What is CPU?

Alternately referred to as a processor, central processor, or microprocessor,

the CPU(pronounced sea-pea-you) is the central processing unit of the computer. A
computer's CPU handles all instructions it receives from hardware and software running
on the computer.
The CPU is often referred to as the brain of the computer. However, it is more appropriate to
refer to software as the brain and the CPU as a very efficient calculator. A CPU is really good
with numbers, but if it wasn't for the software it wouldn't know how to do anything else.

Many new computer users may improperly call their computer and sometimes their monitor the
CPU. When referring to your computer or monitor, it is proper to refer to them as either the
"computer" or "monitor" and not a CPU. The CPU is a chip inside the computer.

CPU overview

The picture below is an example of what the top and bottom of an Intel Pentium processor may
look. The processor is placed and secured into a compatible CPU socket found on
the motherboard. Processors produce heat, so they are covered with a heat sink to keep them cool
and running smoothly.
As you can see in the above picture, the CPU chip is usually in the shape of a square or rectangle
and has one notched corner to help place the chip properly into the CPU socket. On the bottom
of the chip are hundreds of connector pins that plug into each of the corresponding holes in the
socket. Today, most CPU's resemble the picture shown above. However, Intel and AMD have
also experimented with slot processors that were much larger and slid into a slot on the
motherboard. Also, over the years, there have been dozens of different types of sockets on
motherboards. Each socket only supports specific types of processors and each has its own pin
layout.

What does the CPU do?

The CPU's main function is to take input from a peripheral (keyboard, mouse, printer, etc) or
computer program, and interpret what it needs. The CPU then either outputs information to your
monitor or performs the peripheral's requested task.
Components of the CPU

In the CPU, there are two primary components.

ALU (arithmetic logic unit) - performs mathematical, logical, and decision operations.

CU (control unit) - directs all of the processors operations.

Machine cycle

Over the history of computer processors, the speed (clock speed) and capabilities of the
processor have dramatically improved. For example, the first microprocessor was the Intel 4004
that was released on November 15, 1971, and had 2,300 transistors and performed 60,000
operations per second. The Intel Pentium processor has 3,300,000 transistors and performs
around 188,000,000 instructions per second.

Types of CPUs

In the past, computer processors used numbers to identify the processor and help identify faster
processors. For example, the Intel 80486 (486) processor is faster than the 80386 (386)
processor. After the introduction of the Intel Pentium processor (which would technically be the
80586), all computer processors started using names like Athlon, Duron, Pentium, and Celeron.

Today, in addition to the different names of computer processors, there are different architectures
(32-bit and 64-bit), speeds, and capabilities. Below is a list of the more common types of CPUs
for home or business computers.

How fast does a CPU transfer data?

As with any device that utilizes electrical signals, the data travels very near the speed of light,
which is 299,792,458 m/s. How close to the speed of light a signal can get depends on the
medium (type of metal in the wire) through which the signal is traveling. Most electrical signals
are traveling at about 75 to 90% the speed of light.

Could a GPU be used in place of a CPU?

No. Although GPU's can process data and do many of the same things as a CPU, it lacks the
ability to perform many of the functions required by typical operating systems and software.
Could a computer work without a CPU?

No. All computers require some type of CPU.

What is ALU?

Short for arithmetic logic unit, the ALU is a complex digital circuit; one of many components
within a computer's central processing unit. It performs both bitwise and mathematical
operations on binary numbers and is the last component to perform calculations in the processor.
The ALU uses operands and code that tells it which operations to perform for input data. After
the information has been processed by the ALU, it is sent to the computer's memory.

Multiple Arithmetic Logic Units can be found in CPUs, GPUs and FPUs. In some computer
processors, the ALU is divided into an AU and LU. The AU performs the arithmetic operations,
and the LU performs the logical operations.

What is Control unit

A control unit or CU is circuitry that directs operations within a computer's processor. It lets the
computer's logic unit, memory, as well as both input and output devices know how to respond to
instructions received from a program. Examples of devices that utilize control units include
CPUs and GPUs.

A control unit works by receiving input information that it converts into control signals, which
are then sent to the central processor. The computer's processor then tells the attached hardware
what operations to carry out. The functions that a control unit performs are dependent on the type
of CPU, due to the variance of architecture between different manufacturers

What is Machine cycle?

