ "The book, along with the pens, is on the table."

 7. Titles, Names, and Words Ending in 'S':
o Titles of books, movies, or organizations, as well as words ending in "s" (e.g., "mathematics,"
"news"), are singular and take singular verbs.

o Example:

▪ "The news is surprising."

8. Inverted Sentences:
o In sentences where the subject follows the verb (e.g., questions or sentences starting
with "here" or "there"), the verb still agrees with the subject.

o Example:

▪ "There are many books on the shelf."

9. Fractions, Percentages, and Quantities:

o When the subject is a fraction, percentage, or quantity, the verb agrees with the noun it refers
to.

o Example:

▪ "Half of the cake is gone." (singular)

▪ "Half of the cookies are gone." (plural)

10. Relative Clauses:

o In sentences with relative clauses (e.g., "who," "which," "that"), the verb agrees with the
antecedent (the noun the clause refers to).

o Example:

▪ "The student who studies hard succeeds."

Examples of Subject-Verb Agreement

1. Singular Subject with Singular Verb:

o "The dog barks loudly."

o "She writes a letter."

2. Plural Subject with Plural Verb:

o "The dogs bark loudly."

o "They write letters."

 3. Compound Subject with 'And' (Plural Verb):

o "Tom and Jerry are best friends."

o "The teacher and the students are in the classroom."

4. Indefinite Pronoun (Singular Verb):

o "Nobody knows the answer."

o "Each of the students has a book."

5. Collective Noun (Singular or Plural Verb):

o "The committee has made a decision." (acting as one unit)

o "The committee are divided in their opinions." (acting as individuals)

6. Inverted Sentence (Verb Agrees with Subject):

o "Here is your book."

o "There are many stars in the sky."

7. Relative Clause (Verb Agrees with Antecedent):

o "The book that is on the table belongs to me."

o "The students who study hard pass the exam."

Common Mistakes to Avoid

1. Mistake: Ignoring intervening phrases.

o Incorrect: "The group of students are studying."

o Correct: "The group of students is studying."

2. Mistake: Misusing indefinite pronouns.

o Incorrect: "Everyone are here."

o Correct: "Everyone is here."

3. Mistake: Confusing collective nouns.

o Incorrect: "The team are winning." (if acting as one unit)

o Correct: "The team is winning."

4. Mistake: Misidentifying the subject in inverted sentences.

o Incorrect: "There is many books on the shelf."

o Correct: "There are many books on the shelf.

Verb Tenses:
Verb tenses indicate the time of an action or event, whether it is in the past, present, or future. For example,
"I eat" (present), "I ate" (past), and "I will eat" (future). Each tense has different forms and uses, such as
continuous, perfect, and perfect continuous. Understanding verb tenses is crucial for conveying the timing of
actions accurately. Incorrect use of tenses can lead to misunderstandings.

1. Simple Present Tense

• Definition: Used for habitual actions, general truths, or permanent situations.

• Formula: Subject + Base Verb (add -s/-es for third-person singular).

• Examples:

1. "She works at a bank."

2. "They play soccer every weekend."

3. "The sun rises in the east."

2. Present Continuous Tense

• Definition: Used for actions happening now or around the current time.

• Formula: Subject + am/is/are + Verb-ing.

• Examples:

1. "I am reading a book."

2. "She is cooking dinner."

3. "They are playing outside."

3. Present Perfect Tense

• Definition: Used for actions completed at an unspecified time before now or actions that started in the
past and continue to the present.

• Formula: Subject + has/have + Past Participle.

• Examples:

1. "I have finished my homework."

2. "She has visited Paris three times."

 3. "They have lived here for five years."

4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense

• Definition: Used for actions that started in the past and are still continuing or were recently completed.

• Formula: Subject + has/have been + Verb-ing.

• Examples:

1. "I have been working all day."

2. "She has been studying for hours."

3. "They have been playing since morning."

5. Simple Past Tense

• Definition: Used for actions completed in the past.

• Formula: Subject + Past Tense Verb.

• Examples:

1. "I visited my grandparents yesterday."

2. "She finished her homework last night."

3. "They played soccer last weekend."

6. Past Continuous Tense

• Definition: Used for actions that were ongoing at a specific time in the past.

• Formula: Subject + was/were + Verb-ing.

• Examples:

1. "I was reading when the phone rang."

2. "She was cooking dinner at 7 PM."

3. "They were playing outside when it started raining."

7. Past Perfect Tense

• Definition: Used for actions completed before another action in the past.
 • Formula: Subject + had + Past Participle.

• Examples:

1. "I had finished my homework before the movie started."

