SESHADRI RAO GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(An Autonomous Institute with Permanent Affiliation to JNTUK,

Kakinada)

Seshadri Rao Knowledge Village,

Gudlavalleru – 521 356.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

HANDOUT

on

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Vision And Mission of The Institute

Vision:

To be a leading institution of engineering education and research, preparing students for leadership
in their fields in a caring and challenging learning environment.

Mission:

 To produce quality engineers by providing state-of-the-art engineering education

 To attract and retain knowledgeable, creative, motivated and highly skilled individuals
whose leadership and contributions uphold the college tenets of education, creativity,
research and responsible public service

 To develop faculty and resources to impart and disseminate knowledge and information
to students and also to society that will enhance educational level, which in turn, will
contribute to social and economic betterment of society

 To provide an environment that values and encourages knowledge acquisition and

academic freedom, making this a preferred institution for knowledge seekers

 To provide quality assurance

 To partner and collaborate with industry, government, and R&D institutes to develop
new knowledge and sustainable technologies and serve as an engine for facilitating the
nation’s economic development

 To impart personality development skills to students that will help them to succeed and
lead

 To instill in students the attitude, values and vision that will prepare them to lead lives of
personal integrity and civic responsibility

 To promote a campus environment that welcomes and makes students of all races,
cultures and civilizations feel at home

 Putting students face to face with industrial, governmental and societal challenges
Vision

To be a pioneer in Electrical and Electronics Engineering education and research, preparing

students for higher levels of intellectual attainment, and making significant contributions to
profession and society

Mission

1. To impart quality education in electrical and electronics engineering in dynamic learning

environment and strive continuously for the interest of stake holders, industry and
society.

2. To create an environment conducive to student-centered learning and collaborative

research.

3. To provide students with knowledge, technical skills, and values to excel as engineers
and leaders in their profession.

Program Educational Objectives

Graduates of the Electrical and Electronics Engineering program will

1. Graduates will have technical knowledge, skills and competence to identify,

comprehend and solve problems of industry and society.

2. Graduates learn and adapt themselves to the constantly evolving technology to

pursue higher studies and undertake research.

3. Graduates will engage in lifelong learning and work successfully in teams with
professional, ethical and administrative acumen to handle critical situations.
 HANDOUT ON BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

Class & Sem. : I B.Tech – I Semester Year: 2023-24

Branch : EEE Credits: 3

1. Brief History and Scope of the Subject

Basic Electrical Engineering is introduced in the first year first semester of Internet of things
Engineering, to make the students acquainted with basic concepts of Electrical Engineering and
to understand the technology involved behind the concepts of electrical circuits and working of
Electrical Machines so that the students can apply this knowledge in the future study. There is lot
of research is going on to reduce losses of both Transformer and Induction motor. Cold rolled
Grain oriented steel (CRGO) is one of the latest material used in constructing core of transformer
to reduce core losses. Research is going on in the area of BLDC Motors

2.Course Outcomes:
1. Describe the per unit system of power system.
2. Apply the concepts of addition or removal of element in the power system for determining the
impedance matrix.
3. Formulate and solve the power flow problem of power system.
4. Develop and solve the positive, negative, and zero sequence networks for systemsconsisting of
machines, transmission lines and transformers.
5. Determine the fault voltages and currents for various faults.
6. Analyze the stability of power system under various disturbances.

3.Program Outcomes:

The graduates of electrical and electronics engineering program will be able to

1) Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization for the solution of complex engineering
problems
2) Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural
sciences, and engineering sciences
3) Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for public health and safety, and cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations
4) Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis
of the information to provide valid conclusions
5) Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools, including prediction and modelling to complex engineering
activities, with an understanding of the limitations
6) The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal, and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice
 7) Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8) Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9) Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10) Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with the society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and
receive clear instructions.
11) Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary.
12) Life-long learning: Recognizes the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

4.PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

Students will be able to
1. Apply the knowledge of circuit design, analog & digital electronics to the field of
electrical and electronics systems.
2. Analyze, design and develop control systems, industrial drives and power systems using
modern tools.
5.MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES WITH PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12PSO1 PSO2
CO1 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3
CO2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3
CO3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3
CO4 3 3 3 2 3 3
CO5 3 3 3 2 3 3
CO6 3 3 3 2 3 2

6.PRESCRIBED TEXT BOOKS

1. R. L. Boylestad & Louis Nashlesky, Electronic Devices & Circuit

Theory,Pearson Education, 2021.
2. R. P. Jain, Modern Digital Electronics, 4th Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2009
3. Basic Electrical Engineering, D. C. Kulshreshtha, Tata McGraw Hill, 2019,
First Edition
4. Power System Engineering, P.V. Gupta, M.L. Soni, U.S. Bhatnagar and A.
Chakrabarti, Dhanpat Rai & Co, 2013
5. Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, Rajendra Prasad, PHI publishers, 2014,
ThirdEdition

7.REFERENCE TEXT BOOKS

1. R. S. Sedha, A Textbook of Electronic Devices and Circuits, S. Chand & Co, 2010.
2. Santiram Kal, Basic Electronics- Devices, Circuits and IT Fundamentals, Prentice
 Hall, India, 2002.
3. R. T. Paynter, Introductory Electronic Devices & Circuits – Conventional Flow
Version, Pearson Education,2009.
4. Basic Electrical Engineering, D. P. Kothari and I. J. Nagrath, Mc Graw Hill,
2019, Fourth Edition
5. Principles of Power Systems, V.K. Mehtha, S.Chand Technical Publishers, 2020
6. Basic Electrical Engineering, T. K. Nagsarkar and M. S. Sukhija, Oxford
UniversityPress, 2017
7. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, S. K. Bhatacharya, Person
Publications, 2018, Second Edition.

8.URLS AND OTHER E-LEARNING RESOURCES

1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105053
2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108108076

9.LECTURE SCHEDULE / LESSON PLAN

UNIT NOs TOPIC HOURS

PART- A : BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Unit - I DC & AC Circuits

1 circuit elements (R, L and C) 1

2 Ohm’s Law and its limitations 1
3 KCL & KVL, Simple numerical problems 1

4 Series, parallel, series-parallel circuits, Simple numerical problems. 1

5 Super Position theorem, Simple numerical problems. 2

Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period,
6 1
frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference
average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor for sinusoidal
7 2
wave form (Simple Numerical problems)
Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C
8 1
circuits
9 Concept of Impedance (Simple Numerical problems) 1
Active power, reactive power and apparent power, Concept of power
10 2
factor (Simple Numerical problems)

Unit - II Machines and Measuring Instruments

11 Construction, principle, operation and applications of DC Motor 2
12 Construction, principle, operation and applications of DC Generator 1
Construction, principle, operation and applications of Single Phase
13 1
Transformer
Construction, principle, operation and applications of Three Phase
14 1
Induction Motor
15 Construction, principle, operation and applications of Alternator 1
Construction and working principle of Permanent Magnet Moving
16 1
Coil (PMMC)
Construction and working principle of Attraction type Moving Iron
17 1
(MI) Instruments
Construction and working principle of Repulsion type Moving Iron
18 1
(MI) Instruments
19 Wheat Stone bridge 1

Unit -III Energy Resources, Electricity Bill & Safety Measures

20 Conventional and non-conventional energy resources 1

Layout and operation of various Power Generation systems: Hydel
21 1
power generation.
Layout and operation of various Power Generation systems: Nuclear
22 1
power generation.
Layout and operation of various Power Generation systems: Solar
23 1
power generation and Wind power generation.
Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners,
24 PCs, Laptops, Printers, etc. Definition of “unit” used for
consumption of electrical energy
two-part electricity tariff, calculation of electricity bill for domestic
25 1
consumers
26 Working principle of Fuse, merits and demerits 1
Working principle of Miniature circuit breaker (MCB), merits and
27 1
demerits
28 Electric Shock, Safety Precautions to avoid shock. 1
29 Earthing and its types 1
 PART-B : Basic Electronics Engineering

UNIT - I SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES

30 Introduction - Vacuum tubes to nano electronics 1
P-N Junction diode V-I-Characteristics : Reverse-Bias Condition,
31 1
Forward-Bias Condition
32 Zener Effect, Zener diode V-I-Characteristics 1
33 Fundamentals of transistors- NPN &PNP transistors Operation 2
34 Common-Base Configuration and characteristics 1
35 Common-Emitter Configuration and characteristics 1
36 Common-Collector configuration and characteristics 1
37 Elementary Treatment of Small Signal CE Amplifier. 1

UNIT - II Basic Electronic Circuits And Instrumentation

38 Block diagram description of a dc power supply 1

Working of a full wave bridge rectifier without and with capacitor
39 1
filter
40 working of simple Zener voltage regulator 1
41 Block diagram of Public Address system 1
Circuit diagram and working of common emitter (RC coupled)
42 1
amplifier with its frequency response
43 Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system. 1

UNIT -III DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Introduction to Decimal Numbers, Binary Numbers, Octal Numbers,

44 2
Hexadecimal Numbers
BCD codes, Excess-3 code, Gray code, Hamming code 1
Commutative laws,Associativelaws,Distributive Laws, Idempotent
45 2
Laws, Absorption Laws, DeMorgan’s Theorem
46 NOT, OR, AND,, XOR and XNOR 1
47 Universal Gates - NOR, NAND 1
48 Half and Full Adders 1
49 S-R, J-K, D and T Flip flops (Elementary Treatment only) circuit 2
 diagrams and characteristic tables
50 4-bit Shift Register 1
51 Binary Ripple Counter 1
52 BCD Ripple Counter 1
TOTAL 60

Course Objectives

To expose to the field of electrical & electronics engineering, laws and principles of electrical/
electronic engineering and to acquire fundamental knowledge in the relevant field.

Course Outcomes: After the completion of the course students will be able to

CO1. Describe fundamental laws, operating principles of motors/generators, MC/MI

instruments (L2)
CO2. Demonstrate the working of electrical machines, measuring instruments and
powergeneration stations. (L2)
CO3. Apply mathematical tools and fundamental concepts to derive various equations
relatedto electrical circuits and machines. (L3)
CO4. Calculate electrical load and electricity bill of residential and commercial buildings. (L4)

PART A: BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT I DC & AC Circuits

DC Circuits: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), Ohm’s Law and its limitations, KCL
& KVL, series, parallel, series-parallel circuits, Super Position theorem, Simple numerical
problems.

AC Circuits: A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time

period, frequency, amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form
factor, peak factor, Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C
circuits, Concept of Impedance, Active power, reactive power and apparent power, Concept
of power factor (Simple Numerical problems).

UNIT II Machines and Measuring Instruments

Machines: Construction, principle and operation of (i) DC Motor, (ii) DC Generator, (iii)
Single Phase Transformer, (iv) Three Phase Induction Motor and (v) Alternator, Applications
of electrical machines.

Measuring Instruments: Construction and working principle of Permanent Magnet Moving

Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron (MI) Instruments and Wheat Stone bridge.

UNIT III Energy Resources, Electricity Bill & Safety Measures

Energy Resources: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources; Layout and
operation of various Power Generation systems: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & Wind power
generation.
Electricity bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs, Laptops, Printers,
etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part electricity tariff, calculation of
electricity bill fordomesticconsumers

Equipment Safety Measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker (MCB), merits
and demerits. Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to
avoidshocK

Textbooks:
1. Basic Electrical Engineering, D. C. Kulshreshtha, Tata McGraw Hill, 2019,
First Edition
2. Power System Engineering, P.V. Gupta, M.L. Soni, U.S. Bhatnagar and A.
Chakrabarti, Dhanpat Rai & Co, 2013
3. Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, Rajendra Prasad, PHI publishers, 2014,
ThirdEdition

Reference Books:

1. Basic Electrical Engineering, D. P. Kothari and I. J. Nagrath, Mc Graw Hill,

2019, Fourth Edition
2. Principles of Power Systems, V.K. Mehtha, S.Chand Technical Publishers, 2020
3. Basic Electrical Engineering, T. K. Nagsarkar and M. S. Sukhija, Oxford
UniversityPress, 2017
4. Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, S. K. Bhatacharya, Person
Publications, 2018, Second Edition.

Web Resources:

1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105053
2.https://nptel.ac.in/courses/10810807
 PART B: BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Course Objectives:

To teach the fundamentals of semiconductor devices and its applications, principles of

digital electronics.

UNIT I SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Introduction - Evolution of electronics – Vacuum tubes to nano electronics -
Characteristics of PN Junction Diode — Zener Effect — Zener Diode and its
Characteristics. Bipolar Junction
Transistor — CB, CE, CC Configurations and Characteristics — Elementary
Treatment of Small Signal CE Amplifier.
UNIT II BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTTAION
Rectifiers and power supplies: Block diagram description of a dc power supply,
working of a full wave bridge rectifier, capacitor filter (no analysis), working of
simple zener voltage regulator. Amplifiers: Block diagram of Public Address system,
Circuit diagram and working of common emitter (RC coupled) amplifier with its
frequency response. Electronic Instrumentation: Block diagram of an electronic
instrumentation system.
UNIT III DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Overview of Number Systems, Logic gates including Universal Gates, BCD codes,
Excess-3 code, Gray code, Hamming code. Boolean Algebra, Basic Theorems and
properties of Boolean Algebra, Truth Tables and Functionality of Logic Gates – NOT,
OR, AND, NOR, NAND, XOR and XNOR. Simple combinational circuits–Half and
Full Adders. Introduction to sequential circuits, Flip flops, Registers and counters
(Elementary Treatment only)

Textbooks:

1. R. L. Boylestad & Louis Nashlesky, Electronic Devices & Circuit Theory,

PearsonEducation, 2021.
2. R. P. Jain, Modern Digital Electronics, 4th Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2009

Reference Books:

8. R. S. Sedha, A Textbook of Electronic Devices and Circuits, S. Chand & Co, 2010.
9. Santiram Kal, Basic Electronics- Devices, Circuits and IT Fundamentals,
Prentice Hall, India, 2002.
10. R. T. Paynter, Introductory Electronic Devices & Circuits – Conventional Flow
Version, Pearson Education,2009.
End examination pattern:
i) Question paper shall be in two parts viz., Part A and Part B with equal
weightage of 35 marks each.
ii) In each part, question 1 shall contain 5 compulsory short answer questions for
a total of5 marks such that each question carries 1 mark.
iii) In each part, questions from 2 to 4, there shall be either/or type questions of
10 markseach. Student shall answer any one of them.
iv) The questions from 2 to 4 shall be set by covering one unit of the syllabus
for eachquestion.
 BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
UNIT-1
AC & DC CIRCUITS
DC CIRCUITS:

1. ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT ELEMENTS:

Resistance: (R)
It is a property of a material, which opposes the flow of electric current.
Units: ohm’s Ω
Let ‘𝑙’ be the length of the material
A be the cross sectional area of material.

𝑙
Resistance is directly proportional to length of the material,
𝑅∝𝑙 (1.1)
As the area of cross section increases, electron can move freely.
∴Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross section.
1
R∝ (1.2)
A
l
From (1) & (2) R∝
A
ρl
R=
A
ρ = Resistivity (or)Specific Resistance
RA Ω ∗ m2
ρ= = =Ω−m
l m
Inductor : (L)
Inductance:
“The property of coil that opposes any change in the amount of current flowing
through it is called as Inductance”.

Current-voltage relation is given by

V=L di/dt
The energy stored by the inductor is given by
W=Li2/2

According to faradays law E=Ndᴓ/dt

Flux linkage depends on the amount of current flowing through the coil.
According to Lenz’s Law, induced emf should oppose the change in current
flow through that coil.
Properties of inductor:
1. Since it does not allow the sudden change in current through it, it is called as
Current stiff element.
2. It stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.
3. If the applied voltage is positive, it will start charging and if the applied voltage
is negative, it will start discharging.

Capacitor: (C)
Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating material (dielectric) is called as
capacitor.

Fig. a) A typical Capacitor Fig. b) A capacitor with applied voltage v.