The steps performed by the computer processor for each machine language instruction
received. The machine cycle is a 4 process cycle that includes reading and interpreting
the machine language, executing the code and then storing that code.

Four steps of Machine cycle

1. Fetch - Retrieve an instruction from the memory.
2. Decode - Translate the retrieved instruction into a series of computer commands.
3. Execute - Execute the computer commands.
4. Store - Send and write the results back in memory.
Difference between SATA, IDE, EIDE, Master and Slave?

SATA- SATA stands for 'Serial Advanced Technology Attachment' or 'Serial ATA'. They are
used for connecting host bus adapters for example the computer to mass storage devices such as
hard drives. SATA cables are thin and long and includes 7-pins. They are now being used on
most new computers.

IDE- Stands for 'Integrated Drive Electronics'. This is a type of connection which is used to
connect an optical drive and hard drive together as well as connecting them to the
motherboard. Since the IDE was discovered, it's capacity has massively increased from 20MB to
2TB.

EIDE- 'EIDE' stands for 'Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics'. It makes the computer and the
storage driver have a standard electronic communication. It also allows for faster access to the
hard drive.

Master/slave- The master drive responses to the commands and controls the slave drive. It's
considered as the first drive and the slave drive is referred to as the second drive. As the slave
drive controls the other devices.

Fan and heat sink or cooling

The majority of computers have heat sinks, this is so that the CPU maintains cool and doesnt over heat,
but sometimes the heat sink itself can get hot. This happens if the CPU is running for a long period of time
or if the room the computer is in is too hot.
Ports

In computer networking, the term port can refer to either physical or virtual connection points.
Physical network ports allow connecting cables to computers, routers, modems and other
peripheral devices.

Parallel

The parallel port is found on the back of IBM compatible computers. It is mainly used to connect
with printers

Serial

its a way of connecting peripherals to a machine, similar to the parallel port. Serial ports are
typically identified on IBM computers as communications ports. For example, a mouse might be
connected to communications 1 and a modem to communications 2.
Input devices

In computing, an input device is any peripheral used to provide data and control signals to an
information processing system such as a computer. Examples of input devices include
keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and usb stick.

What is memory?

Memory is made up of semi-conductor switches. The position of the switch (open or closed) is
used to represent the binary numbers 0 or 1. A single unit of memory is called a BIT and can
store 0 or 1. Two BITS together allow 4 different binary numbers to be stored: 00 , 01 , 10 or 11.
Eight BITS can store 256 different numbers:
00000000 through to 11111111
RAM – Random Access Memory

The contents of RAM can be altered so a computer can both read from and write to memory
addresses in RAM. RAM is described as volatile meaning that if the power is switched off or the
battery removed then the contents will be lost.

How does the amount of Memory affects, When a computer is running, the operating
system, all the other running programs plus any files in use are all stored in RAM.

This is because secondary storage (such as a hard drive) would be far too slow for the CPU. If
there is insufficient RAM then the CPU has to constantly transfer blocks of data between RAM
and virtual memory. This will significantly slow the rate that the computer can process
instructions and data. RAM affect performance. The more RAM installed in a personal
computer, the higher the performance.

ROM - Read only Memory

The contents of ROM cannot be altered so a computer can only read from memory addresses in
ROM. ROM is described as non-volatile meaning that if the power is switched off or the battery
removed then the contents are not lost.

Why is ROM needed in a computer?

ROM is needed for devices where programs or data must not be lost when the power is turned
off or batteries are removed etc.

Embedded computers such as those in microprocessor controlled devices use ROM to store the
software to control the hardware, as well as data such as
cooking/washing times etc.

A typical computer uses special ROM called the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) which
permanently stores the software needed to access computer hardware such as the hard drive and
then load an operating system into RAM and start to execute it.
  Permanent storage

 Nonvolatile

 Microprogramming

 Systems programs (BIOS)

 Function tables

Types of ROM

 Written during manufacture

 Very expensive for small runs

 Programmable (once)

 PROM

 Needs special equipment to program

 Read “mostly”

 Erasable Programmable (EPROM)

 Erased by UV

 Electrically Erasable (EEPROM)

 Takes much longer to write than read

 Flash memory

 Erase whole memory electrically

How is memory accessed?

Memory is linked to the CPU by two different types of BUS, the address bus and the data bus (a
BUS is a set of very thin parallel wires that transmit binary data). The ADDRESS BUS identifies
the location of the data (a bit like a house number/postcode does). The DATA BUS is then used
to transfer the contents of the memory address (the data) between the memory location and the
CPU (and visa-versa with RAM).
 MEMORY ADDRESS MEMORY CONTENTS

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

What is cache memory?