2. "She had left by the time I arrived."

3. "They had eaten dinner before the guests came."

8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

• Definition: Used for actions that were ongoing in the past and continued up to another point in the
past.

• Formula: Subject + had been + Verb-ing.

• Examples:

1. "I had been working for two hours before she called."

2. "She had been studying all night before the exam."

3. "They had been playing for hours before it got dark."

9. Simple Future Tense

• Definition: Used for actions that will happen in the future.

• Formula: Subject + will/shall + Base Verb.

• Examples:

1. "I will call you tomorrow."

2. "She will finish her project by next week."

3. "They will play soccer this weekend."

10. Future Continuous Tense

• Definition: Used for actions that will be ongoing at a specific time in the future.

• Formula: Subject + will be + Verb-ing.

• Examples:

1. "I will be working at 8 PM tomorrow."

 2. "She will be studying when you arrive."

3. "They will be playing at the park this time tomorrow."

11. Future Perfect Tense

• Definition: Used for actions that will be completed before a specific time in the future.

• Formula: Subject + will have + Past Participle.

• Examples:

1. "I will have finished my homework by 10 PM."

2. "She will have completed the project by next month."

3. "They will have left by the time we arrive."

12. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

• Definition: Used for actions that will be ongoing up to a specific time in the future.

• Formula: Subject + will have been + Verb-ing.

• Examples:

1. "I will have been working for six hours by noon."

2. "She will have been studying for three hours by the time you call."

3. "They will have been playing for two hours by the time we join."

Summary Table of Verb Tenses

Tense Formula Example

Subject + Base Verb "She works at a bank."
Simple Present
Subject + am/is/are + Verb-ing "I am reading a book."
Present
Continuous
Subject + has/have + Past "I have finished my homework."
Present Perfect
Participle
 Subject + has/have been + Verb- "I have been working all day."
Present Perfect
ing
Continuous
Subject + Past Tense Verb "I visited my grandparents."
Simple Past
Subject + was/were + Verb-ing "I was reading when the phone rang."
Past Continuous
Subject + had + Past Participle "I had finished my homework."
Past Perfect
Subject + had been + Verb-ing "I had been working for two hours."
Past Perfect
Continuous
Subject + will/shall + Base Verb "I will call you tomorrow."
Simple Future
Subject + will be + Verb-ing "I will be working at 8 PM."
Future
Continuous
Subject + will have + Past "I will have finished my homework."
Future Perfect
Participle

Subject + will have been + Verb- "I will have been working for six hours."
Future Perfect
ing
Continuous

Fragments:
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence that lacks either a subject or a verb. Fragments do not
express a complete thought and can confuse the reader. For example, "Running late" is a fragment
because it lacks a subject. To correct this, you could say, "I am running late." Fragments are common in
informal writing but should be avoided in formal communication.

Types of Fragment Sentences

1. Missing Subject:
o A fragment that lacks a subject (the "who" or "what" of the sentence).

o Example: "Running late." (Who is running late?)

2. Missing Verb:
o A fragment that lacks a verb (the action or state of being).
 o Example: "The book on the table." (What about the book?)

3. Dependent Clause Fragment:

o A fragment that is a dependent clause and cannot stand alone.

o Example: "Because I was tired." (What happened because you were tired?)

4. Phrase Fragment:
o A fragment that is a phrase (a group of words without a subject-verb pair).

o Example: "After the game." (What happened after the game?)

5. Incomplete Thought:
o A fragment that does not express a complete idea.

o Example: "Even though she tried." (What happened even though she tried?)

Examples of Fragment Sentences

1. Missing Subject:
o "Went to the store." (Who went to the store?)

2. Missing Verb:
o "The cat on the roof." (What is the cat doing on the roof?)

3. Dependent Clause Fragment:

o "Although it was raining." (What happened although it was raining?)

4. Phrase Fragment:
o "In the middle of the night." (What happened in the middle of the night?)

5. Incomplete Thought:
o "Because he was late." (What happened because he was late?)

How to Correct Fragment Sentences

To fix a fragment sentence, you need to add the missing subject, verb, or complete thought. Here are five
methods with examples:

1. Add a Subject
• If the fragment is missing a subject, add one to make it a complete sentence.
 • Example:

o Fragment: "Went to the store."

o Correct: "She went to the store."

2. Add a Verb
• If the fragment is missing a verb, add one to complete the thought.

• Example:

o Fragment: "The cat on the roof."

o Correct: "The cat is sitting on the roof."

3. Combine with an Independent Clause

• If the fragment is a dependent clause, combine it with an independent clause to form a complete
sentence.