Capacitance:
The ability of a capacitor to store charge is known as its capacitance.
Charge stored in capacitor is proportional to applied voltage.
∴Q∝V
Q = CV
Q
C=
V
dQ d
We know that, i = = (CV)
dt dt
dV
i=C
dt
Ohms law and its limitations:

Ohm’s Law: “Under constant temperature and pressure, current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the voltage applied across it”.
R
i∝V
 V
i=
R
Where, R=Resistance of conductor
Power dissipated by Resistor (P) = V ∗ i
V2
= (or)i2 R
R
Limitations:
 Ohm's law is applicable when the temperature of the conductor is constant. Resistivity
changes with temperature.
 It does not apply to semiconductors, which do not have a direct current-voltage
relationship.
 Ohm’s law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. Unilateral networks allow the
current to flow only in one direction. Examples of such networks
include diodes, transistors, etc.
 Ohm’s Law will not work in the case of non-metallic conductors.
 Calculation using Ohm’s law can be difficult in the case of complicated circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Laws:
Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of
electric circuits. These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

Kirchhoff’s voltage Law: (KVL)

This law is related to emf’s and voltage drops in a circuit. It stated as“in an electrical
circuit, algebraic sum of all the voltages in a closed path is Zero”.
−V + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
Or, Sum of voltage drops=Sum of V1 V2 V3
voltage rises
V = V1 + V2 + V3
i
V = V1 + V2 + V3 V
 KVL is independent of
nature of element.

Kirchhoff’s current Law:

This law is related to current at the junction points a circuit. It is stated as “In a circuit, at
node at any instant the algebraic sum of current flowing towards a node i1 in
circuit is Zero”.
i1 + i2 − i3 − i4 = 0 i3

i2
i4
  According to law of conservation of energy, the net charge at node is Zero.
 KCL is independent of nature of element.
An alternative form of KCL, “The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum
of the currents leaving the node”.
i1 + i2 = i3 + i4
Series circuit:
The circuit in which a number of resistors are connected end to end across the source of supply,
there will be only one path for the current to flow then the circuit is called as series circuit.

Let us consider ‘n’ Resistors are connected in series

V1 V2 V3 Vn

R1 R2 R3 Rn

.
Apply KVL
−V + V1 + V2 + V3 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + Vn = 0
−iR eq + iR1 + iR 2 + iR 3 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + iR n = 0
R eq = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ + R n
Note: If ‘n’ Resistors are in series, then equivalent Resistance will be greater thanR1 , R 2 , R 3 …
R n.
Inductive circuits:
Series Inductors circuit:
Leq = L1 + L2 + ⋯ ⋯ + Ln L1 L2 L3 Ln

Leq
Parallel Inductors circuit:
1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯⋯+ Leq L1 L2 L3 Ln
Leq L1 L2 Ln
Capacitive circuits:
Series circuit: C1 C2 C3 Cn
Apply KVL
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ⋯ ⋯ + Vn
Q Q Q Q Ceq
= + +⋯⋯+
Ceq C1 C2 Cn
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯⋯+
Ceq C1 C2 Cn
Voltage division Rule:
It is applicable for series circuit. V1 V2
V
i= R1 R2
R1 + R 2
V
V1 = iR1 = ( )R
R1 + R 2 1 i
V
V2 = iR 2 = ( )R
R1 + R 2 2
i.e When ‘n’ Resistors R1 , R 2 , R 3 … R n are in series and
V1 , V2 , V3 , ⋯ ⋯ Vn are voltage drops across resistors, then V
V
V1 = ( )R
R1 + R 2 + ⋯ ⋯ + R n 1
V
Vn = ( )R
R1 + R 2 + ⋯ ⋯ + R n n
𝐕
𝐕𝐧 = ( )𝐑
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + ⋯ ⋯ + 𝐑𝐧 𝐧
Problems:

1.What is the voltage across the 10Ω resister?

A.

2. Find the voltage between A and B in a voltage divider network?

A.
3. For the circuit shown in fig(1) determine the unknown voltage drop V 1?

Parallel circuit:
The circuit in which a number of resistors are connected in such a way that both ends of
individual resistors are connected together then it is said to be parallel circuit.

Parallel Resistors circuit: i

Apply KCL
i1 i2 in
−i + i1 + i2 + i3 + ⋯ ⋯ + in = 0
V V V V V R1 R2 Rn
− + + +⋯⋯+ =0
R eq R1 R 2 Rn
 When ‘n’ Resistances are in
parallel, equivalent Resistance is smaller than all Resistances.
NOTE:
 When ‘n’ Resistances are in series, the current through all the Resistors are same.
 When ‘n’ Resistors are in parallel, then voltage across all resistors is same.
Inductive circuits: L1 L2 L3 Ln

Series Inductors circuit:

Leq = L1 + L2 + ⋯ ⋯ + Ln Leq

Leq L1 L2 L3 Ln
Parallel Inductors circuit:
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯⋯+
Leq L1 L2 Ln

Capacitive circuits:
C1 C2 C3 Cn

Series circuit:
Apply KVL Ceq
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ⋯ ⋯ + Vn
Q Q Q Q
= + +⋯⋯+
Ceq C1 C2 Cn

1 1 1 1
= + +⋯⋯+
Ceq C1 C2 Cn

Current division Rule:

i
i = i1 + i2 + i3 + ⋯ ⋯ + in
V R1 R 2 i1 i2
R eq = =
i R1 + R 2 V R1 R2
V V( R 1 + R 2 )
i= =
R eq R1 R 2
V V (R 1 + R 2 )R 1
i2 = =
R 2 R 1 R 2 (R 1 + R 2 )
V (R 1 + R 2 ) R1
i2 = ∗
R1 R 2 R1 + R 2
i ∗ R1
i2 =
R1 + R 2
i ∗ R2
i1 =
R1 + R 2

i ∗ R1 i ∗ R2
i2 = &i1 =
R1 + R 2 R1 + R 2
Series-parallel circuit: In the circuit when two parallel branches and one resistor connected
in series then the circuit is known as series-parallel circuit.

In electrical circuit we will find a number of such resistances connected in Series-parallel.

Problems on series and parallel networks.

4.Calculate the effective resistance when three resistances 20 Ω, 25 Ω and 50Ω are connected in
parallel.
Sol: Given data:

4.1. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:

“ In a linear bilateral network ,the response in any element is equal to the algebraic sum of
responses caused by the individual sources while the other sources being non operative .”
The superposition theorem extends the use of Ohm’s Law to circuits with multiple sources.
 In order to apply the superposition theorem to a network, certain conditions must be met:
  All the components must be linear, meaning that the current is proportional to the
applied voltage.
 All the components must be bilateral, meaning that the current is the same amount for
opposite polarities of the source voltage.
 Passive components may be used.
 Active components may not be used.
To remove a voltage source when applying this theorem, the difference in potential between the
terminals of the voltage source must be set to zero(short circuit),removing a current source
requires that its terminals be opened (open circuit) as shown in the below figure.

EXAMPLE:
Using the superposition theorem, determine the voltage drop and current across the resistor 3.3K
as shown in figure below.

Solution:

step 1: Remove the 8V power supply from the original circuit, such that the new circuit becomes
as the following and then measure voltage across resistor.

Here 3.3K and 2K are in parallel, therefore resultant resistance will be 1.245K.
Using voltage divider rule voltage across 1.245K will be

V1= [1.245/(1.245+4.7)]*5 = 1.047V

Step 2: Remove the 5V power supply from the original circuit such that the new circuit becomes
as the following and then measure voltage across resistor.

Here 3.3K and 4.7K are in parallel, therefore resultant resistance will be 1.938K.

Using voltage divider rule voltage across 1.938K will be

V2= [1.938/(1.938+2)]*8 = 3.9377V

Therefore voltage drop across 3.3K resistor is V1+V2 = 1.047+3.9377=4.9847V

Ex.2. Find the current through 10 Ω resistance in the given network by using superposition
theorem?

For finding current through 10Ω resistance by using superposition theorem, we follows same
step as we discussed in previous post.

Activating ‘16V’ source at a time, other will be deactivated.

After deactivation of ‘16A’ current source, two individual box are seem clearly in which we can
easily applying mesh analysis for finding current through 10Ω resistance when ‘16V’ voltage
source is active. You can also use nodal analysis or ohm’s law with current division rule.
So, after solving this circuit, we get
I1 = 2.25A & I2 = 0.5A
Then, I10Ω = I2 = 0.5A
Activating ‘16A’ source at a time, other will be deactivated.

After deactivation of ‘16V’ voltage source, we can one step reduced circuit and applying current
division rule. By applying current division rule, we can easily find the value of current in 10Ω
resistance.

By current division rule,

I1 = 4A
I2 = 12A
So, I10Ω = I1 = 4A
At last, the current through 10Ω resistance is 3.5A and greater current has their direction as
shown below.
 AC CIRCUITS

AC FUNDAMENTALS:

EQUATION OF AC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT:

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in the figure.
The coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at an uniform angular velocity of 𝜔 rad/sec.
  When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the plane
of the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this position, the emf
induced in the coil is zero.
 When the coil moves by some angle in the anticlockwise direction, there is a rate of
change of flux linking the coil and hence an emf is induced in the coil.
 When the coil reaches the horizontal position, the flux linking the coil is maximum, and
hence the emf induced is also maximum.
 When the coil further moves in the anticlockwise direction, the emf induced in the coil
reduces. Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, the emf induced becomes
zero.
 After that the same cycle repeats and the emf is induced in the opposite direction. When
the coil completes one complete revolution, one cycle of AC voltage is generated.
 The generation of sinusoidal AC voltage can also be explained using mathematical
equations. Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field in the
position shown in the figure.
 The maximum flux linking the coil is in the downward direction as shown in the figure.
This flux can be divided into two components, one component acting along the plane of
the coil Φmaxsinωt and another component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil
Φmaxcosωt.

The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil. Only
the component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ie Φmaxcosωt induces an emf in the
coil. Hence the emf induced in the coil is a sinusoidal emf. This will induce a sinusoidal current in
the circuit given by
Hence the emf induced in the coil is a sinusoidal emf. This will induce a sinusoidal current in the
circuit given by

Definition of Alternating Quantity:

An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in direction at regular
intervals of time. Important terms associated with an alternating quantity are defined below.

1. Amplitude:

It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also called as maximum or peak
value.
2. Time Period (T):

It is the time taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity.

3. Instantaneous Value:

It is the value of the quantity at any instant.

4. Frequency (f):

It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency is Hz or
cycles/sec.The relationship between frequency and time period can be derived as follows.

Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second

Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second

T = 1/f

Angular Frequency (ɷ):

Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second(ie the angle
covered by the rotating coil). The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.

Phase:
Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the quantity has
advanced from the selected zero position of reference.

Phase of +Em is π/2 rad or T/4 sec

Phase of -Em is 3π/2 rad or 3T/4 sec
Phase Difference:
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points, they are said to
have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of phase difference.
In Phase
Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is zero. That is
the zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation of two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as shown. The figure shows that
the voltage and current are in phase.

V=Vm Sinɷt
I = Im sinɷt
Lagging:

In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point of the
voltagewaveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The waveform, phasor and
equationrepresentation is as shown.

V=Vm Sinɷt
I = Imsin(ɷt-Ф)
Leading

In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.
V=Vm Sinɷt
I = Imsin(ɷt+Ф)

Average Value
The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called its
average value

Average value = Area under one cycle

Base

Average value of a sinusoidal current

RMS or Effective Value

The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which when
flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat produced
by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for the same time.

RMS value of a sinusoidal current

Form Factor:
The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is known as Form Factor
Peak Factor or Crest Factor:
The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity is known as the peak
factor

For a sinusoidal waveform

Problem 1:
An alternating current i is given byi = 141.4 sin 314t
Find i) The maximum value ii) Frequency iii) Time Period iv) The instantaneous value when
t=3ms
i = 141.4 sin 314t

i) Maximum value Im=141.4 V

ii) ɷ = 314 rad/sec
f = ɷ /2π = 50 Hz
iii) T=1/f = 0.02 sec
iv) i=141.4 sin(314x0.003) = 114.35A
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RELATIONSHIP WITH PHASOR DIAGRAMS IN R,L
AND C CIRCUITS:
AC circuit with a pure resistance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v
is given by

V=Vm Sinɷt

Using ohms law, we can write the following relations

From equation (1) and (2) we conclude that in a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and current are
in phase. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below

AC circuit with a pure inductance:

Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance L as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage
v is given by

V=Vm Sinɷt -------------(1)

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the inductor is given as VL which is the
same as v.
We can find the current through the inductor as follows
From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure inductive circuit, the current lags behind the
voltage by 90⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below.

AC circuit with a pure capacitance:

Consider an AC circuit with a pure capacitance C as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage
v is given by
V=Vm Sinɷt -------------(1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the capacitor is given as VC which is
the same as v.We can find the current through the capacitor as follows

From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure capacitive circuit, the current leads the
voltage by 90⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below.

Power Factor
The power factor in an AC circuit is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and
current ie cos Ф
The power in an AC circuit is equal to the product of voltage, current and power factor
Impedance Triangle
We can derive a triangle called the impedance triangle from the phasor diagram of an RL series
circuit as shown
The impedance triangle is right angled triangle with R and XL as two sides and impedance as the
hypotenuse. The angle between the base and hypotenuse is Ф. The impedance triangle enables us
to calculate the following things.

4. Whether current leads or lags behind the voltage

Power
In an AC circuit, the various powers can be classified as
1. Real or Active power
2. Reactive power
3. Apparent power
Real or active power in an AC circuit is the power that does useful work in the cicuit. Reactive
power flows in an AC circuit but does not do any useful work. Apparent power is the total power
in an AC circuit.

From the phasor diagram of an RL series circuit, the current can be divided into two components.
One component along the voltage IcosФ, that is called as the active component of current and
another component perpendicular to the voltage IsinФ that is called as the reactive component of
current.
Real Power or active power:
The power due to the active component of current is called as the active power or real power. It
is denoted by P.
P = V x ICosФ = I2 R
Real power is the power that does useful power. It is the power that is consumed by the
resistance. The unit for real power in Watt(W).
Reactive Power
The power due to the reactive component of current is called as the reactive power. It is denoted
by Q.
Q = V x ISin = I2 XL
Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the circulating power in the L and C
components. The unit for reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive (VAR).
Apparent Power
The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is denoted by S.
S = V x I = I2 Z

The unit for apparent power is Volt Amperes (VA).

Power Triangle
From the impedance triangle, another triangle called the power triangle can be derived as shown.

The power triangle is right angled triangle with P and Q as two sides and S as the hypotenuse.
The angle between the base and hypotenuse is Ф. The power triangle enables us to calculate the
following things.

The power Factor in an AC circuit can be calculated by any one of the following methods
1. Cosine of angle between V and I
2. Resistance/Impedance R/Z
3. Real Power/Apparent Power P/S
 Unit-2
D.C GENERATORS

Generator principle
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or
power) into electrical energy (or power).Induced e.m.f is produced in it
according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This e.m.f causes a
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

Working Principle of Generator

 A DC generator produces direct power. These generators produce

electrical power, based on fundamental principle of Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction.
 According to this law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts
magnetic lines force, due to which an emf is induced in the conductor.
 The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon the rate of change of
flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This emf will cause a
current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed.

 Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which

rotates inside the magnetic field about its own axis ab.
 When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal position,
it cuts the flux lines of the field.
 As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the loop cut the
flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB &
BC) of the loop.
 As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop.
The direction of the current can be determined by Fleming's right hand
Rule.
 “This rule says that if you stretch thumb, index finger and middle finger
of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumb indicates the
direction of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction
of magnetic field i.e. N - pole to S - pole, and middle finger indicates the
direction of flow of current through the conductor”.
 Now if we apply this right hand rule, we will see at this horizontal
position of the loop, current will flow from point A to B and on the other
side of the loop current will flow from point C to D.


 Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical
position, but now upper side of the loop will be CD and lower side will be
AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position).
 At this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to
the flux lines of the field. Hence there will be no question of flux cutting
and consequently there will be no current in the loop.
 If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position.
 But now, said AB side of the loop comes in front of N pole and CD comes
in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous horizontal position as
shown in the figure beside.

 Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the
flux lines, hence rate of flux cutting is maximum here and according to
Fleming's right hand rule, at this position current flows from B to A and
on other side from D to C.
 Now if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every time the side
AB comes in front of S pole, the current flows from A to B and when it
comes in front of N pole, the current flows from B to A. Similarly, every
time the side CD comes in front of S pole the current flows from C to D
and when it comes in front of N pole the current flows from D to C.
Working operation of dc generator.
Now the loop is opened and connects it with a split ring as shown in the figure
below. Split rings are made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two
halves or segments insulated from each other. The external load terminals are
connected with two carbon brushes which are rest on these split slip ring
segments.

 It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along
ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1 in contact with segment a.
 In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced
current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the
segments a and b are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes
in touch with that segment b.
 Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The
waveform of the current through the load circuit is as shown in the
figure. This current is unidirectional.
  This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop
generator model.
 The position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the
changeover of the segments a and b from one brush to other takes place
when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the plane of the lines of
force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.
Construction of DC Machine (for both Generator and Motor)

A DC motor like we all know is a device that deals in the conversion of

electrical energy to mechanical energy and this is essentially brought about by
two major parts required for the construction of dc motor, namely.

1) Stator – The static part that houses the field windings and receives the
supply and,
2) Rotor – The rotating part that brings about the mechanical rotations.
3) Yoke of dc motor.
4) Poles of dc motor.
5) Field winding of dc motor.
6) Armature winding of dc motor.
7) Commutator of dc motor.
8) Brushes
All these parts put together configures the total construction of a dc motor.
Now let’s do a detailed discussion about all the essential parts of dc motor.
Yoke of DC Machine
The magnetic frame or the yoke of dc motor made up of cast iron or
steel and forms an integral part of the stator or the static part of the motor. It
supports the field system by housing the magnetic poles and field winding of
the dc motor.

Poles of DC Machine:

The construction of magnetic poles basically comprises of two parts

namely, the pole core and the pole shoe. whereas the pole shoe having a
relatively larger cross-sectional area spreads the flux produced over the air gap
and the pole consists of field windings.
Field Winding of DC Machine

The field winding of dc motor are made with field coils (copper wire)
that produces field flux within which the rotor armature of the dc motor
rotates, and results in the effective flux cutting.

Armature Winding of DC Machine

The armature winding of dc motor is attached to the rotor, or the rotating

part of the machine, and as a result is subjected to altering magnetic field in
the path of its rotation which directly results in magnetic losses.

Commutator of DC Machine:

The commutator of dc motor is a cylindrical structure made up of copper

segments stacked together, but insulated from each other by mica. It acts as a
mechanical rectifier.
Brushes of DC Machine

The brushes of dc motor are made with carbon or graphite structures, making
sliding contact over the rotating commutator. The brushes are used to feedthe
current from external circuit to the armature winding.

D.C MOTOR
PRINCIPLE:
A machine that converts d.c power into mechanical power is known as a d.c
motor.
“When ever a current carrying condudtor placed in a magnetic field it
experiences a mechanical force.”
The direction of force is given by Flemings left hand rule and magnitude is
given by

F=BIL newtons.

Working or Operating Principle of DC Motor

A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current (electrical

energy) into mechanical energy. It’s of vital importance for the industry today,
and is equally important for engineers to look into the working principle of
DC motor in details that has been discussed in this article. In order to
understand the operating principle of dc motor we need to first look into its
constructional feature.
The working principle of a DC motor also can be understood by considering a
part of a multi-polar DC motor as shown in figure

When the terminals of a DC motor are connected to the DC supply source;

i. The field magnets are excited, developing alternate N and S poles.
ii. ii. The armature conductors carry currents.
  Armature conductors under N - poles are assumed to carry current away
from the observer shown by crosses and those under S - poles to carry
current towards the observer shown by dots.
 Applying Flemings left hand rule, the direction of the force on each
conductor can be
 Found and is shown by small arrows on each conductor.
 It will be seen that each conductors experiences a force F which tends to
rotate the armature in anti-clockwise direction.
 These forces collectively produce a driving torque which sets the
armature rotating.

TRANSFORMERS:

Definition: The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which

an electrical power is transformed from one alternating current circuit to
another with the desired change in voltage and current, without any change in
the frequency.

Principle of operation:
 The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are
inductively coupled and if current in one coil is changed uniformly then
an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil.
 This e.m.f can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it.
 The transformer works on the same principle.
 In its elementary form, it consists of two inductive coils which are
electrically separated but linked through a common magnetic circuit.
 The two coils have high mutual inductance. The basic transformer is
shown in the Figure
 One of the two coils is connected to source of alternating voltage. This
coil in
 Which electrical energy is fed with the help of source called primary
winding (P). The
 Other winding is connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to
this winding is drawn out to the load.

 This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has
N1number of turns while the secondary winding has N 2 number of turns.
Symbolically the transformer is indicated as shown in the Figure.
 When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates
an alternating current. This current produces an alternating flux (Φ)
which completes its path through common magnetic core as shown
dotted in the Figure.
 Thus an alternating, flux links with the secondary winding. As the flux is
alternating, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed in the secondary winding. If now
load is connected to the secondary winding, this e.m.f. drives a current
through it.
 Thus through there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an
electrical energy gets transferred from primary to the secondary.

Key point: The frequency of the mutual induced e.m.f. is same as that of the
alternating source which is supplying energy to the primary winding.
Construction of Transformer
 There are two basic parts of a transformer i) Magnetic Core ii) Winding or
Coils.
 The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is
further divided into two parts.
 The vertical position on which coils are wound is called limb while the
top and bottom horizontal portion is called yoke of the core.
 These parts are shown in the Figure.

Core is made up of lamination. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy

current losses get minimized.
Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5 mm thick) are used.
These laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like
varnish. All laminations are varnished.
Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the air gap at joints. For this
generally 'L' shaped or 'I' shaped laminations are used which are shown in the
Figure.

The cross-section of the limb depends on the type of coil to be used either
circular or rectangular. The different cross-section of limbs, practically used
are shown in the Figure.

Types of Windings

The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other.
The two different limbs i.e. primary on one limb while secondary on other limb.
Similarly it is necessary that the windings should be very closes to each other
to have high mutual inductance. To achieve this, the two windings are split
into number of coils and are wound adjacent to each other on the same limb. A
very common arrangement is cylindrical coils as shown in the Figure

Core Type Transformer

In this type the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the
natural cooling is more effective. The coils can be easily removed by removing
the laminations of the top yoke, for maintenance.

Fig. 1 Core type transformer

2. Shell Type Transformer

It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings
are placed on the central limb. The core encircles most part of the windings.
The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich coils. As
mentioned earlier, each high voltage coil is in between two low voltage coils and
low voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the yokes.

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator and a rotor.
The stator carries a 3-phase winding (called stator winding) while the rotor
carries a short-circuited winding (called rotor winding). Only the stator winding
is fed from 3-phase supply. The rotor winding derives its voltage and power
from the externally energized stator winding through electromagnetic induction
and hence the name. The induction motor may be considered to be a
transformer with a rotating secondary and it can, therefore, be described as a
―transformer type‖ a.c. machine in which electrical energy is converted into
mechanical energy.

Advantages:

It has simple and rugged construction.

It is relatively cheap.

It requires little maintenance.

It has high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.

It has self starting torque.
Disadvantages:

It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be changed
easily.

Its starting torque is inferior to d.c. shunt motor

Construction:
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts
(i) stator and
(ii) rotor

The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from
0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the power of the motor.
Stator:

It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of

thin laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses.

A number of evenly spaced slots are provided on the inner periphery of the
laminations [See Figure]. The insulated connected to form a balanced 3-phase
star or delta connected circuit.

The 3-phase stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles as per
requirement of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the
motor and vice-versa.

When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field
(See figure) of constant magnitude is produced. This rotating field induces
currents in the rotor by electromagnetic induction.
Rotor:
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its
outer periphery. The winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be
one of the following two types:

(i) Squirrel cage type

(ii) Wound type

Squirrel cage type rotor:

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its outer
periphery. One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each slot. All these bars
are joined at each end by metal rings called end rings [See Figure].This forms a
permanently short-circuited winding which is indestructible. The entire
construction (bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel cage and hence the
name as Squirrel cage induction motor.

It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3- phase winding;

similar to the one on the stator [See Figure].
The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots and is usually star-
connected.
The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and joined to three
insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush resting on each
slip ring.
The three brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat as
shown in Figure at starting; the external resistances are included in the rotor
circuit to give a large starting torque. These resistances are gradually reduced
to zero as the motor runs up to speed.

The external resistances are used during starting period only. When the motor
attains normal speed, the three brushes are short-circuited so that the wound
rotor runs like a squirrel cage rotor.
Principle of operation:
Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor as shown in Figure the
operation of the motor can be explained as under:


When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a
rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates round the stator at
synchronous speed Ns (= 120 f/P).

The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor
conductors, which as yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed
between the rotating flux and the stationary rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in
the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited, currents
start flowing in the rotor conductors.

The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field
produced by the stator. Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor
conductors. The sum of the mechanical forces on all the rotor conductors
produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in the same direction as
the rotating field.

The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor moves in
the direction of stator field) can be explained by Lenz’s law. According to
this law, the direction of rotor currents will be such that they tend to
oppose the cause producing them.
 
Now, the cause producing the rotor currents is the relative speed
between the rotating field and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to
reduce this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction
as that of stator field and tries to catch it.

ALTERNATORS

An alternator is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in
the form is alternating current AC. It is also known as a synchronous generator or AC
generator .
Components of Alternator or AC Generator
The alternator is made of different stationary and moving components each serving its own
purpose. The components of the alternator are given below
Rotor
The rotor is the rotating part of the alternator. It is made in a cylindrical shape that has copper
windings also known as field winding. The field windings are electromagnets that generate the
necessary rotating magnetic field when rotated. Rotor has a shaft that is rotated using a drive belt
pulley system. The source that rotates the rotor is called a prime mover. It can be anything such
as an engine, water turbine, wind turbine, etc.
There are two types of rotors used in alternators or synchronous generators.
 salient Pole Type
 Cylindrical Pole Type or non-salient pole type
Salient Pole Type: it is a type of rotor that has a large number of protruding or projecting poles
mounted on a core made of magnetic laminated steel or cast iron. The term salient refers to
protruding or projecting as shown in the figure below.
The salient poles are made of laminated steel or iron cast of good magnetic properties to reduce
the Eddy current losses. The pole shoes have multiple slots for damper winding that helps in
preventing haunting.
The field coils are wounded across the poles and then connected in series. The field coil is
energized by connecting its ends to a separate DC source through a pair of slip rings. The slip
ring and brushes are mounted on the shaft of the rotor.
Cylindrical Type or non salient pole type:
This type of rotor has very few 2 or 4 poles. It is made up of a laminated steel cylinder. The
cylindrical rotor has slots for field winding that is connected in series.
The poles are left unslotted as shown in the figure below. Since the poles are not protruding out
of the core, it is also known as a non-salient pole or round rotor. it has very few and non-salient
poles, therefore its rotor diameter size is small while its axial length is longer than the salient
pole rotor.
The cylindrical design provides mechanical strength, robustness and uniform distribution of
magnetic flux. It has lower windage loss. Therefore it is suitable for high-speed, noise-less
operation. They are designed for high-speed alternators such as in thermal power stations
Stator
A stator is the stationary part of an electrical machine. In an alternator, it is used for holding the
armature winding that generates the induced emf. The core itself is made of laminated steel or
cast iron of good magnetic quality to reduce Eddy current losses. The rotor that carries the field
windings rotates inside the stator without physically touching it.

working of Alternator
 An alternator or synchronous generator works on the principle of the Faraday law of
electromagnetic induction just like in other AC generators.
 It states that whenever a conductor moves in a magnetic field, an EMF (electromotive
force) or current is induced in the conductor which can be found using the EMF equation
of an alternator.
 In other words, a conductor placed in a varying magnetic field also experiences EMF and
it is used in alternators.
 The conductor is formed into a coil of multiple turns called armature winding. In the
alternator, the armature is stationary.
 Therefore, it is placed inside the stator. The field windings are used for generating a
magnetic field.
  Since the field is moving, field windings are placed inside the rotor. The field windings
are energized through slip rings to form an electromagnet having north and south poles.
 The rotor rotates with the help of a prime mover.
 The magnetic field poles also rotate at the same speed as the rotor. Thus the varying
magnetic flux cuts the armature winding inducing current in the windings.
 The induced EMF depends on the alignment of the magnetic field and armature winding.
It is maximum when the armature winding and the magnetic field lines are perpendicular
and it is zero when it is in the same alignment.
 As the magnetic field rotates, the output swings between zero and maximum as in
alternating current AC.
 The stator has separate armature windings for each phase placed at exactly 120°
displacement. Therefore the induced EMF is 120° apart as in a 3-phase alternating current
as shown below

Electrical measuring instruments:

In order to ensure proper operation of indicating instruments, the following three torques are
required:
 Deflecting torque.
 Controlling torque.
 Damping torque.
Deflecting torque.
One important requirement in indicating instruments is the arrangement for producing operating
or deflecting torque (Td) when the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure the given
electrical quantity.
This is achieved by utilizing the various effects of electric current or voltage. The deflecting
torque causes the moving system to move from its zero position. The deflecting torque is
produced by utilizing one or more of the following effects of current or voltage.
Controlling torque.
The controlling torque (Tc) opposes the deflecting torque and increases with the deflection of the
moving system. The pointer comes to rest at a position where the two opposing torques are equal
i.e. Td = Tc.
Damping torque.
A damping torque is produced by a damping or stopping force which acts on the moving system only
when it is moving and always opposes its motion. Such a torque is necessary to bring the pointer to rest
quickly.
PMMC Instrument Construction
The construction of the PMCC instrument can be done using several parts where the permanent
magnet and moving coils are essential parts. Each part of this instrument is discussed below.

Moving Coil
It is an essential component of the PMMC instrument. The designing of this coil can be
done by wounding copper coils to a rectangular block among the magnetic poles. It is made with
Aluminium and the rectangular block can be called Aluminium former rotated into the jewelled
bearing. So it permits the coil to turn freely.
Once the current is supplied throughout these coils, then it gets a deflection within the
field, then it is used to find out the voltage or current magnitude. The aluminium is a non-
metallic former, used to measure the current whereas the metallic former including high
electromagnetic damping is used to calculate the voltage.

Magnet System
The PMMC instrument includes two high-intensity magnets otherwise a ‘U’ shaped
magnet-based design. The designing of these magnets can be done with Alnico & Alcomax for
higher superior field intensity & coercive force. In several designs, an extra soft iron cylinder can
be arranged among the magnetic poles to create the field identical; while decreasing air
reluctance for increasing the strength of the field.

Control system
In the PMMC device, the torque can be controlled due to the springs which are fabricated
with phosphorous bronze. These springs are arranged among the two jewel bearings. The spring
provides the lane to the lead current to supply in & out of the moving coil. The torque can be
controlled mainly due to the delay of the ribbon.
Damping Torque
Damping torque can be generated within the PMMC instrument using the aluminium
core’s movement within the magnetic field.
So the pointer can be kept at rest after the early deflection. It assists in the right
measurement devoid of fluctuations. Because of the movement of the coil within the magnetic
field, eddy current can be generated within the aluminium former. This generates the damping
force otherwise torque to resist the motion of the coil. Gradually the deflection of the pointer will
be reduced and lastly, it will stop at a permanent position.

Pointer and Scale

In this instrument, the connection of the pointer can be done through the moving coil. It
notices the moving coil’s deflection. The magnitude of their derivation can be displayed on the
scale. The pointer within the instrument can be designed with lightweight material. Thus, it can
be simply deflected through the coil’s movement. Sometimes, the parallax error can occur within
the device which is simply decreased by properly arranging the pointer’s blade.