Cache memory is a small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU. Blocks of
instructions and data that are in use by the CPU are copied from RAM into cache memory, along
with the associated memory addresses.

If the CPU needs to access a memory address it first checks the cache memory to see if there is a
match. If there is then it accesses the contents of the cache version.

A CPU with a larger cache memory and more levels of cache memory will have a higher
performance than one without cache memory.

What is flash memory?

Flash memory is a special type of RAM that, unlike normal RAM, is non-volatile (it does not
need a power supply to preserve the memory contents). Flash memory cannot however replace
RAM in a computer as the read/write speeds are too slow.
Flash memory can be described as a solid state storage device because the contents are non-
volatile and there are no moving parts. Typical storage sizes range from 1GB to 16GB and
higher.

Examples of flash memory in use:

Compact Flash™ and Secure Digital™ (SD) memory cards in digital cameras.

Mini and Micro SD cards in smart phones. Memory cards for video game consoles.

USB memory sticks. Flash memory combines the permanence of ROM with the flexibility of
RAM, but not the speed.

What are specialized cards e.g. network, graphic cards?

Specialized cards are cards that help out the computer. They can be a graphics card for example.

A graphics card is the component in your computer that handles generating the signals that are
sent to the monitor. It's job is to generate all text and pictures that are displayed on your screen.

Another card would be the video card. The video card is an expansion card that allows the
computer to send graphical information to a video display device such as: a monitor or a
projector.

A wireless internet card is another example of a specialized card. They allow computers to
access wireless routers on different channels with different speeds depending on the type of card.
There are several different types of wireless internet cards available that will extend a computer's
range, or just simply give it a wireless connection route to connect to.

Network Card:
A network card is a interface card which is a piece of computer hardware designed to allow
computers to communicate over a computer network, as it provides physical access to a
networking medium and provides a low-key system.

Video Card:
A video card is a hardware component whose function is to generate and output images to
display.
How the network Card communicate with the computer?

The network card usually has two indicator lights (LEDS)

The green light shows that the card is receiving electricity and the orange or red light indicates
that the network Is in activity (eg sending or receiving data), as you can see in the image.

To prepare that data to be sent to the network card, it uses a transceiver, which transforms
parallel data into serial data. Each card has a unique address, called a MAC address, which is
assigned by the cards manufacturer, which lets the card have unique identification in all the
network cards in the world.

To ensure that the computer and network are capable the card must be suitable for the computers
data bus architecture, and have the appropriate type of socket for the cable. Each card is designed
to work with a certain kind of cable. Some cards include multiple interface connectors.

How the video cards communicate with the computer?

The video card or Graphical Processing Unit (GPU) is the spirit of the graphics card. The
graphics card usually processes images before they are based on the computer screen. This GPU
is a specialized processor which has advanced image processor capabilities, especially for 3D
graphics. This is because of the high temperature of the graphics card processor can reach; the
fan can be mounted on to it. The job of the video memory is to store images processed by the

GPU before they are display ed on the monitor.

The larger the memory of the video the better the graphics card can handle textures when
displaying 3D scenes.
What are Communication paths and buses?

What is Computer Bus?

A group of electrical lines/wires that carry computer signals. a bus is a shared transmission
medium Lines are assigned names for identification. Each carries a single electrical signal e.g. 1
bit memory address, a sequence of data bits, or timing control that turns a device on or off It
possible to transfer data from one location in the computer system to another (between various
I/O modules, memory and the CPU) Buses are notated on diagrams using widened lines or with a
number to indicate the number of separate lines The bus is not only cable connection but also
hardware (bus architecture), protocol, software, and bus controller

Bus Structure and Topologies

Lines are grouped as follows

1. Power line provide electrical power to attached components
2. Data lines carrying the data or instructions between system modules
3. Address lines specify the recipient of data on the bus
4. Control lines provide control for the synchronization and operation of the bus and of the modules that
are connected to the bus
System Bus

A system bus connects major computer components (processor, memory, I/O). All memory and
memory-mapped I/O devices are connected to this bus. Such a bus has to be able to operate at
the speed of the fastest device connected to it—normally the main store. It can prove expensive
when lots of low-speed peripherals are connected to it because they have to have high-speed
interfaces whether they actually need them or not. A system bus consists of typically, of from
about 50 to hundreds of separate lines. The system bus is made up of the address, data and
control paths from the CPU. In addition, there may be power distribution lines that supply power
to the attached modules.

