Biogeochemical Cycles OXYGEN CYCLE

• Nutrients and water are essential for ecosystems to • It is the most important element of the human body, makes
continue functioning up about 65% of the mass of the human body
• Living organisms need 30-40 elements for normal • The three main reservoirs are the air, ecosystems and
development Earth's crust
• The chemical elements or nutrients flow from the nonliving • The main driving factor of the oxygen cycle is the process
to the living and back to the nonliving components of the of photosynthesis
ecosystem in a more or less cyclic path • The oxygen cycle is interconnected with the carbon dioxide
• Nutrients that are required by organisms, primarily • The autotrophs uses carbon dioxide, water
autotrophs, may be classified into: and sunlight to produce food and releases oxygen to the
1. Macronutrients - are required in relatively large amounts atmosphere
and they include: • The animals then breathe in the oxygen and
□ Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Potassium, breathe out carbon dioxide that is needed again by the
Calcium, Magnesium and Sulfur and Phosphorus plants in manufacturing food
2. Micronutrients - are required in small • Decaying matters release carbon dioxide that
quantities, among the are: also used by the plants for photosynthetic process
□ lron, Manganese Copper, Zinc, Boron, Sodium and so on
• These nutrients have to cycle in ecosystems because the
continued functioning and maintenance of an ecosystem NITROGEN CYCLE
depends on the supply and circulation of these nutrients • Nitrogen is an important element because it is a constituent
of some biological molecules
Biogeochemical cycles have two basic types: - Most of the nitrogen in living organisms does
1. Gaseous Nutrient Cycle - the main source of not enter directly from the atmosphere. Instead, the nitrogen
nutrients are the atmosphere and the oceans.> fixing bacteria in the soil, algae in water and in roots of
• The gases which are most important for life leguminous plants converted the gaseous nitrogen into
are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide nitrates, some are fixed by lightning
• These three gases in stable quantities of 78%, - These nitrate salts dissolve in soil water and are
21% and 0.03%, respectively absorbed by plants and converted into nucleic acids and
Example: Nitrogen, Oxygen and Carbon Cycles proteins
Biogeochemical Cycles - When animals (herbivores) feed on these plants,
2. Sedimentary Nutrient Cycle - the main sources some nitrogen is passed to the animals and eventually to
are soil, rocks and minerals other animals (carnivores)
• The mineral elements that living organisms - When the organisms die their nitrogen is
require come initially from inorganic sources converted to ammonia gas and soluble ammonium salts by
• Mineral salts come directly from the Earth's saprotrophic fungi and bacteria Nitrogen Cycle
crust through weathering - These are converted by nitrifying bacteria
Example: Sulfur Cycle, Phosphorus Cycle either into nitrite the to nitrate
- Plants can absorb the dissolved ammonium or
• Both Gaseous and Sedimentary Nutrient Cycles involve the nitrate to begin the nitrogen cycle again
biological and non-biological processes - Some of the nitrate is converted to nitrogen
• Both are driven by the flow of energy through the by denitrification of bacteria
ecosystem Four Special Processes involved in the Nitrogen Cycle:
• Both are tied to Water/Hydrologic Cycle CARBON CYCLE 1. Nitrogen fixation
√ Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to nitrates
√ Accomplished physio-chemically and by nitro- fixing
CARBON CYCLE bacteria
• Carbon is the basic building block element of large 2. Aminification
molecules necessary for life √ Nitrates are converted to ammonia and ammonia
- The source of carbon for plants is the carbon compounds
dioxide in the atmosphere and dissolved carbon dioxide in √ Accomplished by bacteria and fungus of decay
water 3. Nitrification
- Carbon also occurs in the earth's crust as √ Ammonia compounds and ammonia are converted to
carbonate rocks such as limestone nitrates
- Volcanos can return carbon dioxide to the air √ Accomplished by nitrite and nitrate bacteria
and water during eruptions 4. Denitrification
- The carbon is converted from carbon dioxide into √ Nitrates are converted to atmospheric nitrogen
sugars by green plants and into organic molecules by √ Accomplished by denitrifying bacteria
photosynthesis
- From there the carbon is transferred through ingestion
along the food chains to herbivores and carnivores SULFUR CYCLE
- At each stage part of the carbon stored in the complex • Sulfur has both gaseous and sedimentary phases
food molecules is broken down through respiration to release • Sedimentary sulfur comes from the weathering of rocks,
energy and carbon is cycled back as carbon dioxide to the runoff and decomposition of organic matter
air and water • Gaseous sulfur are from decomposition of organic matter,
- The remaining carbon is returned to the air and water evaporation of oceans and volcanic eruptions
when an organisms die and decay • A significant portion of the sulfur released to the
atmosphere is a by-product of the burning of fossil fuels
• Sulfur enters the atmosphere mostly as
hydrogen sulfide, which quickly oxidizes to sulfur dioxide
• Sulfur dioxide reacts with moisture in the □All energy are controlled by two very general laws: Two
atmosphere to form sulfuric acid, carried to Earth in Laws of Thermodynamics
precipitation 1. First Law of Thermodynamics States that
• Plants incorporate it into sulfur-bearing amino energy can be transformed from one form to another but can
acids never be created nor destroyed
• Consumption, excretion and death carry sulfur 2. Second Law of Thermodynamics
back to soil and aquatic sediments, where bacteria release it States that each time energy is transformed, it tends to go to
in inorganic form from a more organized and concentrated form to a less
organized and more dispersed form