• Example:

o Fragment: "Although it was raining."

o Correct: "Although it was raining, we went for a walk."

4. Add Missing Information

• If the fragment is a phrase, add the missing information to complete the thought.

• Example:

o Fragment: "In the middle of the night."

o Correct: "In the middle of the night, the power went out."

5. Rewrite the Sentence

• If the fragment is incomplete, rewrite it to express a full idea.

• Example:

o Fragment: "Because he was late."

o Correct: "Because he was late, he missed the bus."

Corrected Examples of Fragment Sentences

1. Fragment: "Went to the store."

o Correct: "She went to the store."

 o Correct: "I went to the store."

2. Fragment: "The cat on the roof."

o Correct: "The cat is on the roof."

o Correct: "The cat jumped onto the roof."

3. Fragment: "Although it was raining."

o Correct: "Although it was raining, we decided to go out."

o Correct: "We stayed inside, although it was raining."

4. Fragment: "In the middle of the night."

o Correct: "In the middle of the night, the storm began."

o Correct: "I woke up in the middle of the night."

5. Fragment: "Because he was late."

o Correct: "Because he was late, he missed the meeting."

o Correct: "He was upset because he was late."

Run-ons:
A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined without proper
punctuation or conjunctions. For example, "I went to the store I bought milk" is a run-on sentence. To
fix it, you could write, "I went to the store, and I bought milk." Run-on sentences can make writing
difficult to read and understand. Proper punctuation and conjunctions are essential for clarity.

Modifiers:
Modifiers are words or phrases that describe or qualify other words in a sentence. They can be
adjectives, adverbs, or phrases. For example, in the sentence "The red car is fast," "red" is an adjective
modifying "car," and "fast" is an adverb modifying "is." Misplaced modifiers can lead to confusion, so it
is important to place them close to the words they modify.

1. Adjectives
• Definition: Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns by describing their qualities, quantities, or states.

• Examples:

1. "The red car is fast." (describes the noun "car")

2. "She is a talented musician." (describes the noun "musician")

 3. "I have three apples." (describes the quantity of "apples")

4. "This is an interesting book." (describes the noun "book")

2. Adverbs
• Definition: Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs by describing how, when, where, or to
what extent something happens.

• Examples:

1. "She sings beautifully." (modifies the verb "sings")

2. "He runs very quickly." (modifies the adverb "quickly")

3. "They arrived late." (modifies the verb "arrived")

4. "The movie was extremely exciting." (modifies the adjective "exciting")

3. Prepositional Phrases
• Definition: Prepositional phrases act as modifiers by providing additional information about nouns or
verbs. They begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition).

• Examples:

1. "The book on the table is mine." (modifies the noun "book")

2. "She walked to the park." (modifies the verb "walked")

3. "The man with the hat is my uncle." (modifies the noun "man")

4. "They talked during the meeting." (modifies the verb "talked")

4. Participial Phrases
• Definition: Participial phrases modify nouns or pronouns. They consist of a present participle (-ing) or
past participle (-ed, -en, etc.) and its modifiers or complements.

• Examples:

1. "The girl holding the balloon is my sister." (modifies the noun "girl")

2. "Excited by the news, he jumped for joy." (modifies the pronoun "he")

3. "The cake, baked to perfection, was delicious." (modifies the noun "cake")

4. "Running late, she hurried to the bus stop." (modifies the pronoun "she")
5. Infinitive Phrases
• Definition: Infinitive phrases modify nouns, verbs, or adjectives. They consist of an infinitive (to + base
verb) and its modifiers or complements.

• Examples:

1. "She has a book to read." (modifies the noun "book")

2. "He went to buy groceries." (modifies the verb "went")

3. "It’s time to start the project." (modifies the noun "time")

4. "They were excited to hear the news." (modifies the adjective "excited")

6. Relative Clauses (Adjective Clauses)

• Definition: Relative clauses modify nouns by providing additional information. They begin with relative
pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) or relative adverbs (where, when, why).

• Examples:

1. "The man who lives next door is a doctor." (modifies the noun "man")

2. "The book that I borrowed is fascinating." (modifies the noun "book")

3. "The house where I grew up is for sale." (modifies the noun "house")

4. "The reason why she left is unknown." (modifies the noun "reason")

7. Appositives
• Definition: Appositives modify nouns by renaming or explaining them. They are usually set off by
commas.

• Examples:

1. "My friend, a talented artist, painted this." (modifies the noun "friend")

2. "Paris, the capital of France, is beautiful." (modifies the noun "Paris")

3. "The book, a bestseller, sold out quickly." (modifies the noun "book")

4. "My dog, a golden retriever, loves to play." (modifies the noun "dog")

8. Determiners
 • Definition: Determiners modify nouns by specifying them (e.g., articles, demonstratives, possessives,
quantifiers).