Elements of Bus Design

Design elements that serve to classify and differentiate buses

• Bus types

• Dedicated bus line is permanently assigned either to one function or to a physical subset of
computer components
• Multiplexed bus address and data information may be transmitted over the same set of lines
using an Address Valid control line

• A bus transaction includes two parts: Issuing the command (and address) – request and
transferring the data – action

• Master is the one who starts the bus transaction by: issuing the command (and address). Slave
is the one who responds to the address by: Sending data to the master if the master asks for data.
Receiving data from the master if the master wants to send data.

Data lines/ data bus

Bi-directional
The data lines provide a path for moving data between system modules.

The data bus may consist of from 32 to hundreds of separate lines, the number of lines being
referred to as the width of the data bus. The width determines the overall system performance.
The bandwidth of a data bus is the number of bits it can transfer in a single operation, called a
bus cycle. A bus cycle is a complete transaction on the bus that may take several clock cycles to
complete.

The speed is an indication of its throughput and is measured in terms of bytes/s. the wider the
bus, the greater the throughput; for example, if a 16-bit bus can transfer data at 100M bytes/s,
doubling the width of the bus to 32 bits, doubles its throughput to 200M bytes/s. The latency of a
bus is the time taken to set up a data transfer. Latency may be very small in a system where
there’s a permanent bus master, but much longer in a system where the device wishing to
transfer data has to wait for the arbitration mechanism to grant it access to the bus.

The address lines/ address bus

The address lines/ address bus

unidirectional

• Designate the source or destination of the data on the data bus.

– If the processor wishes to read a word (8, 16 or 32 bits) of data from memory. It puts the
address of the desired word on the address bus.

– The width of the bus determines the maximum possible memory capacity of the system e.g.
8086 has 20 bit address bus giving 1mb (220) address space
• The address lines are generally used to address I/O ports. The higher order bits select a
particular module on the bus, and the lower order bits select memory location or I/O port within
the module.

– For example, on an 8 bit address bus, address 01111111 and below might reference locations in
a memory module (module 0) with 128 words of memory, and address 10000000 and above refer
to devices attached to an I/O module (module 1)

• When a device such as a CPU accesses memory, it’s necessary to indicate the source or
destination of the data. The bus master controlling the data transfer must therefore be able to
provide an address for the data. Most computer systems provide an explicit address bus that
operates in parallel with the data bus; for example, when the processor writes data to memory, a
32-bit address is transmitted to the memory system on the address bus at the same time the data
is transmitted on the data bus.

• Some systems combine the address and data buses together into a single multiplexed
address/data bus that carries both addresses and data (albeit alternately). Such a bus is said to be
time-division multiplexed because time is divided into address slots and data slots.

• Figure 2 describes the multiplexed address/data bus, which is cheaper to implement than
conventional non-multiplexed buses because it requires fewer signal paths and the connectors
and sockets are cheaper since they require fewer pins.

• Multiplexing addresses and data onto the same lines requires a multiplexer at one end of the
transmission path and a de-multiplexer at the other end.
BIOS – Basic Input Output System
The BIOS is special software that interfaces the major hardware components of your computer
with the operating system. BIOS are the interface between hardware and software allowing them
to communicate with each other. It is usually stored on a Flash memory chip on the motherboard,
but sometimes the chip is another type of ROM. Its most important role is to load the operating
system. When a system boots its BIOS that runs the system until the operating system loads and
takes control. In 2003 Intel introduced UEFI. UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) is
meant to completely replace BIOS. UEFI is actually another small operating system that
interfaces between the hardware and Windows.

When you turn on your computer, the BIOS does several things. This is its usual sequence:
 1. Check the CMOS Setup for custom settings
2. Load the interrupt handlers and device drivers
3. Initialize registers and power management
4. Perform the power-on self-test (POST)
5. Display system settings
6. Determine which devices are bootable.
7. Initiate the bootstrap sequence

BIOS preform three basic tasks:

1. It contains the POST program (Power on Self-Test) run by the CPU for the self-test during
boot up, and helps to locate and load the operating system.