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE Food Chains

• In living organisms phosphorus is an important component Through this process, food energy flow in ecosystem
of nucleic acids, cell membranes, teeth and bones Two Major Food Chains:
• This cycle is interesting because unlike the previous cycles, 1. Grazing food chain - is where energy is passed
it lacks an atmospheric component through living organisms and is represented as: Plant-
• The major reservoir is sedimentary rock in the earth's crust Animal--Animal
Phosphorus Cycle 2. Detritus food chain - is where energy is passed
• Phosphorus is absorbed by plants from the from dead organisms or organic matter to decomposers and
soil as dihydrogenphosphate or hydrogenphosphate is represented as: Dead matter--Decomposer
• It is then passed to animals, that is, herbivores
and then carnivores. Trophic Levels
• It is eventually returned to the soil, rivers and • In ecosystem, organisms that obtain food from plants by
oceans as animal excretion or through decomposition after the same number of steps are said to belong to same trophic
death level
- Green plants occupy the first trophic level
- Herbivores are in the second trophic level
Biogeochemical Cycles are Interconnected - Carnivores are in the third trophic level
Biogeochemical Cycles are Linked - Tertiary consumers are in fourth trophic level
• The nutrients that cycle are all components of living - Decomposers can belong to any trophic level
organisms, constituents of organic matter depending on their food sources
• The stoichiometric relationships among various elements
involved in plant processes related to carbon uptake and Ecological Energy Pyramid
plant growth have an important influence on the cycling of • Pyramid of energy shows the flow of energy in the trophic
nutrients in ecosystems levels
• Interconnection of different biogeochemical cycles may • It is always upright, that is, it can never be inverted
always lead to equilibrium state within the biosphere Energy because of the Second Law of Thermodynamics about
transformation or transfer of energy
Flow in the Ecosystem • There can never be the same amount or more energy
• Energy is a very mysterious concept flowing or being passed from a lower trophic level to the next
• It is involved in every single event in the universe from the upper trophic level
humans to photons
• Energy is everywhere
• Energy never appears from or disappears into nothing
• Energy can always be counted for

• Earth is an open system

• For life to exist, the earth must constantly receive inputs of
energy from the sun and make outputs of heat energy
• Energy from the sun maintains all of the life processes in
the earth ecosystem
• Only 50% of the sunlight reaching the earth's upper
atmosphere to earth's surface
• Heat from the earth is constantly rising and passing to
outer space Energy Flow