• Examples:

1. "The cat is sleeping." (article, modifies "cat")

2. "This book is interesting." (demonstrative, modifies "book")

3. "Her car is new." (possessive, modifies "car")

4. "Some students are absent." (quantifier, modifies "students")

9. Comparative and Superlative Modifiers

• Definition: Comparative and superlative modifiers compare or describe the degree of a quality.

• Examples:

1. "She is taller than her brother." (comparative, modifies "she")

2. "This is the most interesting book I’ve read." (superlative, modifies "book")

3. "He runs faster than me." (comparative, modifies "runs")

4. "This is the best movie of the year." (superlative, modifies "movie")

10. Absolute Phrases

• Definition: Absolute phrases modify the entire sentence. They consist of a noun or pronoun followed
by a participle and are set off by commas.

• Examples:

1. "The weather being perfect, we decided to go hiking." (modifies the entire sentence)

2. "Her homework finished, she went to bed." (modifies the entire sentence)

3. "The sun having set, it became dark." (modifies the entire sentence)

4. "His arms crossed, he waited impatiently." (modifies the entire sentence)

Articles:
Articles are words like "a," "an," and "the" that are used to specify nouns. "A" and "an" are indefinite
articles, used to refer to non-specific things, while "the" is a definite article, used to refer to specific
 things. For example, "A cat" refers to any cat, while "The cat" refers to a specific cat. Articles are
essential for clarity and precision in communication.

Word Classes:
Word classes, also known as parts of speech, are categories of words based on their function in a
sentence. The main word classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections. For example, "book" is a noun, "read" is a verb, and "quickly" is an
adverb. Understanding word classes helps in constructing grammatically correct sentences.

1. Noun
• Definition: A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.

• Examples:

o Person: teacher, John

o Place: city, Paris

o Thing: book, car

o Idea: freedom, happiness

2. Pronoun
• Definition: A word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition.

• Examples:

o I, you, he, she, it

o They, we, me, him, her

o This, that, these, those

3. Verb
• Definition: A word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being.

• Examples:

o Action: run, jump, write

o Occurrence: happen, become

o State of being: is, am, are, was, were

4. Adjective
• Definition: A word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.

• Examples:

o Beautiful, tall, blue, happy, smart

5. Adverb
• Definition: A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, often indicating time, place,
manner, or degree.

• Examples:

o Quickly, slowly, very, here, now

6. Preposition
• Definition: A word that shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and another word in the
sentence.

• Examples:

o In, on, at, by, with, about

7. Conjunction
• Definition: A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses.

• Examples:

o And, but, or, because, although

8. Interjection
• Definition: A word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or surprise.

• Examples:

o Wow! Oh! Ouch! Hey! Hurray!

9. Article (sometimes considered a type of adjective)
• Definition: A word that defines a noun as specific or unspecific.

• Examples:

o Definite article: the

o Indefinite articles: a, an

Definition of Clause:
A clause is a grammatical unit that includes a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a predicate
(what the subject does or is). Clauses can stand alone as sentences or be combined with other clauses to form
complex sentences.

Types of Clauses:
1. Independent Clause (Main Clause):
o Can stand alone as a complete sentence.

o Expresses a complete thought.

o Example: "She went to the store."

2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause):

o Cannot stand alone as a complete sentence.

o Depends on an independent clause to form a complete thought.

o Example: "Because she was hungry."

Examples of Clauses:
1. Independent Clause:
o "I love pizza."

o "The sun is shining."

o "They went to the park."

o "She sings beautifully."

o "He finished his homework."

 2. Dependent Clause:
o "When the rain stopped."

o "Because she was tired."

o "If you study hard."

o "Although he was late."

o "Since it was raining."

Types of Dependent Clauses:

1. Noun Clause:
• Definition: A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence. It can act as the
subject, object, or complement of a sentence. Noun clauses often begin with words like that, what,
who, whom, whose, which, when, where, why, how, or whether.

• Examples:

1. "What she said surprised everyone." (Subject)

2. "I know where he lives." (Object)

3. "The truth is that he lied." (Complement)

4. "She asked whether we were coming." (Object)

5. "Whoever wins the race will get a prize." (Subject)

6. "I wonder why he left early." (Object)

2. Adjective Clause (Relative Clause):

• Definition: An adjective clause is a dependent clause that acts as an adjective to describe or modify a
noun or pronoun in a sentence. It usually begins with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which,
that) or a relative adverb (when, where, why). Adjective clauses provide additional information about
the noun they modify.