Working Principle of a PMMC Instrument

Whenever a current caring conductor is located within a magnetic field, then it
experiences a force that is perpendicular to the current & the field. Based on the rule of “Fleming
left hand”, if the thumbnail of the left hand, middle and forefinger are at 90 degrees with each
other.
After that the magnetic field will be in the forefinger, flow of current will be across the middle
finger and finally, the force will be through the thumb finger.
Once the current flow within the coil on the aluminium former, the magnetic field can be
generated in the coil in proportion to the current flow.
The electromagnetic force throughout the fixed magnetic field from the permanent magnet
generates the deflection force within the coil. After that the spring generates the force to resist
additional deflection; therefore it helps to balance the pointer.
So damping force can be generated within the system through the aluminium core
movement of the magnetic field. It maintains the pointer stable to a point. Once it attains
equilibrium by controlling & deflection torque to provide accuracy in measurement.
2.4 STATE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF M.C INSTRUMENTS.
Advantages of PMMC Instrument

The advantages are

 The scale in the instrument can be divided properly
 It generates no losses because of hysteresis.
 It uses less power
 It is not influenced by the stray magnetic field.
 High accuracy
 It is used as a voltmeter/ammeter with appropriate resistance.
 This instrument can measure the voltage & current with different ranges
 This instrument uses shelf shielding magnet so it is applicable in aerospace

Disadvantages of PMMC Instrument

The disadvantages are
 It works with only DC
 It is expensive compare with other alternative instruments
 It is delicate
 It shows an error because of the magnetism loss in permanent magnet

LIST THE APPLICATIONS OF M.C INSTRUMENTS

Applications of PMMC Instrument

The applications are
 Ammeter
 Galvanometer
 Ohmmeter
 Voltmeter

Moving Iron or MI Instrument

Definition: The instrument in which the moving iron is used for measuring the flow
of current or voltage is known as the moving iron instrument. It works on the principle that
the iron place near the magnet attracts towards it. The force of attraction depends on
the strength of the magnet field. The magnetic field induces by the electromagnet whose
strength depends on the magnitude of the current passes through it.
Construction of Moving Iron Instrument

The plate or vane of soft iron is used as the moving element of the instrument. The vane
is so placed that it can freely move in the magnetic field of the stationary coil. The conductor
makes the stationary coil, and it is excited by the voltage or current whose magnitude is used to
be measured.

The moving iron instrument uses the stationary coil as an electromagnet. The
electromagnet is the temporary magnet whose magnetic field strength increases or decreases with
the magnitude of the current passes through it.
Working of the Moving Iron Instrument
The moving iron instruments use the stationary coil of copper or aluminium wire which
acts as an electromagnet when an electric current passes through it. The strength of the magnetic
field induces by the electromagnet is directly proportional to the current passes through it.
The plates or vane of the iron pass through the coil increases the inductance of the
stationary coil (the inductance is the property of the conductor which increases
their electromotive force when the varying current passes through it).
The electromagnet attracts the iron vane. The vane passes through the coil tries to occupy
the minimum reluctance path (the reluctance is the property of the magnet which opposes the
flow of electric current).
The vane passes through the coil experience a force of repulsion caused by the
electromagnet. The repulsion force increases the strength of the coil inductance.
This happens because the inductance and reluctances are inversely proportional to each other.

I) ATTRACTION TYPE INSTRUMENT

1. Attraction Type –
The instrument in which the iron plate attracts from the weaker field towards the stronger
field such type of instrument is known as the attraction type instrument.
Construction of Attraction Type Instrument – The stationary coil of the attraction type
instrument is flat and has a narrow opening. The moving element is the flat disc of the iron core.
The current flow through the stationary coil produced the magnetic field which attracts the iron
coil.

The iron vane deflects from the low magnetic field to the high magnetic field, and the strength of
the deflection is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flow through it. In short, we
can say that the iron coil attracts towards in.
The attraction type instruments use spring, which provided the controlling torque. The deflection
of the coil is reduced by the aluminium piston which is attached to the moving coil.
II) REPULSION TYPE INSTRUMENT.
2. Repulsion Type Instruments –
The repulsion type instrument has two vanes or iron plates. One is fixed, and the other
one is movable. The vanes become magnetised when the current passes through the stationary
coil and the force of repulsion occur between them. Because of a repulsive force, the moving coil
starts moving away from the fixed vane.

The spring provides the controlling torque. The air friction induces the damping torque,
which opposes the movement of the coil. The repulsion type instrument is a non-polarized
Instrument, i.e., free from the direction of current passes through it. Thus, it is used for
both AC and DC.

2.7 STATE THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF M.I. INSTRUMENTS.

Advantages of the MI Instruments

The following are the advantages of the moving iron instruments.

1. Universal use – The MI instrument is independent of the direction of current and hence
used for both AC and DC.
2. Less Friction Error – The friction error is very less in the moving iron instrument because
their torque weight ratio is high. The torque weight ratio is high because their current
carrying part is stationary and the moving parts are lighter in weight.
3. Cheapness – The MI instruments require less number of turns as compared to PMMC
instrument. Thus, it is cheaper.
4. Robustness – The instrument is robust because of their simple construction. And also
because their current carrying part is stationary.
Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments.

The following are the disadvantages of Moving Iron Instrument.

1. Accuracy – The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform, and hence the accurate
result is not possible.
 2. Errors – Some serious error occurs in the instruments because of the hysteresis, frequency
and stray magnetic field.
COMPARISION OF M.C. AND M.I. INSTRUMENTS.
Basis for
Moving Iron Instrument Moving Coil Instrument
Comparison

Definition In moving iron instrument the In moving coil instrument the

soft iron is used for moving conductor coil is used for measuring
mechanism. the current and voltage.

Working Magnetism Similar to working principle of DC

Principle Motor

Symbolic
Representation

Uses Both for AC and DC DC Measurement

measurement

Accuracy Less More

Scale Non-uniform Uniform

Damping Air Friction Damping Eddy Current Damping

Power High Low

Consumption

Controlling Gravity or spring Spring

Torque
Basis for
Moving Iron Instrument Moving Coil Instrument
Comparison

Deflection Proportional to Current Square of current

Hysteresis Loss Not occurs Occurs

Can be used as Ammeter, Voltmeter and Voltmeter, ammeter, galvanometer,

Wattmeter ohmmeter

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown resistance by
balancing two legs of the bridge circuit. One leg includes the component of unknown resistance.

The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown resistor and one
variable resistor connected in the form of a bridge. This bridge is very reliable as it gives
accurate measurements.

Construction of Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms, of which two arms consist of known
resistances while the other two arms consist of an unknown resistance and a variable resistance.
The circuit also consists of a galvanometer and an electromotive force source. The emf source is
attached between points a and b while the galvanometer is connected between points c and d.
The current that flows through the galvanometer depends on its potential difference.

Wheatstone Bridge Principle

The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistances
is equal, and no current flows through the circuit. Under normal conditions, the bridge is in an
unbalanced condition where current flows through the galvanometer. The bridge is said to be
balanced when no current flows through the galvanometer. This condition can be achieved by
adjusting the known resistance and variable resistance.

Wheatstone Bridge Derivation

The current enters the galvanometer and divides into two equal magnitude
currents as I1 and I2. The following condition exists when the current through a
galvanometer is zero,

The currents in the bridge, in a balanced condition, are expressed as follows:

Here, E is the emf of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and I2 in equation (1), we get

Equation (2) shows the balanced condition of the bridge, while (3) determines
the value of the unknown resistance.

In the figure, R is the unknown resistance, S is the standard arm of the bridge
and P and Q are the ratio arm of the bridge.
 UNIT-3
ENERGY RESOURCES:

Conventional Sources of Energy:

Conventional Sources of Energy are also known as non-renewable sources of energy and are available in
limited quantity apart from hydro-electric power.
Examples of conventional sources of energy include oil, natural gas, coal, biomass, and electricity.
Wind, tides, solar, biomass and other natural resources
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
Non-conventional sources are also known as renewable sources of energy and are available in abundant amount
in the nature itself.
Examples of non-conventional sources of energy include solar energy, bioenergy, tidal energy and wind
energy.
Layout of Hydel power generation:-

Resorvior or head pond:

There is one reservoir which is having a large area in which A huge amount of water is being stored here. So
the energy here is in the form of Potential energy.
Control gate; There are having multiple control gates in a single hydro power plant. The work of control gate
is to regulate the flow of water.
Penstock:
The penstock is also called Pipe. The water stored at the dam or head pond is being released by the control
gate, the water starts moving to the turbine through penstock.The material of the penstock is hard steel being
used.
Valve and Nozzle
The valve work is similar to the control gate and Nozzle work is striking water in a specific direction [Pressure
is high] that is a turbine blade.
Surge tank:
Surge tank is an additional and essential component which is used to accumulate the water which is in pipe
when we want to close the turbine working. Or you can say it is used for avoiding the pipe burst.
Turbine:
The high kinetic energy water comes through the penstock to the nozzle and strikes the turbine blades. The
turbine blades start rotating. So the rotational energy can also be called mechanical energy.
Tail Race:
Tailrace carries water away from the plant. Hence the water is sent to the river.
Generator:
When the turbine buckets starts rotating, the turbine shafts also rotating. the motors are attached to the turbine
shafts which is also rotating and generator is attached to them which generates electricity.
Transformer:
The transformer is attached to the generator. The electricity genearted is now controlled by the transformr. The
work of transformer is to set up or set down the voltage.
Power House:
The name power house means there is a house in which the power is being stored and released to the
transformer and so on.
Layout of nuclear power generation

Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a special apparatus used to perform nuclear fission. Splitting up of nuclei of heavy atoms is
called as nuclear fission, during which huge amount of energy is released. As the nuclei break up, it releases
energy as well as more neutrons which further cause fission of neighboring atoms. This process engages in
releasing large amount of heat.
Heat Exchanger
In the heat exchanger, the water inside it is converted into the steam. In to the heatexchanger the heat is
entered from the nuclear reactor. Thus, heat exchanger helps in providing input to the steam turbine.
Steam Turbine
Generated steam is passed through a steam turbine, which runs due to pressure of the steam. As the steam is
passed through the turbine blades, the pressure of steam gradually decreases and it expands in volume. The
steam turbine is coupled to an alternator through a rotating shaft.
Alternator
The steam turbine rotates the shaft of an alternator thus generating electrical energy. Electrical output of the
alternator is the delivered to a step up transformer to transfer it over distances.
Condenser
The steam coming out of the turbine, after it has done its work, is then converted back into water in a
condenser. The steam is cooled by passing it through a third cold water loop.
Layout of wind power generation:

The wind turbine works on the principle of conversion of kinetic energy of wind to mechanical energy used to
rotate the blades of a fan connected to an electric generator. When the wind or air touches the blades (or) vanes
of the windmill it the air pressure can be uneven, higher on one side of the blade and lower on the other. Hence,
uneven pressure causes the blades to spin around the center of the turbine. The turbine does not operate at wind
speeds above 55 mph with the use of the controller.
 Fig : Working of wind power plant
The rotor shaft of the turbine (ie., low speed and high speed) is interlinked with the gearbox which converts
the speed from 30 to 60 rpm into 1000 to 1800 rpm. As the gearbox consists of gears, to transmit mechanical
energy. These speeds are most suitable to the generator for the generation of electricity. When the rotor of the
turbine rotates it drives a generator through a setup gearbox causing the generator to produce electrical energy.
Windmills are available in size from 100 KW to 36 MW mainly used off-shore Now the engineers are
designing 10 MW of the wind turbine.
Layout of solar power generation:

1. Solar Panels
Solar panels are the heart of a power plant. They are built by a number of solar cells and are solely responsible
for the success of a plant. The panels are positioned on the roof of a building at a tilted angle to maximize
sunlight.
2. Battery Controller
A battery charge controller ensures consistent power to the batteries, which is utilitarian on days of less
sunshine or at night. This takes care of the battery and makes sure the battery does not get discharged or
overcharged. ss
 3. Solar Power disconnects
A solar power disconnect cuts off the DC power output from the solar panel. It also looks into problems with
the solar system. This component should be strong enough to control the power on a bright sunny day.
4. Solar cells
Solar cells are majorly responsible for the flow of electricity. The energy-generating unit is fabricated
with p-type and n-type silicon semiconductors. The solar cells absorb the energy from the sunlight and
create electrical charges, which move in response to an internal electric field.
5. Deep cycle battery storage
The solar system requires deep cycle battery storage in order to store the energy generated by solar
panels. They are robust and are responsible for charging and discharging cycles.
6. Solar power system metering
Having a solar power system metre is an optional component but can help immensely maximise the solar
system’s efficiency.
Solar panel working:
 The solar panels are built with silicon cells, metal frames and special wiring. When these panels are
grouped and placed on the rooftop, they absorb sunlight and get activated.
 The solar cells are made up of a positively charged and negatively charged layer. Once the energy strikes
a solar cell, it causes electrons and creates an electric current.
 Solar panels work on converting sunlight efficiently into electricity. However, the generated electricity is
in the DC form, which gets converted into AC easily.
 The converted electricity will then power all the appliances. The energy will run through the electric
panels and distribute to the utilities.
 A smart electric metre will work on measuring usage and energy generation. The component will quantify
the surplus power and send it back when required.
 Solar Thermal Power Plant working;
A solar thermal power plant generates electricity and heat by focusing on the sun’s energy. This process
builds steam and thereby produces electricity. Solar thermal power plants are subdivided into three types
– parabolic trough, linear and solar dish power plant. The heat generated from the solar thermal power
plant can be available at commercial and residential properties. Once the heat is absorbed from the
sunlight, it is transferred to a fluid that involves air, antifreeze and water. It acts as a great, dependable
source within a restricted area.

ELECTRICITY BILL;
Power rating of house hold appliances:
S.no Home appliances Approximate power
rating in watts
1 Incandescent lamp 60 to 300
2 Fluorescent lamp 40 to 150
3 Compact fluorescent 10 to 42
lamp
4 Light emitting diode 5 to 40
5 Water heater 1000 to 4000
6 Electric iron 200 to 1000
7 Ceiling fan 80 to 100
8 Table fan 25 to 75
9 Refrigerator 150 to 500
10 Air cooler 75 to 150
11 Water cooler 100 to 200
12 Television set 80 to 500
13 Air conditioner 500 to 4500
14 Water pump 500 to 2500
15 Computer 100 to 250
16 Printer 50 to 350
17 CD player 80 to 100
 18 Radio 50 to 100
19 Sewing machine 75 to 150
20 Electric kettle 1000 to 3500
21 Oven 1500 to 3500

22 Washing machine 500 to 1500

23 Vacuum cleaner 100 to 800
24 Laptop 50 to 60
Unit: A unit (as mentioned on the electricity bills) is represented in kWH or Kilowatt Hour. This is the actual
electricity or energy used. If you use 1000 Watts or 1 Kilowatt of power for 1 hour then you consume 1 unit
or 1 Kilowatt-Hour (kWh) of electricity.
Tariff; it is defined as the rate or charge of an electrical energy. It is the schedule or rates framed to the
amount of energy consumed by the consumers.
Objective of tariff;
It recovers the capital investment generating,transmitting,distributing equipments.
It recovers the operating cost,supplyingand maintainance cost.
It recovers metering cost,billing,collection costs and other miscalleneous costs.
Two part electricity tariff:
The two part electricity tariff is divided into two components mainly fixed charges and running charges.
Fixed charges are directly proportional to the maximam demand.and it will not depand on the amount of
electrical energy consumed.
Running charges depend on the amount of energy consumed by the consumers.
Two part electricity tariff= fixed charges +running charges
This type of tariff is used in medium scale industrial purposes.
The disadvantage of this tariff is when the industry is closed also the fixed charge must be paid by the
consumers.
2.5 Calculate electricity bill of domestic consumers as per the electricity tariff:

Steps for calculating the electricity bill:

Step 1: note down the wattage of each appliance

Step 2: multiply what age with quantity to get total power in watts

Step 3: multiply total power with given working hours to get total energy in Watt - hours

Step 4: divide watt-hours by1000 to get kilowatt hours or units.