- In every ecosystem, the main source of energy is the

sunlight or solar radiation
- Light energy enters the ecosystem when it is absorbed
by plants
- It is the passed through the ecosystem as food plants for
animals that consume each other
- Energy absorbed and transferred through the
ecosystem in this way is eventually converted into hea
- This heat, which is exactly equivalent to the solar input,
finally leaves the ecosystem and is lost in space
 Energy Transformations
*Energy is the ability to do work Mechanical energy
- Any object that has energy has the ability to create a force - Mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and
kinetic energy.
*Different Types of Energy:
1 Kinetic energy - It is the energy associated with the motion and position of
2 Potential energy an object.
3 Mechanical energy
4 Radiant energy
Energy transformation
5 Electrical energy
- Energy transformation is a change from one form of energy
6 Chemical energy
to another.
7 Nuclear energy
8 Thermal energy

*Potential Energy - Energy that is stored and waiting to be

used later
*3 Types of Potential Energy
Gravitational Potential Energy (rollercoaster)
Chemical Potential Energy (battery)
Elastic or Compression (rubberband or spring)

*Kinetic Energy is the energy of motion.

- Anything that is moving is said to have kinetic energy.
- Increasing speed of motion or mass of the object will
increase the amount of Kinetic Energy.

Conservation of Energy
*Law of Conservation of Energy:
- Energy can never be created or destroyed, just transformed
from one form into another

*Mechanical Energy is the energy possessed by an object

due to its motion or its stored energy of position.
- It can be kinetic or potential
- *an object that has mechanical energy can do work

*Radiant Energy is also known as electromagnetic energy.

*Radiant Energy is light waves that we see or feel as heat

*Electrical Energy- energy from electricity

Electrical energy is often converted from other forms, such
as chemical energy (coal) through a process to become
electricity.

*Chemical Energy is the type of energy stored in molecules.

*Nuclear Energy comes from splitting an atom, or fusing two

atoms together. When an atom is split or fused, a huge
amount of energy is released.

*Thermal Energy is heat energy. Heat is the flow of energy

from a high temp to a lower temp.

Energy is never destroyed; it transforms into one of the other

types of energy.

ENERGY PART II
- Energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to
other objects or converted into different forms.

Two main types of energy:

Potential Energy
- is the stored energy of position possessed by an object.
Kinetic Energy
- is the energy of motion possessed by an object.
 benefits to visitors and income opportunities for nature
tourism service providers.
• Spiritual experience and sense of place - Nature is a
common element in most major religions.
Natural heritage, spiritual sense of belonging, traditional
knowledge, and associated customs are important for
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION creating a sense of belonging.
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
(Terrestrial Ecosystem) THREATS AND PROBLEMS IN FOREST ECOSYSTEM
FOREST ECOSYSTEM Anthropogenic activities
□ A forest is an area with a high density of trees (Rathold, • Deforestation
2013). • Environmental degradation as a result of urbanization.
□ Forests are the most diverse ecosystems on land, because • Illegal wildlife trade and poachers
they hold the vast majority of the world's terrestrial species. • Forests are also under threat from commercial mining and
logging.
FOREST ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
A Supporting THREATS AND PROBLEMS IN FOREST ECOSYSTEM
B Provisioning Introduced/ Invasive Organisms
C Regulating •An introduced/alien species is a non native species that
D Cultural has one way or another been integrated into the native
environment by human or other means.
Supporting Services • Many introduced tree species have high socio- economic
• Nutrient cycling - The three main cycles of an ecosystem and environmental value, but they can give cause for
are the water cycle, the carbon cycle and the nitrogen concern when insufficient consideration is given to the
cycle. context of their use and management.
• Habitat for species - Ecosystems provide living spaces for • When alien species are capable of causing significant harm
plants and animals. to our environment, the economy or to society they are
• Maintenance of genetic diversity - Genetic diversity (the referred to as "invasive alien species".
variety of genes between, and within, species populations) • This is due to the fact that the species is either
taking up resources used by native species, causing harm to
Provisioning Services local communities and environment.
• Food - Virtually all ecosystems provide the conditions for
growing, collecting, hunting or harvesting food. Invasive Flora in the Forest Ecosystemn
• Medicinal resources - Natural ecosystems provide a • Invasive plant species that are found in the Philippine forest
variety of plants, animals and mushrooms which offer are:
effective cures for many kinds of health problems. They are Lantana camara
used in popular and traditional medicine and for developing Hiptage benghalensis
pharmaceuticals
• Freshwater - No water, no life. Ecosystems play a vital role THREATS AND PROBLEMS IN FOREST ECOSYSTEM
in providing the flow and storage of fresh water. Climate Change
• Raw materials - Ecosystems provide a great diversity of Biodiversity Conservation Strategies in Forest
materials including wood, biofuels, and fibers from wild or Ecosystem
cultivated plant and animal species. In- situ and Ex-situ strategy

Regulating Services Why should you conserve Forest Biodiversity?