• Examples:

1. "The book that I borrowed is fascinating." (Modifies "book")

2. "The man who lives next door is a doctor." (Modifies "man")

3. "The house where I grew up is for sale." (Modifies "house")

 4. "She found the keys that were missing." (Modifies "keys")

5. "The reason why he left is unknown." (Modifies "reason")

6. "The student whose project won the award is my friend." (Modifies "student")

3. Adverb Clause:
• Definition: An adverb clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb to modify a verb,
adjective, or adverb in a sentence. It answers questions like when, where, why, how, to what
extent, or under what condition. Adverb clauses often begin with subordinating conjunctions such
as because, although, if, when, since, while, until, and unless.

• Examples:

1. "She cried because she was sad." (Modifies "cried" – answers "why")

2. "If it rains, we will stay indoors." (Modifies "will stay" – answers "under what condition")

3. "He left when the meeting ended." (Modifies "left" – answers "when")

4. "Although she was tired, she finished her work." (Modifies "finished" – answers "despite what")

5. "I will call you as soon as I arrive." (Modifies "will call" – answers "when")

6. "She sings as if she were a professional." (Modifies "sings" – answers "how")

Aspect Clause Phrase Sentence

Definition A group of words that A group of words that A complete thought that
contains a subject and does not contain a contains at least
a predicate (verb). subject-verb one independent clause.
combination.

Types 1. Independent Clause 1. Noun Phrase. 1. Simple Sentence (one

(can stand alone). independent clause).

2. Dependent Clause 2. Verb Phrase. 2. Compound Sentence

(cannot stand alone). (two or more independent
clauses).

3. Prepositional Phrase. 3. Complex Sentence (one

independent + one or
more dependent clauses).

4. Adjective Phrase. 4. Compound-Complex

Sentence (multiple
clauses).
 5. Adverb Phrase.

Subject-Verb Always contains Does not contain a Contains at least one

a subject and a verb. subject-verb pair. subject-verb pair (in the
Pair
independent clause).

Completeness - Independent Clause: Does not express a Always expresses a

Expresses a complete complete thought. complete thought.
thought.

- Dependent Clause:
Does not express a
complete thought.

Examples - Independent: "She went - Noun Phrase: "The - Simple: "She sings."
to the store." black cat."

- Dependent: "Because - Verb Phrase: "is - Compound: "She sings,

she was hungry." running." and he dances."

- Prepositional Phrase: - Complex: "She sings

"in the park." because she loves music."

- Adjective Phrase: "very - Compound-Complex:

beautiful." "She sings, and he dances
because he enjoys it."

- Adverb Phrase: "very

quickly."

Function Can act as a complete Acts as a single part of Expresses a complete idea
sentence (independent speech (noun, verb, and can stand alone.
clause) or part of a adjective, adverb, etc.).
sentence.

Key Always has a subject and No subject-verb pair. Must have at least one
verb. independent clause to be
Difference
complete.

Word Formation:
o Affixation: Affixation involves adding prefixes or suffixes to a root word to create new words. For
example, adding the prefix "un-" to "happy" creates "unhappy," and adding the suffix "-ness" creates
 "happiness." Affixation is a common method of word formation in English and helps in expanding
vocabulary.

o Compounding: Compounding is the process of combining two or more words to form a new
word. For example, "notebook" is a compound of "note" and "book." Compound words can be
written as one word, hyphenated, or as separate words. They are widely used in everyday language.

o Clipping: Clipping is the process of shortening a word by removing one or more syllables. For
example, "ad" is a clipped form of "advertisement." Clipping is common in informal language and
often results in more casual or colloquial terms.

o Back Formation: Back formation is the process of creating a new word by removing an affix
from an existing word. For example, the verb "edit" was formed from the noun "editor." Back
formation is less common than other word formation processes but is still an important aspect of
language evolution.

Sentence Structure:
o Simple Sentence: A simple sentence consists of one independent clause, which contains a
subject and a verb. For example, "She sings." Simple sentences are clear and concise, making them
effective for straightforward communication.

o Compound Sentence: A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses

joined by a conjunction. For example, "She sings, and he dances." Compound sentences are useful for
expressing related ideas in a single sentence.

o Complex Sentence: A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. For example, "She sings because she loves music." Complex sentences allow for
the expression of more nuanced ideas and relationships between clauses.

o Compound-Complex Sentence: A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more

independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. For example, "She sings, and he dances
because they love music." These sentences are useful for expressing complex ideas with multiple
relationships.