Step 5: multiply number of units with number of days in a given month to get total number of units
consumed in a month.

Step 6: multiply total monthly units with cost per unit to get total monthly electricity bill.

Problems on calculation of electricity bill:

1. A 10 HP 220V D.C. motor has an efficiency of 85% .calculate the current taken from the mains.
Also find the units consumed per day for 6 hours working per day find also the monthly electricity
 bill,if cost of oneunit is Rs. 4.5/- kwh .

Given data:
Output power of the motor = 10 HP
Voltage. V= 220V
Efficiency of the motor = 85% = 0.85
Number of working hours per day = 6

Cost per unit. = Rs 4.5/-kwh

Current I monthly electricity bill=?
Sol:
We know that 1HP = 735.5 watts
Input power of the motor, P = motor output/efficiency = 10×735.5 = 8653 watt
0.8
5

Current taken from the mains l = P/V = 8653/220 = 39.33A

Energy consumption / day = P × time = 8653×6 = 51918 watt-hour

= 51.918kwh
Units consumed / day = 51.918 units
Units consumed / month = 51.918 × 30 = 1557.54 units
Monthly electricity bill = units consumed / month × cost / unit
= 1557.54 × 4.5 = Rs. 7008.93/- = Rs. 7009/-
2)Calculate the monthly bill of domestic service with the following loads for a month of 30 days

1. Four lamps of 100 watts each used for 6 hours a day

2. 2000 watts in immersion heater used for 1 hour a day

3. 3 fans of 60 Watts each used for 10 hours a day

4. 2000 watts electrical iron used for 1 hour a day

The cost per unit of consumption is 50 paise.

Sol:

S.no Particulars Quantity Number Wattage Total Total

of load of hours power energy
working in watts in watt-
per day hour
1 Lamps 4 6 100 400 2400
Immersion
2 1 1 2000 2000 2000
heater
3 Fans 3 10 60 180 1800
Electrical
4 1 1 1000 2000 1000
iron
Total 7200
Total energy consumption per day = 7200 watt-hour

= 7.2 units
Total energy consumption per month= 7.2 × 30 = 216units
Cost of energy 50 paise per unit = 216 × 50/100 = Rs. 108/-

2. Calculate the monthly bill at 50 paise / unit if the metre rent / month is Rs.5/-

Sol:

Wattage of heater. = 2kw = 2000watts

Input power of motor = HP×735.5 = 1838.75watts.

EFFICIENCY 2×735.5
0.8

S.no Particulars Quantity Number Wattage Total Total

of load of hours power in energy
working watts in watt-
per day hour
1 Lamps 10 5 60 600 3000
2 Ceiling fan 5 10 120 600 6000
3 Heater 1 4 2000 2000 8000
4 Motor 1 4 1838.75 1838.750 7355
Total 24355

Total energy consumption / day = 24355 watt-hour

24355 = 24.3555 kilo watt-hour = 24.355units

=
1000
Total energy consumption per month= 24.355 × 30 =
730.65unitsCost of energy 50 paise / unit = 730.65 × 50/100
= Rs.365.325/-
Total monthly bill = monthly electricity bill +meter rent = 365.325+5 = Rs .370.325
Electrical safety measures:
Working principle of fuse:
Fuse is a simplest and cheapest device which is used for interrupting the electric circuit in short
circuit or excessive overload conditions.
Working operation:
The action of fuse is based upon the heating effect of the electric current.under normal operating
conditions, when the current flowing the circuit is with in the safe limits, and the heat developed
in the fuse element carrying the current is readily dissipated into the air and maintaining the
steady temperature around it.

Under abnormal conditions that is when fault occurs such as short circuit occurs or when the load
connected in the circuit exceeds its capacity the current exceeds the limiting value, the heat
generated due to this excessive current cannot be dissipated fast enough and the fusible element
gets heated, melts and breaks the circuit.it thus protects a machine or apparatus or an installation
from the damage due to excessive current.
The time for blowing out of fuse depends upon the magnitude of the excessive current.
Larger the current, the more rapidly the fuse will blow.generally a fuse consists of a fusible
element in the form of a metal conductor of specially small crossectional area ,a case or cartridge
to hold the fusible element. the part which actually melts and opens the circuit is known as the
fuse element.

Advantages:
It needs no maintainence
Its operation is completely automatic.
It interrupts enormous short circuit currents without noise,flame,gas or smoke.
The minimum time of operation is small.
The size of fuse is small.
Disadvantages:
Considerable time is lost in rewiring or replacing the fuse after operation.
Miniature circuit breaker:
MCB stands for miniature circuit breaker.
It is an electromagnetic device which is used to protect the connected load in electrical circuit.
The main function of this device is whenever excess current flowing through it then it trips and
protect the connected load.
It trips manually as well as automatically.
During short circuit phase and neutral comes in contact and very high current flows in circuit so
MCB operates and breaks the circuit.
The main components of circuit breaker:
i)fixed contact
ii)movable contact
iii)plunger set up
iv)bimetallic strip
v)source and load terminal points
vi)triggering point
The flow of current takes place from source terminal point --plunger --fixed contact –
moving contact –bimetallic strip—load terminal point.

working operation of MCB:

the mcb protects our load in main effects i)overload condition ii)short circuit condition.
Overload condition:
When the load connected to the source draws excess current then the bimetallic strip in the
MCB gets heated up and it will bend down by breaking the contact between the fixed and the
moving contact.Thus ,the triggering point is tripped down and the load is protected in overload
condition.
Short circuit condition:
When the excess currents flows through the coil wounded to the plunger set up.a strong
magnetic field is created around the coil then the metal pin holded by the springs drops up down
and touches the fixed contact. And so the contact between the fixed and moving contact is
breaked and the triggering point is tripped down and protects our load from short circuit
conditions.
Advantages:
It is more sensitive device and detects any abnormal condition and trip the circuit.
It will easily detect the faulty part.
It trips automatically and after drawing the fault reset itself.
It has low maintenance cost.
It makes overload and short circuit load protection.
Disadvantages:
it is very expensive in the market.
It has complicated construction due to two types of operating mechanism.
Electric shock:
It is a sudden stimulation of nervous system of the human body by the flow of electric current
through a part of the body. Electric shock is a life threatening issue it is caused by direct contact
with live conductor or a flash over.
Effects of Electric Shock
1 Temporary paralysis of a nerve system which will lead to failure of breathing.
2 Chest muscles many contact which also affect breathing, and if this continuous death
willresult.
3 Normal rhythm of the heart will be affected, causing ventricular fibrillation. Dueto fibrillation
of heart, i.e., damaging the heart to small pieces causing the stopping of breathing.
4 Due to stopping of breathing action caused by blockade in the nervous system respiration.
5 Sometimes breathing has stopped, but heart may continue to beat. This conditioncause the
face to appear blue colour.
PROCEDURES TO BE ADOPTED TO AVOID ELECTRIC SHOCK :
The following precautionary methods are recommended to avoid electric shock.
➢Avoid working on live line but if inevitable insulate yourself from the ground or wallby using
rubber matting,rubber gloves, wood, plastic etc..
➢Rubber shoes are recommended while working on live line.
➢Use proper insulated tools only.

➢working your body should not come in contact with any metallic body or any conducting
medium
➢while Have proper knowledge of working voltage before working on the line.

➢It is always advisable to work on the line with the supply main switches off.
Earthing: The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the electrical energy directlyto
the earth by
the help of the low resistance wire is known as the electrical earthing.
➢The electrical earthing is done by connecting the non- current carrying part of the equipment
or neutral
of supply system to the ground. Mostly, the galvanized iron is usedfor the earthing.
➢The earthing provides the simple path to the leakage current. The short circuit current of
theequipment
passes to the earth which has zero potential. Thus, protects the system and equipment from
damage.
Types of earthing:
Earthing can be done in four types
i)pipe earthing
ii)plate earthing
iii)rod earthing
iv)strip earthing
pipe earthing:
This is the most common and best system of farthing as compared to other systems suitable for
the same earth and moisture conditions. In this method the galvanized steel and perforated pipe
of approved length and diameter in place upright in a permanently wet soil, as shown below.
The size of the pipe depends upon the current to be carried and type of soil.
➢Normally, the size of the pipe uses for earthing is of diameter 40 mm and 2.5 meters in length
➢The pipe is placed at 3.75 meters. The bottom of the pipe is surrounded by small pieces of
coke or charcoal at a distance of about 15 cm. Alternate layers of coke and salt are used to
increase the effective area of the earth and to decrease the earth resistance respectively.
➢Another pipe of 19 mm diameter and minimum length 1.25 meters is connected at thetop of GI
pipe through reducing socket.
➢During summer the moisture in the soil decreases, which causes an increase in earth
resistance. So a cement concrete work is done to keep the water arrangement accessible,and in
summer to have an effective earth, 3 or4 buckets of water are put through the funnel connected to
19 mm diameter pipe,which is further connected toGI pipe.
➢The earth wire either GI or a strip of GI wire of sufficient cross section to carry faulty current
safely is
carried in aGI pipe of diameter 12 mm at a depth of about 60cm from theground.
Plate earthing:
In the name of this type of Earthing, we can understand that a Plate of metal is used in it.Copper
metal for Plate Earthing or G.I. Plate is used.
➢To make a Plate Earthing, a 90 × 90 cm pit is dug deep up to 3 meters in the ground. In thatpit,
60 cm long× 60 cm wide and 3.15 mm thick copper Plate or 60 cm long × 60cm wide and 6.3
mm thickness G.I.Plate is used as a main electrode.
➢Two Pipes of diameter 19 mm and 12.7 mm are added to that Plate. A funnel is attached at
thetop end of the Pipe with a diameter of 19 mm. An open copper / G.I. for connection to the
Earth electrode. The wire comes out of the ground via a 12.7 mm diameter Pipe. A layer of sand,
salt and coal of 15 cm each is laid around
the electrode. Such layer is laid up to 90 cm. After the rest of the pit is filled with black soil,
usually after 2.5 meters, the Pipe with earth conductor gets out, where the connection of Earthing
is to be done.
➢The Pipe which has a funnel on the top end. A 30cm × 30cmcement concrete tank is built
around the ground around the Pipe, and is covered with a lid made of cast iron.
➢In this way Earthing is done by conveying the Plate to the main switch and from there to the
earth conductor to the required location. This type of Earthing is done in generating stationsand
sub stations.
➢Salt and Coal are poured around the earth electrode. Because salt soaks the ground alkali. And
coal makes the ground moisture ashes. Which increases the conductivity of the ground.The
conductivity of the land will be high, only then the leakage current will easily go into the ground.
➢The ground dries up during the summer season. Due to which the conductivity of the ground is
reduced.
To increase the moisture in the ground, water is poured through the funnel into the Earthing. A
cast iron lid is placed over the Earthing funnel so that the pathof pouring water into the earring is
not closed

Rod earthing:

In this system of earthing solid rod of 12.5mm diameter of copper or 16mm diameter of solid G.I
or steel rod of length not less than 2.5 mt is driven vertically downwards into the earth either by
manually or by hammer.
Strip earthing:

In this of earthing a wire or strip of cross section 25mm*1.6mm of copper (or) 25mm*4mm of
G.I or steel is buried in the ground of minimum depth of ½ mt as shown in the figure.
 UNIT-I

PART B: BASIC ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Course Objectives:

 To teach the fundamentals of semiconductor devices and its applications, principles of digital
electronics.

UNIT- I - SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Introduction - Evolution of electronics – Vacuum tubes to nano electronics - Characteristics of PN

Junction Diode — Zener Effect — Zener Diode and its Characteristics. Bipolar Junction Transistor
— CB, CE, CC Configurations and Characteristics — Elementary Treatment of Small Signal CE
Amplifier.

Objectives:

 To explain the operating principles of semiconductor diodes, including P-N junctions, and their
applications

 To teach students how bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) work

 To enable students to design and analyze transistor-based amplifiers for different applications,
such as common-emitter, common-base, and common-collector amplifiers.
Evolution of Electronics

Electronics is the study of flow and control of electrons. Thus the branch of electronics
engineering is to study the behavior of an electron when they flow through various materials or
devices like resistor, capacitor, semiconductor devices etc under different conditions of applied
electric field. The device which controls the flow of electrons is called electronic devices.

This a story of the twentieth century three key components the vacuum tube, the transistor, and the
integrated circuit.

1883, Thomas Alva Edison discovered that electrons will flow from one metal conductor to
another through a vacuum. (Edison effect).

In 1904, John Fleming applied the Edison effect in inventing a two-element electron tube called a
diode, Lee De Forest followed in 1906 with the three-element tube, the triode. Diode conducts
current only in one direction and restricts the flow in the opposite direction. It is mainly used as a
switch. The triode is a three-terminal device made using metallic filaments. It is used as amplifiers
for both audio and radio signals.

1. Vacuum tube:

It is also called as electron tube or valve and it was first developed by John Ambrose Fleming in
1904. The vacuum tube is a tube in which gas is removed and thus vacuum is created. The basic
working principle of vacuum tubes is thermionic emission. When you heat up a metal the thermal
energy makes some electrons loose. The vacuum tube consisted of two electrodes a cathode and
an anode placed on either side of the tube. When the cathode is heated up due to thermionic
emission the electrons are loosened and while applying positive voltage to the anode, these
negatively charged electrons (e-) are attracted towards anode. By creating vacuum that is by
removing the gas the path is made clear for the electrons to move from cathode to anode. Thus
current is created. It was bulky and used lot of electrical power and because of the heat produced
it reduced the life of tube. Vacuum tubes was used in early computers as rectifier.
Guglielmo Marconi pioneered the development of the wireless telegraph in 1896 and long-distance
radio communication in 1901. Vacuum tubes strengthened weak audio signals and allowed these
signals to be superimposed on radio waves.

In 1918, Edwin Armstrong invented the "super-heterodyne receiver" that could select among radio
signals or stations and could receive distant signals. Armstrong also invented wide-band frequency
modulation (FM) in 1935.

Television, which was invented in the 1920s but didn't become widely available until 1947.
(BellLaboratories) .Vladimir Zworykin, an engineer with the Radio Corporation of America
(RCA), is considered the "father of the television" because of his inventions, the picture tube and
the iconoscope camera tube.

The invention of the p–n junction is usually attributed to American physicist Russell Ohl of Bell
Laboratories in 1939

In 1947, the transistor was invented by a team of engineers from Bell Laboratories. (Nobel prize).
The transistor functions like the vacuum tube,but it is tiny by comparison, weighs less, consumes
less power, is much more reliable, and is cheaper to manufacture with its combination of metal
contacts and semiconductor materials.

2. Transistor :Transistor was invented in 1947 by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain while
working under William Shockley at Bell Labs and they were awarded Nobel prize. Transistor is a
three terminal semiconductor device used to amplify or regulates current or voltage flow and acts
as a switch or gate for electronic signals. A voltage or current applied to one pair of transistor’s
terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals and it can amplify the signal also.
Mostly silicon and germanium is used for manufacturing. Transistors are smaller in size than
vacuum tubes and consume less and generate almost no heat.

Radar (RAdio Detection And Ranging,). By the mid-1950s, television had surpassed radio for
home use and entertainment.
3. Integrated circuit was proposed in 1952 by Geoffrey W. A. Dummer, Throughout the 1950s,
transistors were mass produced on single wafers and cut apart.By 1961, integrated circuits were in
full production at a number of firms, and designs of equipment changed rapidly and in several
directions to adapt to the technology.

Bipolar transistors and digital integrated circuits were made first, but analog ICs, large-scale
integration (LSI), and very-large-scale integration (VLSI) followed by the mid-1970s. VLSI
consists of thousands of circuits with on-and-off switches or gates between them on a single chip.
Robert Noyce invented the first monolithic integrated circuit chip in 1959.

Firstly, between 1961-1965 in SSI (small scale integration) transistors were fabricated about 10 to
100 on a single chip. This technology is used for making logic gates, flip flops.

In 1966-1970 in MSI (medium scale integration) transistors were fabricated about 100 to 1000 on
a single chip. This technology is used for making counters, multiplexers, decoders.