2. It displays the CMOS Setup screen which is used to configure system parameters that can be
changed.

3. Provides low level drivers for devices such as floppy drives, keyboards, etc

The motherboard
The motherboard or mainboard is the main circuit board in a complex electronic system, like a
computer. It is the most 'central' part of a computer. All of the different parts of the computer are
connected to the motherboard. This lets them work together. In most computers, the motherboard
is a big green board, but many come in different colors like black, red and yellow.

"On-board"

Electrical parts must be on the motherboard. These parts include transistors and resistors. Major
parts that are attached to the board are able to be removed in the future so that they can be
upgraded. The CPU is an example of a part that is usually removable.

Ports on an expansion card

Parts that are not "on-board" can be bought as a card. In fact, many of the on-board parts on
today's computers were at one time an expansion card that became very popular. These were put
on the board to free up the card slots for other things. Computers today usually have a memory
port, 2 or more USB ports, a parallel port (for use with old printers usually), audio & microphone
jacks, a network port and ports for the keyboard and mouse. There are also some rare
motherboards that have plugs only for very specific parts.
All of the slots and plugs both inside and outside the computer case are shaped a certain way to
accept a certain type of part. Some will not even accept parts even one generation behind, such
as the CPU and memory. Others, like the video plug have not changed in years. Some of the
plugs, such as the video, keyboard and mouse plugs, are a special color. These colors make it
easier to pair the plug to the port. The motherboard is also referred to as the PCB which stands
for ‘printed circuit board’.

Fig : Mother Board

Backing storage

The term backing storage refers to any non-volatile data storage that will retain a computer's
data, even after the computer is powered off. Common types of backing storage devices are hard
drives, SSD, external hard disk drives, optical media such as CD or DVD, and flash media such
as thumbdrives and memory sticks. Older computer systems also typically used floppy disks and
magnetic tapes as backing storage. On modern systems, especially computers like netbooks,
cloud storage services may also be used as backing storage.

Why is backing storage needed?

Without some type of backing storage, the computer would not have access to its data after the
computer is turned off. For example, volatile memory like RAM loses all information if the
computer is turned off or rebooted. To prevent information you have been working on from
being lost, it is saved to a backing storage device like a hard drive.

Secondary storage device

Alternatively referred to as external memory, secondary memory, and auxiliary storage, a
secondary storage device is a non-volatile device that holds data until it is deleted or overwritten.
Secondary storage is about two orders of magnitude cheaper than primary storage. Consequently,
a hard drive or an additional, slower SSD may used as secondary storage to a primary, faster,
PCIe SSD.

The image shows three types of storage, but off-line storage is a subset of secondary storage, as
they both serve the same purpose and do not interact directly with the CPU.

Examples of secondary storage

Hard drive
Solid-state drive
USB thumb drive
SD card
CD
DVD
Floppy diskette
Tape drive

Why does a computer need secondary storage?

It is possible for a computer not to have or use secondary storage (e.g., dumb terminal).
However, for most computers and users, secondary storage is required because of the need to
permanently store some data to a computer. Without primary storage, if you were working on a
document and the power turned off, everything would be lost because primary storage is
temporary. However, a computer with secondary storage that saved the file before the power
turned off would be able to recover the last saved version of the file.

How much secondary storage is required for a computer?

The computer only needs enough secondary storage for the operating system and hardware
drivers. However, we always recommend getting as much secondary storage as you can afford
since any installed programs, pictures, music, or other data requires secondary storage.

ATA
Short for Advanced Technology Attachment, ATA was approved on May 12, 1994, and is an interface
that connects hard drives, CD-ROM drives, and other drives. The first ATA interface is now commonly
referred to as PATA, which is short for Parallel AT Attachment after the introduction of SATA. Today,
almost all home computers use the ATA interface, including Apple computers, which use SATA.

The ATA standard is backward compatible, which means new ATA drives (excluding SATA) can be
used with older ATA interfaces. Additionally, any new feature introduced is also found in all future
releases. For example, ATA-4 has support for PIO modes 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4, even though these were first
introduced in ATA-1 and ATA-2

Fig: ATA

Hard drive
A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as hard drive, HD, or HDD) is a non-volatile memory
hardware device that permanently stores and retrieves data on a computer. A hard drive is a
secondary storage device that consists of one or more platters to which data is written using a
magnetic head, all inside of an air-sealed casing. Internal hard disks reside in a drive bay,
connect to the motherboard using an ATA, SCSI, or SATA cable, and are powered by a
connection to the PSU (power supply unit).