• Air and Water Purification - Ecosystems influence the • Forests provide shelter;
local climate and air quality. • Source of food, medicine and clean water;
• Carbon sequestration and storage - Ecosystems • And provide a wide range of environmental services,
regulate the global climate by storing greenhouse gases. including biodiversity conservation, water supply, carbon
• Climate Regulation - Ecosystems and living organisms sequestration, flood control, and protection against soil
create buffers against natural disasters Storing solar erosion and desertification.
radiation, distributing heat and moisture around the globe, • They play a vital role in maintaining a stable global climate
and driving weather systems. and environment.
• Waste-water treatment - Ecosystems such as wetlands
filter effluents, decompose waste through the biological Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation
activity of microorganisms, and eliminate harmful pathogens. • Establish protected forest areas;
• Erosion prevention and maintenance of soil fertility - • The level of pollutants should be reduced in the
Vegetation cover prevents soil erosion and ensures soil environment;
fertility through natural biological processes such as nitrogen • Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented;
fixation. • Stop illegal logging and limit logging in old-growth forests.
• Regulation of Water Flow - Water flow regulation is a key • Provide and protect variety of habitats for plants and
service provided by land cover and configuration. animals;
• Promote and foster community mobilization, advocacy and
Cultural Services networking about forest and biodiversity conservation;
• Recreation and mental and physical health - Nature- • Prevent the introduction of invasive plants and animals in
based opportunities for recreation play an important role in the forest;
maintaining mental and physical health, e.g. walking and • Promote education and information dissemination about
playing sports in parks and urban green spaces. forest protection and its biodiversity conservation;
• Tourism - Enjoyment of nature attracts millions of travelers • Establish community based forest and biodiversity
worldwide. This cultural ecosystem service includes both resources management;
• Promulgate local ordinances for protection and
conservation of forest and biodiversity resources.

Protecting Biodiversity, Protecting Forests

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND POLICIES

Environmental laws and policies

• REPUBLIC ACT 9275 PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT
OF 2004
- The law aims to protect the country's water bodies from
pollution from land-based sources (industries and
commercial establishments, agriculture and
community/household activities). It provides for
comprehensive and integrated strategy to prevent and
minimize pollution through a multi sectoral and participatory
approach

• REPUBLIC ACT 8749 PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF

1999 - The law aims to achieve and maintain clean air that
meets the National Air Quality guideline values for criteria
pollutants, throughout the Philippines, while minimizing the
possible associated impacts to the economy.

• REPUBLIC ACT 6969 TOXIC SUBSTANCES,

HAZARDOUS AND NUCLEAR WASTE CONTROL ACT OF
1990 - The law aims to regulate restrict or prohibit the
importation, manufacture, processing. sale, distribution, use
and disposal of chemical substances and mixtures the
present unreasonable risk to human health. It likewise
prohibits the entry, even in transit, of hazardous and nuclear
wastes and their disposal into the Philippine territorial limits
for whatever purpose; and to provide advancement and
facilitate research and studies on toxic chemicals.

• PRESIDENTIAL DECREE 1586 ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS) STATEMENT OF 1978 - The
Environment Impact Assessment System was formally
established in 1978 with the enactment of Presidential
Decree no. 1586 to facilitate the attainment and maintenance
of rational and orderly balance between socio-economic
development and environmental protection. EIA is a planning
and management tool that will help government, decision
makers, the proponents and the affected community address
the negative consequences or risks on the environment. The
process assures implementation of environment friendly
projects.

• REPUBLIC ACT 9003 ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000 - In partnership with
stakeholders, the law aims to adopt a systematic,
comprehensive and ecological solid waste management
program that shall ensure the protection of public health and
environment. The law ensures proper segregation,
collection, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste
through the formulation and adaptation of best eco-waste
products.