In 1971-1979 in LSI (large scale integration) transistors were fabricated about 1000 to 20000 on a
single chip. This technology is used for making microprocessor, RAM, ROM

In 1980-1984 in VLSI (very large scale integration) transistors were fabricated about 20000 to
50000 on a single chip. This technology is used for making DSP (digital signal processing) IC’s,
RISC microprocessor, 16-bit and 32-bit microprocessors.

From 1985- present technology is ULSI (ultra large scale integration), in which transistors are
fabricated about greater than 50000 to billions on a single chip. This technology is used for making
64-bit microprocessors.

Microcomputers, medical equipment, video cameras, and communication satellites are only
examples of devices made possible by integrated circuits.

P-N Junction

Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators.
Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors. Extrinsic
semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type semiconductors. The P-N junction is
formed between the p-type and the n-type semiconductors.

A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely
the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.

In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side or the positive
side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side has an excess
of electrons.
Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a P-N junction, there will be a
grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by
scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of doping. We will understand the
process of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor
sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get
converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will now contain both the p-type region and the n-type
region and a junction between these two regions. The processes that follow after forming a P-N
junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. There is a difference in the concentration of holes
and electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side, and the
electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a diffusion current across the
junction.

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionised donor is left behind on
the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on
the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, an ionized
acceptor is left behind on the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in
the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the
junction is termed as the depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side
of the junction, an electric field with the direction from a positive charge towards the negative
charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to
the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed the drift. Here, we see that the direction of the
drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:

 P-type

 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the voltage
applied:

 Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.

 Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type while
the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.

 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the p-type and
the positive is connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the n-type to the negative
terminal, then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. When the P-N junction is forward
biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the applied electric field are in opposite
directions. When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a magnitude lesser
than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region. The
depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at
the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region becomes completely negligible, and the
current flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias
When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal and the n-type is connected to the
positive side, the P-N junction is reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and the
applied electric field are in the same direction. When the two fields are added, the resultant electric
field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field, creating a more resistive, thicker depletion
region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes
larger.

The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the junction takes place when there is
an increase in the voltage. Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side towards the n-side of the
junction takes place along with the increase in the voltage. This results in the concentration
gradient between both sides of the terminals. Due to the concentration gradient formation, charge
carriers will flow from higher-concentration regions to lower-concentration regions. The
movement of charge carriers inside the P-N junction is the reason behind the current flow in the
circuit.

V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and current through the
circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The above
graph is the V-I characteristics curve of the P-N junction diode. With the help of the curve, we can
understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they are:

 Zero bias

 Forward bias

 Reverse bias
When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external voltage applied and this
means that the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current.

When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the positive
terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage. When the
diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes,
when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the potential
barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.

When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve obtained is non-
linear as the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the diode
overcomes the potential barrier, the diode behaves normally, and the curve rises sharply as the
external voltage increases, and the curve obtained is linear.

When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the negative
terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results
in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as minority
carriers are present in the junction.

When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic energy
which affects the majority charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also
destroy the diode.
Applications of P-N Junction Diode

 P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the light when
the configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.

 It can be used as a solar cell.

 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.

 It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled oscillator in

varactors.

Zener Effect

A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped semiconductor device
engineered to function in the reverse direction. When the voltage across a Zener diode’s terminals
is reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage (also known as the knee voltage), the junction
experiences a breakdown, allowing current to flow in the opposite direction. This phenomenon,
known as the Zener Effect, is a key characteristic of Zener diodes.

V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode

The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode can be divided into two parts as follows:
(i) Forward Characteristics
(ii) Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener diode. From the
graph, we understand that it is almost identical to the forward characteristics of P-N junction
diode.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse saturation current Io flows
across the diode. This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers. As the reverse
voltage increases, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current increases drastically
and sharply. This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred. We call this voltage
breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, and Vz denotes it.

Application of Zener Diode

i) Zener diode as a voltage regulator:

The zener diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across small loads.
The Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias, and once the Zener
diode exceeds knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become constant. The breakdown
voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of currents.

ii) Zener diode in over-voltage protection:

When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the resistor
drops resulting in a short circuit, this can be avoided by using the Zener diode.

iii) Zener diode in clipping circuits:

Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting the parts of either
one or both the half cycles of an AC waveform.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that consists of two p-n
junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a signal. It is a current controlled device. The
three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the emitter. A signal of a small
amplitude applied to the base is available in the amplified form at the collector of the transistor.
This is the amplification provided by the BJT.

Bipolar Junction Transistor Symbol

Construction of Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJT is a semiconductor device that is constructed with 3 doped semiconductor Regions i.e. Base,
Collector & Emitter separated by 2 p-n Junctions.

Bipolar transistors are manufactured in two types, PNP and NPN, and are available as separate
components, usually in large quantities. The prime use or function of this type of transistor is to
amplify current. This makes them useful as switches or amplifiers. They have a wide application
in electronic devices like mobile phones, televisions, radio transmitters, and industrial control.

Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are three operating regions of a bipolar junction transistor:

 Active region: The region in which the transistors operate as an amplifier.

 Saturation region: The region in which the transistor is fully on and operates as a switch
such that collector current is equal to the saturation current.

 Cut-off region: The region in which the transistor is fully off and collector current is
equal to zero.

Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor

There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:

 PNP bipolar junction transistor

 NPN bipolar junction transistor

PNP BJT

In PNP BJT, the n-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two p-type semiconductors. The
two p-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while the n-type
semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure below.

The current enters the transistor through the emitter such that the emitter-base junction is forward
biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.

NPN BJT

In NPN BJT, p-type semiconductor is sandwiched between the two n-type semiconductors. The
two n-type semiconductors act as emitter and collector respectively while the p-type
semiconductor acts as a base. This is shown in the figure below.

Current entering the emitter, base, and collector has the sign convention of positive while the
current that leaves the transistor has the sign convention of negative.

Function of Bipolar Junction Transistor

BJTs are of two types namely NPN and PNP based on doping types of the three main terminals.
An NPN transistor consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin p-doped anode region
and PNP transistor also consists of two semiconductor junctions that have a thin n- doped cathode
region.
The flow of charge in a Bipolar transistor is due to the diffusion of charge carriers between the
two regions belonging to different charge concentrations. Regions of BJT are known as the base,
collector, and emitter.

The emitter region is highly doped when compared to other layers. Both collector and base layers
have the same charge carrier concentrations. Among these junctions, the base-emitter junction is
forward biased, and the base-collector junction is reverse biased. Forward biased means p-doped
region has more potential than the n-doped side.

Voltage, Charge Control and Current

The base-emitter current is controlled by the collector-emitter current. This conclusion is drawn
by the current-voltage relation of the base-emitter junction. Collector current has a base region
where minority carriers are concentrated.

Transistor models such as the Glenn poon model are responsible for the distribution of the
charge which explains the behaviour of a transistor.

Configuration of Bipolar Junction Transistors

Since a Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three-terminal device, there are three ways to connect it
within an electric circuit while one terminal is the same for both output and input. Every method
of connection responds differently to the input signals within a circuit.

 Common Emitter Configuration – has both voltage and current gain

 The common Collector Configuration – has no voltage gain but has a current gain

 The common base configuration – has no current gain but has a voltage gain

Characteristics Common Base Common Emitter Common Collector

Power Gain low Very high medium

Current gain low medium high

Voltage gain High Medium low

Phase angle 0 180 0

Output impedance Very high high low

Input Impedance Low medium high

Characteristics of Transistor

Any two-port network which is analogous to transistor configuration circuits can be analyzed
using three types of characteristic curves. They are

 Input Characteristics: The curve describes the changes in the values of input current
with respect to the values of input voltage, keeping the output voltage constant.

 Output Characteristics: The curve is obtained by plotting the output current against
output voltage, keeping the input current constant.

Common Emitter (CE) Configuration of Transistor

In common emitter configuration, base is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and
emitter is the common terminal for both input and output. That means the base terminal and
common emitter terminal are known as input terminals whereas collector terminal and common
emitter terminal are known as output terminals.

In common emitter configuration, the emitter terminal is grounded so the common emitter
configuration is also known as grounded emitter configuration. Sometimes common emitter
configuration is also referred to as CE configuration, common emitter amplifier, or CE amplifier.
The common emitter (CE) configuration is the most widely used transistor configuration.

The common emitter (CE) amplifiers are used when large current gain is needed.

The input signal is applied between the base and emitter terminals while the output signal is taken
between the collector and emitter terminals. Thus, the emitter terminal of a transistor is common
for both input and output and hence it is named as common emitter configuration.
The supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply voltage between
collector and emitter is denoted by VCE.

In common emitter (CE) configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and output
current or collector current is denoted by IC.

The common emitter amplifier has medium input and output impedance levels. So the current gain
and voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier is medium. However, the power gain is high.

Input characteristics

The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current (I B) and
input voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE).

First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal
line represents x-axis. The input current or base current (IB) is taken along y-axis (vertical line)
and the input voltage (VBE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).

To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage V CE is kept constant at zero volts and
the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage
level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is recorded.

A curve is then drawn between input current I B and input voltage VBE at constant output voltage
VCE (0 volts).
Next, the output voltage (VCE) is increased from zero volts to certain voltage level (10 volts) and
the output voltage (VCE) is kept constant at 10 volts. While increasing the output voltage (V CE),
the input voltage (VBE) is kept constant at zero volts. After we kept the output voltage (V CE)
constant at 10 volts, the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels.
For each voltage level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is recorded.

A curve is then drawn between input current I B and input voltage VBE at constant output voltage
VCE (10 volts).

This process is repeated for higher fixed values of output voltage (V CE).

When output voltage (VCE) is at zero volts and emitter-base junction is forward biased by input
voltage (VBE), the emitter-base junction acts like a normal p-n junction diode. So the input
characteristics of the CE configuration is same as the characteristics of a normal pn junction diode.

The cut in voltage of a silicon transistor is 0.7 volts and germanium transistor is 0.3 volts. In our
case, it is a silicon transistor. So from the above graph, we can see that after 0.7 volts, a small
increase in input voltage (VBE) will rapidly increases the input current (I B).

In common emitter (CE) configuration, the input current (I B) is very small as compared to the input
current (IE) in common base (CB) configuration. The input current in CE configuration is
measured in microamperes (μA) whereas the input current in CB configuration is measured in
milliamperes (mA).

In common emitter (CE) configuration, the input current (I B) is produced in the base region which
is lightly doped and has small width. So the base region produces only a small input current (I B).
On the other hand, in common base (CB) configuration, the input current (I E) is produced in the
emitter region which is heavily doped and has large width. So the emitter region produces a large
input current (IE). Therefore, the input current (I B) produced in the common emitter (CE)
configuration is small as compared to the common base (CB) configuration.

Due to forward bias, the emitter-base junction acts as a forward biased diode and due to reverse
bias, the collector-base junction acts as a reverse biased diode.

Therefore, the width of the depletion region at the emitter-base junction is very small whereas the
width of the depletion region at the collector-base junction is very large.

If the output voltage VCE applied to the collector-base junction is further increased, the depletion
region width further increases. The base region is lightly doped as compared to the collector region.
So the depletion region penetrates more into the base region and less into the collector region. As
a result, the width of the base region decreases which in turn reduces the input current (IB) produced
in the base region.
From the above characteristics, we can see that for higher fixed values of output voltage V CE, the
curve shifts to the right side. This is because for higher fixed values of output voltage, the cut in
voltage is increased above 0.7 volts. Therefore, to overcome this cut in voltage, more input voltage
VBE is needed than previous case.

Output characteristics

The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (I C) and output voltage
(VCE).

First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal
line represents x-axis. The output current or collector current (I C) is taken along y-axis (vertical
line) and the output voltage (VCE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).

To determine the output characteristics, the input current or base current I B is kept constant at
0 μA and the output voltage VCE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each
level of output voltage, the corresponding output current (IC) is recorded.

A curve is then drawn between output current I C and output voltage VCE at constant input current
IB (0 μA).

When the base current or input current I B = 0 μA, the transistor operates in the cut-off region. In
this region, both junctions are reverse biased.
Next, the input current (IB) is increased from 0 μA to 20 μA by adjusting the input voltage (VBE).
The input current (IB) is kept constant at 20 μA.

While increasing the input current (IB), the output voltage (VCE) is kept constant at 0 volts.

After we kept the input current (IB) constant at 20 μA, the output voltage (VCE) is increased from
zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage level of output voltage (V CE), the
corresponding output current (IC) is recorded.

A curve is then drawn between output current I C and output voltage VCE at constant input current
IB (20 μA). This region is known as the active region of a transistor. In this region, emitter-base
junction is forward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased.

This steps are repeated for higher fixed values of input current I B (I.e. 40 μA, 60 μA, 80 μA and
so on).

When output voltage VCE is reduced to a small value (0.2 V), the collector-base junction becomes
forward biased. This is because the output voltage VCE has less effect on collector-base junction
than input voltage VBE.

As we know that the emitter-base junction is already forward biased. Therefore, when both the
junctions are forward biased, the transistor operates in the saturation region. In this region, a small
increase in output voltage VCE will rapidly increases the output current I C.

Current gain (α)

The current gain of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as the ratio of output current or
collector current (IC) to the input current or base current (IB).

The current gain of a transistor in CE configuration is high. Therefore, the transistor in CE

configuration is used for amplifying the current.

Common Base Configuration

In common base configuration, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and
base terminal is connected as a common terminal for both input and output. That means the emitter
terminal and common base terminal are known as input terminals whereas the collector terminal
and common base terminal are known as output terminals.
In common base configuration, the base terminal is grounded so the common base configuration
is also known as grounded base configuration. Sometimes common base configuration is referred
to as common base amplifier, CB amplifier, or CB configuration.

The input signal is applied between the emitter and base terminals while the corresponding output
signal is taken across the collector and base terminals. Thus the base terminal of a transistor is
common for both input and output terminals and hence it is named as common base configuration.

The supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply voltage between
collector and base is denoted by VCB.

As mentioned earlier, in every configuration, the base-emitter junction JE is always forward biased
and collector-base junction JC is always reverse biased. Therefore, in common base configuration,
the base-emitter junction JE is forward biased and collector-base junction JC is reverse biased.

Current flow in common base amplifier

The base-emitter junction JE is forward biased by the supply voltage VBE while the collector-base
junction JC is reverse biased by the supply voltage VCB.

Due to the forward bias voltage VBE, the free electrons (majority carriers) in the emitter region
experience a repulsive force from the negative terminal of the battery similarly holes (majority
carriers) in the base region experience a repulsive force from the positive terminal of the battery.

As a result, free electrons start flowing from emitter to base similarly holes start flowing from base
to emitter. Thus free electrons which are flowing from emitter to base and holes which are flowing
from base to emitter conducts electric current. The actual current is carried by free electrons which
are flowing from emitter to base. However, we follow the conventional current direction which is
from base to emitter. Thus electric current is produced at the base and emitter region.
The free electrons which are flowing from emitter to base will combine with the holes in the base
region similarly the holes which are flowing from base to emitter will combine with the electrons
in the emitter region.

From the above figure, it is seen that the width of the base region is very thin. Therefore, only a
small percentage of free electrons from emitter region will combine with the holes in the base
region and the remaining large number of free electrons cross the base region and enters into the
collector region. A large number of free electrons which entered into the collector region will
experience an attractive force from the positive terminal of the battery. Therefore, the free electrons
in the collector region will flow towards the positive terminal of the battery. Thus, electric current
is produced in the collector region.

The electric current produced at the collector region is primarily due to the free electrons from the
emitter region similarly the electric current produced at the base region is also primarily due to the
free electrons from emitter region. Therefore, the emitter current is greater than the base current
and collector current. The emitter current is the sum of base current and collector current.

IE = IB + IC
We know that emitter current is the input current and collector current is the output current.The
output collector current is less than the input emitter current, so the current gain of this amplifier
is actually less than 1. In other words, the common base amplifier attenuates the electric current
rather than amplifying it.