All computers have a hard drive installed in them, which is used to store files for the operating
system, software programs, and a user's personal files. A computer cannot function without a
hard drive installed, as it requires one to function properly.

New users often confuse RAM (memory) with disk drive space. Unlike RAM a hard drive keeps
all stored information even with the power is turned off.

SATA
Short for serial AT attachment, SATA 1.0 was first released in August 2001 and is a replacement
for the parallel ATA interface used in IBM compatible computers. SerialATA is capable of
delivering 1.5 Gbps (1500 MBps) of performance to each drive within a disk array. It has the
benefit of being backward-compatible with ATA and ATAPI devices, and offers a thin, small
cable solution, as seen in the photo on the right. This cable helps make a much easier cable
routing and offers better airflow in the computer when compared to the earlier ribbon cables used
with ATA drives.

eSATA connectionSATA also supports external drives through External SATA more commonly
known as eSATA. eSATA offers many more advantages when compared to other solutions. For
example, it is hot-swappable, supports faster transfer speeds with no bottleneck issues like USB
and FireWire, and supports disk drive technologies such as S.M.A.R.T..

However, eSATA does have some disadvantages such as not distributing power through the
cable like USB, which means drives require an external power source. The eSATA cable also
supports a maximum length of up to 2 meters. Because of these disadvantages don't plan on
eSATA becoming the only external solution for computers.

What hardware uses the SATA cable?

The SATA cable is most often used with hard drives but is also used with drives such as disc
drives.Earlier computers used an EIDE or SCSI and not a SATA cable.

SSD
Short for solid-state drive (or solid-state disk, although it doesn't use a disk mechanism), an SSD
is a storage medium that uses non-volatile memory as a means of holding and accessing data.
Unlike a hard drive, an SSD has no moving parts which gives it advantages such as faster access
time, noiseless operation, higher reliability, and lower power consumption. The picture shows an
example of an SSD made by Crucial.

As the costs have come down, SSDs have become suitable replacements for a standard hard
drive in both desktop and laptop computers. SSDs are also a great solution for netbooks, nettops,
and other applications that don't require a lot of storage.

Although an SSD uses flash memory, it should not be confused with a USB jump drive or Adobe
Flash.

History of the SSD

The first SSD was implemented in the 1970s and 1980s for use in IBM supercomputers. They
have since been drastically improved upon and offer storage capacities of over 2 TB for home
computers.

Computer hard drive history.

Computer data storage history.

What kind of connection do SSDs utilize?

SSDs primarily use the SATA connection which has a theoretical maximum transfer rate of 750
MB per second. However, a newer generation of SSDs is emerging that utilize a PCIe
connection, offering speeds of up to 1.5 GB per second.

Optical disc
Alternatively referred to as a disc drive, optical media, optical storage, Optical disc drive, and
optical disk, an optical disc is any media read using a laser assembly. The most common types of
optical media are Blu-ray, CDs, and DVDs. Computers can read and write to CDs and DVDs
using a CD writer or DVD writer drive, and a Blu-ray is read with a Blu-ray drive. Drives such
as a CD-R and DVD-R drive that can read and write information to discs are known as MO
(magneto-optic).

There are three main types of optical media: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disc. CDs can store up to
700 megabytes (MB) of data and DVDs can store up to 8.4 GB of data. Blu-ray discs, which are
the newest type of optical media, can store up to 50 GB of data. This storage capacity is a clear
advantage over the floppy disk storage media (a magnetic media), which only has a capacity of
1.44 MB. Another advantage that optical media have over the floppy disk is that it can last up to
7 times longer, due to its improved durability.

Note: A CD drive can only read CD discs, a DVD drive can only read DVD and CD discs, and a
Blu-ray drive can read CD, DVD, and Blu-ray discs.

Tip: Because these discs are read by light (optical) they should be referred to as an optical disc,
not optical disk.
Compact disc
Abbreviated as CD, a compact disc is a flat, round, optical storage medium invented by James
Russell. The first CD was created at a Philips factory in Germany on August 17, 1982. The
picture is an example of the bottom of a standard compact disc and is the side the disc player
reads. The opposite side of the disc has a label to help indicate what is on the disc.

When referring to a round CD, DVD, or Blu-ray it is known as a "disc" and not a "disk." If you
are referring to a magnetic media such as a floppy disk or a hard disk drive, it is called to as a
"disk" and not a "disc."