The base-emitter junction JE at input side acts as a forward biased diode. So the common base
amplifier has a low input impedance (low opposition to incoming current). On the other hand,
the collector-base junction JC at output side acts somewhat like a reverse biased diode. So the
common base amplifier has high output impedance.

Therefore, the common base amplifier provides a low input impedance and high output
impedance.

Transistors with low input impedance and high output impedance provide a high voltage gain.

Even though the voltage gain is high, the current gain is very low and the overall power gain of
the common base amplifier is low as compared to the other transistor amplifier configurations.

The common base transistor amplifiers are primarily used in the applications where low input
impedance is required.

The common base amplifier is mainly used as a voltage amplifier or current buffer.

This type of transistor arrangement is not very common and is not as widely used as the other
two transistor configurations.

Input characteristics

The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current (IE) and the input voltage
(VBE).

First, draw a vertical line and horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal line
represents x-axis. The input current or emitter current (I E) is taken along the y-axis (vertical line)
and the input voltage (VBE) is taken along the x-axis (horizontal line).

To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage V CB (collector-base voltage) is kept
constant at zero volts and the input voltage VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage
levels. For each voltage level of the input voltage (VBE), the input current (IE) is recorded on a
paper or in any other form.

A curve is then drawn between input current I E and input voltage VBE at constant output voltage
VCB (0 volts).
Next, the output voltage (VCB) is increased from zero volts to a certain voltage level (8 volts) and
kept constant at 8 volts. While increasing the output voltage (V CB), the input voltage (VBE) is kept
constant at zero volts. After we kept the output voltage (VCB) constant at 8 volts, the input voltage
VBE is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage level of the input
voltage (VBE), the input current (IE) is recorded on a paper or in any other form.

A curve is then drawn between input current IE and input voltage VBE at constant output voltage
VCB (8 volts).

This is repeated for higher fixed values of the output voltage (V CB).

When output voltage (VCB) is at zero volts and emitter-base junction JE is forward biased by the
input voltage (VBE), the emitter-base junction acts like a normal p-n junction diode. So the input
characteristics are same as the forward characteristics of a normal pn junction diode.

The cut in voltage of a silicon transistor is 0.7 volts and germanium transistor is 0.3 volts. In our
case, it is a silicon transistor. So from the above graph, we can see that after 0.7 volts, a small
increase in input voltage (VBE) will rapidly increase the input current (I E).

When the output voltage (VCB) is increased from zero volts to a certain voltage level (8 volts), the
emitter current flow will be increased which in turn reduces the depletion region width at emitter-
base junction. As a result, the cut in voltage will be reduced. Therefore, the curves shifted towards
the left side for higher values of output voltage VCB.

Output characteristics

The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (I C) and the output
voltage (VCB).
First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal
line represents x-axis. The output current or collector current (I C) is taken along the y-axis
(vertical line) and the output voltage (VCB) is taken along the x-axis (horizontal line).

To determine the output characteristics, the input current or emitter current IE is kept constant at
zero mA and the output voltage VCB is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For
each voltage level of the output voltage VCB, the output current (IC) is recorded.

A curve is then drawn between output current IC and output voltage VCB at constant input current
IE (0 mA).

When the emitter current or input current I E is equal to 0 mA, the transistor operates in the cut-
off region.

Next, the input current (IE) is increased from 0 mA to 1 mA by adjusting the input voltage
VBE and the input current IE is kept constant at 1 mA. While increasing the input current I E, the
output voltage VCB is kept constant.

After we kept the input current (IE) constant at 1 mA, the output voltage (VCB) is increased from
zero volts to different voltage levels. For each voltage level of the output voltage (V CB), the
output current (IC) is recorded.
A curve is then drawn between output current I C and output voltage VCB at constant input current
IE (1 mA). This region is known as the active region of a transistor.

This is repeated for higher fixed values of input current I E (I.e. 2 mA, 3 mA, 4 mA and so on).

From the above characteristics, we can see that for a constant input current I E, when the output
voltage VCB is increased, the output current IC remains constant.

At saturation region, both emitter-base junction JE and collector-base junction JC are forward
biased. From the above graph, we can see that a sudden increase in the collector current when the
output voltage VCB makes the collector-base junction JC forward biased.

Common Collector Configuration

In this configuration, the base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the emitter terminal is
the output and the collector terminal is common for both input and output. Hence, it is named as
common collector configuration. The input is applied between the base and collector while the
output is taken from the emitter and collector.

In common collector configuration, the collector terminal is grounded so the common collector
configuration is also known as grounded collector configuration.

Sometimes common collector configuration is also referred to as emitter follower, voltage

follower, common collector amplifier, CC amplifier, or CC configuration. This configuration is
mostly used as a voltage buffer.

The input supply voltage between base and collector is denoted by V BC while the output voltage
between emitter and collector is denoted by VEC.
In this configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and output current or emitter
current is denoted by IE. The common collector amplifier has high input impedance and low output
impedance. It has low voltage gain and high current gain.

The power gain of the common collector amplifier is medium. To fully describe the behavior of a
transistor with CC configuration, we need two set of characteristics - input characteristics and
output characteristics.

Input characteristics

The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current (I B) and
input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC).

First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal
line represents x-ax

The input current or base current (IB) is taken along y-axis (vertical line) and the input voltage or
base-collector voltage (VBC) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).

To determine the input characteristics, the output voltage VEC is kept constant at 3V and the
input voltage VBC is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each level of input
voltage VBC, the corresponding input current IB is noted. A curve is then drawn between input
current IB and input voltage VBC at constant output voltage VEC (3V).

Next, the output voltage VEC is increased from 3V to different voltage level, say for example 5V
and then kept constant at 5V. While increasing the output voltage V EC, the input voltage VBC is
kept constant at zero volts.
After we kept the output voltage VEC constant at 5V, the input voltage VBC is increased from zero
volts to different voltage levels. For each level of input voltage VBC, the corresponding input
current IB is noted. A curve is then drawn between input current IB and input voltage VBC at
constant output voltage VEC (5V).

Output characteristics

The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current or emitter current (I E)
and output voltage or emitter-collector voltage (VEC).
First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and horizontal
line represents x-axis.
The output current or emitter current (IE) is taken along y-axis (vertical line) and the output voltage
or emitter-collector voltage (VEC) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).

To determine the output characteristics, the input current IB is kept constant at zero micro amperes
and the output voltage VEC is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each level
of output voltage VEC, the corresponding output current IE is noted. A curve is then drawn between
output current IE and output voltage VEC at constant input current IB (0 μA).

Next, the input current (IB) is increased from 0 μA to 20 μA and then kept constant at 20 μA. While
increasing the input current (IB), the output voltage (VEC) is kept constant at 0 volts.
After we kept the input current (IB) constant at 20 μA, the output voltage (VEC) is increased from
zero volts to different voltage levels. For each level of output voltage (V EC), the corresponding
output current (IE) is recorded. A curve is then drawn between output current IE and output voltage
VEC at constant input current IB (20μA). This region is known as the active region of a transistor.

This process is repeated for higher fixed values of input current I B (I.e. 40 μA, 60 μA, 80 μA and
so on).

In common collector configuration, if the input current or base current is zero then the output
current or emitter current is also zero. As a result, no current flows through the transistor. So the
transistor will be in the cutoff region. If the base current is slightly increased then the output current
or emitter current also increases. So the transistor falls into the active region. If the base current is
heavily increased then the current flowing through the transistor also heavily increases. As a result,
the transistor falls into the saturation region.

Current amplification factor (γ)

The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of change in output current or emitter
current IE to the change in input current or base current IB. It is expressed by γ.
 UNIT-II
BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTTAION

Syllabus

Rectifiers and power supplies: Block diagram description of a dc power supply, working of a full
wave bridge rectifier, capacitor filter (no analysis), working of simple zener voltage regulator.
Amplifiers: Block diagram of Public Address system, Circuit diagram and working of common
emitter (RC coupled) amplifier with its frequency response. Electronic Instrumentation: Block
diagram of an electronic instrumentation system.

MODULE-I

Block diagram description of a dc power supply

Ordinary Power Supply

Generally, electronic circuits require a source of D.C. power which is most conveniently
obtained from commercial A.C. lines by using rectifier-filter system, called D.C. power supply
(D.C. batteries are rarely employed because of their heavy cost). Such a rectifier-filter
combinations is known as ordinary D.C. power supply.
Limitations
(i) The D.C. output voltage changes with a change in A.C. supply voltage.
(ii) The D.C. output voltage decreases considerably with the increase in load due to voltage
drop in transformer winding, rectifier and filter circuit.

Thus ordinary power supply is not suitable for some of the electronic circuits, with such
circuits we have to employ a regulated power supply which gives fixed output voltage.

Regulated Power Supply

A power supply that maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of A.C. mains
fluctuations or load variations is known as a regulated power supply. Fig shows the block
diagram of a regulated power supply. The functions of various components/elements are as
follows :
Transformer. Since normally D.C. voltages required for the operation of various electronic
equipments are 6 V, 9 V or 12 V, therefore, a step-down transformer is employed before
rectification to reduce the voltage to the required level.

Rectifier. The function of the rectifier is to convert A.C. into pulsating D.C. Usually bridge type
full wave rectifier is used for the purpose.

Filter. Its function is to remove the ripples (A.C. component of pulsating D.C.) from the output
of rectifier and smoothes it out.

Regulator. Its function is to keep the D.C. voltage constant even if the A.C. mains voltage or
load varies. Usually, zener or glow-tube voltage regulator is used.

RECTIFIERS
A rectifier is a circuit, which uses one or more diodes to convert A.C. voltage into pulsating D.C.
voltage.
A rectifier may be broadly categorized in the following two types :

1. Half-wave rectifier, and

2. Full-wave rectifier.

Half-wave Rectifier

Fig. shows a half-wave rectifier circuit. It consists of a single diode in series with a load resistor.
A P-N junction diode can easily be used as a rectifier because it conducts current only when
forward biased voltage is acting, and does not conduct when reverse bias voltage is acting.

The input to the half-wave rectifier is supplied from the 50 Hz A.C. supply, whose wave form
is shown in Fig.

Operation :

When and A.C. voltage source is connected across the junction diode as shown in Fig. the
positive half cycle of the input acts as a forward bias voltage and the output across the load
resistance varies correspondingly. The negative half cycle of the input acts as a reverse bias and
practically no current flows in the circuit. The output is, therefore, intermittent, pulsating and
unidirectional.
It is evident from the above discussion, that as the circuit uses only one-half cycle of the A.C.
input voltage, therefore, it is popularly known as a “half-wave rectifier”.
Disadvantages :
The main disadvantages of a half-wave rectifier are :
(i) The A.C. supply delivers power only half the time ; therefore, its output is low.
(ii) The pulsating current in the load contains alternating component whose basic frequency
is equal to the supply frequency. Therefore, an elaborate filtering is required to produce steady
direct current.

Efficiency of half-wave rectifier :

The ratio of D.C. power output to the applied A.C. input power is known as rectifier efficiency.

Consider a half-wave rectifier shown in Fig. Let v = Vmax sin θ be the alternating voltage
that appears across the secondary winding.
Let, rf = Diode forward resistance, and
RL = Load resistance.

D.C. power output :

The output current is pulsating direct current. Therefore, in order to find D.C. power, average
current has to be found out,
The efficiency will be maximum when rf is negligible as compared to RL.
Maximum rectifier (half-wave) efficiency = 40.6%.
This means in half-wave rectification, a maximum of 40.6% of A.C. power is converted into
D.C. power.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half-
wave rectifier, PIV is Vm.
Full-wave Rectifier
A full-wave rectifier is a circuit, which allows a unidirectional current to flow through the load
during the entire input cycle. This can be achieved with two diodes working alternately. For the
positive half-cycle of input voltage, one diode supplies current to the load and for the negative
halfcycle, the other diode does so ; current being always in the same direction through the load.

For full-wave rectification the following two circuits are commonly used :
1. Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier
2. Full-wave bridge rectifier.
Centre-tapped full-wave rectifier
Fig. shows the circuit of a centre-tapped full-wave rectifier. The circuit uses two diodes (D1
and D2) which are connected to the centre-tapped secondary winding AB of the transformer.

Operation :
During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of the secondary winding is
positive and end B negative. This makes the diode D1 forward biased and diode D2 reverse
biased. Therefore, diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not. The conventional current flows
through diode D1, load resistor RL and the upper half of secondary winding as shown by the
dotted arrows.
During the negative half-cycle, the end A of the secondary becomes negative and end B positive.
Therefore, D2 conducts while diode D1 does not. The conventional current flow is through D2,
RL and lower half winding as shown by solid arrows.

It may be noted [Fig. 51 (a)] that the current in the load RL is in the same direction for both the
cycles of input A.C. voltage. Therefore, D.C. is obtained from the load RL.

Also, Peak inverse voltage (PIV) = Twice the maximum voltage across the half-secondary
Winding i.e., PIV = 2 Vmax.

Advantages:
1. The D.C. output voltage and load current values are twice than those of half-wave rectifiers.
2. The ripple factor is much less (0.482) than that of half-wave rectifier (1.21).
3. The efficiency is twice that of half-wave rectifier.
For a full-wave rectifier, the maximum possible value of efficiency is 81.2% while that of half
wave rectifier is 40.6%.
Disadvantages:
1. The diodes used must have high peak inverse voltage.
2. It is difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary winding.
3. The D.C. output is small as each diode utilises only one-half of the transformer secondary
voltage.
Full-wave bridge rectifier
It uses four diodes (D1, D2, D3, D4) across the main supply, as shown in Fig. The A.C. supply to
be rectified is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge through the transformer.
Between other two ends of the bridge, the load resistance RL is connected.

Operation :
During positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end L of the secondary winding becomes
positive and end M negative. This makes D1 and D3 forward biased while diodes D2 and D4 are
reverse biased. Therefore, only dioded D1 and D3 conduct. These two diodes will be in series
through the load RL as shown in Fig. 53 (a). The current flows (dotted arrows) from A to B
through RL

During the negative half-cycle of the secondary voltage, end L becomes negative and Mpositive.
This makes D2 and D4 forward biased whereas diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Therefore,
only diodes D2 and D4 conduct. These two diodes will be in series with RL as shown in Fig. 53
(b). The current flows (solid arrows) from A to B through RL i.e., in the same direction as for
positive half-cycle. Therefore, D.C. output is obtained across RL. Further it may noted that peak
inverse voltage (PIV) of each diode is equal to the maximum secondary voltage of transformer.
Advantages :
1. It can be used with advantage in applications allowing floating input terminals i.e., no
output terminal is grounded.
 2. The transformer is less costly as it is required to provide only half the voltage of an
equivalent centre-tapped transformer used in a full-wave rectifier circuit.
3. No centre-tap is required on the transformer.
4. The output is twice that of the centre-tapped circuit for the secondary voltage.
Disadvantages :
1. It uses four diodes as compared to two diodes for centre-tapped full wave rectifier.
2. Since during each half-cycle of A.C. input two diodes that conduct are in series,
therefore,voltage drop in the internal resistance of the rectifying unit will be twice as
great as in the centre tapped circuit. This is objectionable when secondary voltage is
small.

Efficiency of full-wave Rectifier:

Fig. shows the process of full rectification. The instantaneous current i is given by

where rf and RL are the diode forward resistance and load resistance respectively.
The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to RL.
ηmax = 81.2%
This is double the efficiency than that of half-wave rectifier. Therefore, a full-wave rectifier is
twice as effective as a half-wave rectifier.

Filters Circuit
An electronic circuit or device which blocks the a.c. components but allows the d.c. components
of the rectifiers to pass to the load is called a filter circuit.