What is a CD used for in a computer?

As we mentioned above, compact discs are used to store data so that may be retrieved or
executed at a later date. CDs can store software programs so that you may load them onto your
computer. They save files for backup or transfer to another computer, as well as hold music to
play in a CD player.

How much data does a CD hold?

The standard CD is capable of holding 72 minutes of music or 650 MB of data. An 80 minute

CD is capable of holding 700 MB of data.

What came before a CD?

There were several types of storage media released before a CD. However, the most common
storage media used before the introduction of the CD was the 3.5" floppy diskette.

What came after a CD?

Several years after the CD was first introduced in the 1980's there have been other methods of
storing and retrieving data. However, the most common replacement for the CD today is DVD
and Blu-ray discs. For larger storage, jump drives are also a popular replacement to the CD.

DVD
Short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc, a DVD or DVD-ROM is a disc capable of
storing large amounts of data on one disc the size of a standard Compact Disc. CD/DVD drives
were first sold in 1997. They are widely used for storing and viewing movies and other data. The
picture of the Matrix DVD movie disc is an example of a DVD movie.

To read and play DVDs on a computer, you must have a DVD-ROM drive and a software DVD
player.
How much data can a DVD hold?

There are several capacities a single DVD is capable of holding. Below is a listing of the
different types of DVD's and each of their total capacity.

One of the most common DVD's is the single-sided, single-layer disc, capable of holding 4.7
GB.

The single-sided, double-layer disc is capable of holding between 8.5-8.7 GB.

The double-sided, single-layer disc is capable of holding 9.4 GB.

Although rare, the double-sided, double-layer disc is capable of holding up to 17.08 GB.

What is the difference between a DVD and a CD?

Physically, a DVD and CD look the same. Both discs are the same size and typically have one
side with a label and the other side that the laser reads, unless it is a double-sided DVD.
However, the technology that makes up a DVD allows for the same size disc to hold a lot more
data than a CD.

What types of information can be stored in a DVD?

A DVD is capable of holding any data and are most often used to store movie data, games, and
install data for programs.

What DVD player should I get to play DVD movies?

We recommend VLC, it's free and an open-source media player that works on Windows, Mac,
and Linux. However, you can also use Windows Media Player on Windows computers to play
most DVDs.

Can DVD drives read CDs?

Yes, all DVD drives are capable of reading both CDs and DVDs. If you have a DVD burner, it
will be capable of reading CDs and DVDs, as well as writing CD-Rs, CD-RWs, and writable
DVDs.

flash memory card

Alternatively referred to as a flash memory card, a Memory card is a type of
storage media that is often used to store photos, videos, or other data in electronic
devices. Devices that commonly use a memory card include digital cameras, digital
camcorders, handheld computers, MP3 players, PDAs, cell phones, game consoles,
and printers. The picture below is a MicroSD flash memory card, which is just one
of the types of memory cards available.

Types of computer memory cards

There are a handful of different types of memory cards on the market, each varying
in size, compatibility, and storage capacity. Links to more information on the most
commonly used types of memory cards are listed below.

CF (CompactFlash)

MicroSD

MMC

SD Card

SDHC Card

SmartMedia Card

Sony Memory Stick

xD-Picture Card

How much storage space does a memory card provide?

Memory cards can vary in the amount of storage space based on the type of
memory card. However, in general, most memory cards today range in size from as
small as 4 GB (gigabyte) up to as large as 128 GB. Older memory cards may be
even smaller than 4 GB and you can find memory cards that are larger than 128
GB, but they will have higher costs.

How can I increase the size of a memory card?

The size of a memory card is fixed and cannot be increased. If your memory card
is full, consider deleting some of the files stored on the memory card. Or, consider
moving the files to a different storage device, or purchasing a memory card with
more capacity and replace the memory card with the new card.

Factors that affect performance

The factors that affect the disk drives are related to the mechanical nature of the
rotating disks, which is composed of a few moving heads and independently
measurable elements that are added together to get a single value when evaluating
the performance.

It is affected by defragmentation which is when the disk drive takes all different
files on the disk and brings them together as the information is splattered out into
available space on the hard drive.

Flash memory card

Function

A flash memory card is a small storage card used to store data such as multimedia
(pictures, audio, music etc.) it is for use on small portable devices such as an mp3
player or a phone.