Shunt Capacitor Filter

The working of a shunt capacitor filter can be explained with the help of a wave diagram shown
in fig. the dotted pulsating wave shows the output of a full wave rectifier. When the rectifier
voltage is increasing the capacitor is charged to +Vm. at point b the rectifier voltage tries to fall
but the charged capacitor immediately tries to send the current back to rectifier. In the process
the rectifier diodes are reverse biased and stop giving supply to the load. Thus the capacitor
discharges (B to C) through the load. The capacitor continues to discharge until the source
voltage becomes more than the capacitor voltage. The diode again starts conducting and the
capacitor is again charged to peak value +Vm (point ). During this time the rectifier supplies the
charging current I and the load current.
From above it is clear that capacitor not only remove the a.c. component but also
improves the output voltage. The smoothless and magnitude of output voltage depends upon the
time constant CR. The longer the time period the steadier is the output voltage. This can be
achieved by using a large value of capacitor.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator or Voltrage Stabiliser

When the Zener diode is operated in the breakdown or Zener region, the voltage across it is
substantially constant for a large change of current through it. This characteristic makes Zener
diode a good voltage regulator. The following figure shows an image of a simple Zener
regulator.

The applied input voltage Vin when increased beyond the Zener voltage Vz, then the Zener
diode operates in the breakdown region and maintains constant voltage across the load. The
series limiting resistor Rs limits the input current.

Working of Zener Voltage Regulator

The Zener diode maintains the voltage across it constant in spite of load variations and input
voltage fluctuations. Hence we can consider 4 cases to understand the working of a Zener
voltage regulator.

Case 1 − If the load current IL increases, then the current through the Zener diode IZ decreases in
order to maintain the current through the series resistor RS constant. The output voltage Vo
depends upon the input voltage Vi and voltage across the series resistor RS.
This is can be written as Vo=Vin−IRs
Vo=Vin−IRs
Where I is constant. Therefore, Vo also remains constant.

Case 2 − If the load current IL decreases, then the current through the Zener diode IZIZ
increases, as the current ISIS through RS series resistor remains constant. Though the current
IZIZ through Zener diode increases it maintains a constant output voltage VZVZ, which
maintains the load voltage constant.

Case 3 − If the input voltage Vi increases, then the current IS through the series resistor RS
increases. This increases the voltage drop across the resistor, i.e. VS increases. Though this
current through Zener diode IZ increases with this, the voltage across Zener diode VZ remains
constant, keeping the output load voltage constant.

Case 4 − If the input voltage decreases, the current through the series resistor decreases which
makes the current through Zener diode IZ decreases. But the Zener diode maintains output
voltage constant due to its property.

MODULE-II

Block diagram of Public Address system

Public Address System

When a large gathering of people is to be addressed, the sound must be amplified so that people
away from the stage can listen to it comfortably. This type of system is called as Public Address
system or P.A. system.

FUNCTIONS OF DIFFERENT BLOCKS

Microphone: It converts sound to an equivalent electrical signal. Generally two or three
microphones can be connected plus one auxiliary input for tape is also provided.

Mixer: The output of microphones is fed to the mixer stage. The mixer stage is used to isolate
different channels from each other before they are fed to the amplifier.

Voltage amplifier and Processing circuits: The voltage amplifier is used to amplify the mixer
output further. The processing circuits block consists of the “master gain control” and the “tone
control circuits”. The tone control circuit consists of the bass and treble control circuits. The bass
control circuit will amplify or cut the low frequency signals and the treble control will amplify or
cut the high frequency signals.

Driver and Power amplifier: The driver amplifier drives the power amplifier to give more
power. It is basically a voltage amplifier. The power amplifier gives the desired power
amplification to its input signal. The push pull type of amplifier is generally used because this
type eliminates the even harmonics from the output of the amplifier and avoids the core
saturation of the output transformer. The power amplifier drives the loud speakers. Matching
transformers are used between them to match the low speaker impedance to the output
impedance of the power amplifier.

RC Coupling Amplifier

The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This is the mostly used
coupling technique in amplifiers.

Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier

The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit are as follows.
The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE configuration and a common
power supply VCC is used. The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor Re form the
biasing and stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path to
the signal.

The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of
the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor C C is the coupling
capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the stages and controls
the shift of operating point. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.
Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and appears at
the collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the next stage.
This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output again appears across its
collector load. Thus the signal is amplified in stage by stage action.

The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product of the
gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage,
the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input
resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the last stage
remains unchanged.

As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because the phase
reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain and
function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in the
following graph.
From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the
frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for the
range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.

We know that,

XC=1/2πfc

It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies, the
reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cin and the coupling capacitor CC are so
high that only small part of the input signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass
capacitor CE is also very high during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter
resistance effectively. With all these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.

At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)

Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at high
frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As a result of this, the
loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain. Along with this, as the
capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it increases the base current of the transistor due to which
the current gain (β) reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.

At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)

The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies, as shown
in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor C C decreases which tends to
increase the gain. But this lower capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of the next
stage by which there is a reduction in gain.

Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.

Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the advantages of RC coupled amplifier.

 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide frequency
range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and capacitors which
are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.

Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier.

 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.

Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the applications of RC coupled amplifier.

 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.

 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.

Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system

As we can see, it consists of various units, the operation of each is discussed below:

1. Transducer: A transducer is a device that changes the physical quantity to be measured

into its equivalent electrical form. The applied input can be temperature, pressure, velocity,
displacement etc. It basically converts a form of energy into another.
2. Signal processing unit: This unit is mainly composed of amplification circuitry along with
balancing circuits and calibrating elements. The output of the transducer which is the
electrical form of the quantity to be measured is fed to the signal processing unit.This
basically amplifies or modifies the output of the transducer to such an extent that it can be
easily detected and accepted by the other units of the system.
3. Multiplexer: Multiplexer mixes the multiple analog signals supplied by the processing
unit. It produces an individual signal by muxing various applied signals. This signal is then
processed further.
4. Signal converter: This unit takes the output of the multiplexer and generates such a signal
that can be processed by further units of the system.
5. Analog to digital converter: ADC plays a crucial role in the digital instrumentation
system. It converts the applied analog data signal into its equivalent digital form. This
converted digital data is then provided to the display unit.
6. Display unit: This unit shows the actual quantity that is to be measured in the numerical
form. This can be a CRO or a computer monitor etc. depending on the need of the user.
 UNIT – III
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Objectives:
 To familiarize with the concepts of different number systems, codes, logic gates,
flip flops, registers and counters.

Syllabus:
Overview of Number Systems, Logic gates including Universal Gates, BCD codes, Excess-3
code, Gray code, Hamming code. Boolean Algebra, Basic Theorems and properties of Boolean
Algebra, Truth Tables and Functionality of Logic Gates – NOT, OR, AND, NOR, NAND, XOR
and XNOR. Simple combinational circuits–Half and Full Adders. Introduction to sequential
circuits, Flip flops, Registers and counters (Elementary Treatment only)
Outcomes:

Students will be able to

 understand various number systems.

 understand basic theorems and properties of Boolean algebra.
 understand basic logic operations and gates.
 Understand the design of half and full -adders
 understand the functionality of different flip-flops.
 understand the functioning of 4-bit shift register.
 Understand the design of binary and BCD ripple counter.
 Learning Material

Number Systems

Purposes:
1. To understand how does a digital computer work. Binary digital computers only work with
1’s and 0’s, or high and low voltage, or true and false.
2. To convert among different number systems. We use decimal numbers every day.
Computers understand only binary numbers, which are lengthy and inconvenient to human
beings. Octal and Hexadecimal numbers are introduced to make both happy: they are easier
to be converted to binary numbers and also easier for us to handle.

Classification:

Numbers Double-Precision

Unsigned Floating-Point
Numbers Signed Integers Numbers

Single-Precision

Diminished
Signed-Magnitude Radix-Complement Radix-Complement

Unsigned Numbers

Radices and Characters:

 Binary: 0, 1
 Decimal: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
 Octal: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
 Hexadecimal: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

Structure of a number:

dn-1 dn-2… d2 d1 d0. d_1 d_2…d_m

Integer Part Fractional Part

Radix point
Note: If no fractional part, the radix point can be omitted!
Positional Notation or representation of numbers:

N  d n 1 r n 1  d n  2 r n  2    d 1 r 1  d 0 r 0  d 1 r 1  d  2 r 2    d  m r  m ,
where d i 0,1,2, r  1, i n  1, n  2,2,1,0,1,2,   m, and r is the radix.

The number of numerical values the system uses is called the Base or Radix of the system

System Radix Allowable Digits

Binary 2 0,1
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A, B, C, D, E, F

Conversion of numbers from one radix to another radix

Conversion from given base to Decimal:

write the number using the positional notation and then perform decimal arithmetic to
compute the result, which is the decimal number.

Example: Given the positional notations of the following numbers: (1101.1)2, (724)8, and
(BCD)16.

 (4021.2)5 = 4 x 53 + 0 x 52 + 2 x 51 + 1 x 50 + 2 x 5-1 = (511.4)10

4 x 125 + 0 + 10 + 1 + 2 x (1/5)
500 + 11 + .4

 (B65F)16 = 11 x 163 + 6 x 162 + 5 x 161 + 15 x 160 = (46687)10

11 x 4096 + 6 x 256 + 5 x 16 + 15
45056 + 1536 + 80 + 15

 (1010.011) 2 = 23 + 21 + 2-2 + 2-3 = (10.375) 10

 (630.4) 8 = 6 x 82 + 3 x 81 + 0 x 80 + 4 x 8-1 = (408.5) 10

Conversion from Decimal to given base:

 Integer part: Divide the decimal number by the base to which we want to convert and
cast out the reminders.
Fractional part: Multiply the decimal number by the base to which we want to convert
and cast out the integer part.
Rationale: based on the positional notation.

The conversion of decimal numbers with both integers and fraction parts is done by
converting the integer and fraction separately and then combining the two answers.

Example: Convert (210)10 to binary and to hexadecimal (Radix 16).

- (210)10 = 1 x 2 7 + 1 x 2 6 + 0 x 25 + 1 x 2 4 + 0 x 2 3 + 0 x 22
+ 1 x 21 + 0 x 20

= 128 + 64 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0

= (11010010)2

- (210)10 = 13 x 161 + 2 x 160

= 208 + 2 = 210 = (D2)16

 Conversion from Decimal 41 to Binary:

Integer quotient Remainder Coefficient

41/2 = 20 + ½ a0 = 1
20/2 = 10 + 0 a1 = 0
10/2 = 5 + 0 a2 = 0
5/2 = 2 + ½ a3 = 1
2/2 = 1 + 0 a4 = 0
1/2 = 0 + ½ a5 = 1

 The conversion from decimal integers to any base-r system is similar to the example, except
that division is done by r instead of 2.

 Conversion from Decimal 153 to Octal:

153
19 1

2 3
0 2 = (231) 8
 Conversion from Decimal fraction (0.6875) 10 to Binary:

Integer Fraction Coefficient

0.6875 x 2 = 1 + 0.3750 a-1 = 1
0.3750 x 2 = 0 + 0.7500 a-2 = 0
0.7500 x 2 = 1 + 0.5000 a-3 = 1
0.5000 x 2 = 1 + 0.0000 a-4 = 1

 The conversion from decimal fraction to any base-r system is similar to the example.
Multiplication is by r instead of 2, and the coefficients found from the integers may range in
value from 0 to r-1 instead of 0 and 1.

 Conversion from Decimal fraction (0.513) 10 to Octal:

0.513 x 8 = 4.104
0.104 x 8 = 0.832
0.832 x 8 = 6.656
0.656 x 8 = 5.248
0.248 x 8 = 1.984
0.984 x 8 = 7.872

(0.513) 10 = (0.406517…) 8

Binary to/from Octal and Hexadecimal: Starting at the binary point, cast off three (four) bits at
a time and convert each group to its octal (hexadecimal) equivalent. Padding 0’s to the left for
the integer part and to the right for the fractional part when necessary.

The conversion from and to binary, octal and hexadecimal plays an important part in digital
computers. Since 23 = 8 and 24 = 16, each octal digit corresponds to three binary digits and each
hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits.

 Conversion from binary to Octal:

(10 110 001 101 011. 111 100 000 110) 2 = (26153.7406) 8

 Conversion from binary to Hexadecimal:

(10 1100 0110 1011. 1111 0000 0110) 2 = (2C6B.F06) 16

 Conversion from Octal to binary:

(673.124) 8 = (110 111 011. 001 010 100) 2

 Conversion from Hexadecimal to binary:

 (306.D) 16 = (0011 0000 0110. 1101) 2

 Conversion from Hexadecimal to Decimal:

(37B) 16
3 x 162 + 7 x 161 + 11 x 160
= 3 x 256 + 7 x 16 + 11 x 1
= 768 + 112 +11
= (891) 10
Codes

The digital data is represented, stored and transmitted as group of binary bits. This group is also
called as binary code. The binary code is represented by the number as well as alphanumeric
letter.

Advantages of Binary Code

Following is the list of advantages that binary code offers.

 Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications.

 Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications.

 Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital circuits if we use the binary
codes.

 Since only 0 & 1 are being used, implementation becomes easy.

Classification of codes
The codes are broadly categorized into following four categories.

 Weighted Codes
 Non-Weighted Codes
 Binary Coded Decimal Code
 Alphanumeric Codes
 Error Detecting Codes
 Error Correcting Codes

Weighted Codes
Weighted binary codes are those binary codes which obey the positional weight principle. Each
position of the number represents a specific weight. Several systems of the codes are used to
express the decimal digits 0 through 9. In these codes each decimal digit is represented by a
group of four bits.
Non-Weighted Codes
In this type of binary codes, the positional weights are not assigned. The examples of non-
weighted codes are Excess-3 code and Gray code.

Excess-3 code
The Excess-3 code is also called as XS-3 code. It is non-weighted code used to express decimal
numbers. The Excess-3 code words are derived from the 8421 BCD code words adding (0011)2
or (3)10 to each code word in 8421. The excess-3 codes are obtained as follows −

Example:

Gray Code
 It is the non-weighted code and it is not arithmetic codes. That means there are no
specific weights assigned to the bit position.
  It has a very special feature that, only one bit will change each time the decimal number
is incremented as shown in fig. As only one bit changes at a time, the gray code is called
as a unit distance code. The gray code is a cyclic code. Gray code cannot be used for
arithmetic operation.

Application of Gray code

 Gray code is popularly used in the shaft position encoders.
 A shaft position encoder produces a code word which represents the angular position
of the shaft.

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) code

In this code each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number. BCD is a way to express
each of the decimal digits with a binary code. In the BCD, with four bits we can represent
sixteen numbers (0000 to 1111). But in BCD code only first ten of these are used (0000 to
1001). The remaining six code combinations i.e. 1010 to 1111 are invalid in BCD.

Advantages of BCD Codes

  It is very similar to decimal system.
 We need to remember binary equivalent of decimal numbers 0 to 9 only.
Disadvantages of BCD Codes
 The addition and subtraction of BCD have different rules.

 The BCD arithmetic is little more complicated.

 BCD needs more number of bits than binary to represent the decimal number. So BCD is
less efficient than binary.

Errors and Error Correcting Codes

When bits are transmitted over the computer network, they are subject to get corrupted due to
interference and network problems. The corrupted bits leads to spurious data being received by
the receiver and are called errors.
Error-correcting codes (ECC) are a sequence of numbers generated by specific algorithms for
detecting and removing errors in data that has been transmitted over noisy channels. Error
correcting codes ascertain the exact number of bits that has been corrupted and the location of
the corrupted bits, within the limitations in algorithm.

ECCs can be broadly categorized into two types −

 Block codes − The message is divided into fixed-sized blocks of bits, to which redundant
bits are added for error detection or correction.
 Convolutional codes − The message comprises of data streams of arbitrary length and
parity symbols are generated by the sliding application of a Boolean function to the data
stream.

Hamming Code

Hamming code is a block code that is capable of detecting up to two simultaneous bit errors and
correcting single-bit errors. It was developed by R.W. Hamming for error correction.

In this coding method, the source encodes the message by inserting redundant bits within the
message. These redundant bits are extra bits that are generated and inserted at specific positions
in the message itself to enable error detection and correction. When the destination receives this
message, it performs recalculations to detect errors and find the bit position that has error.

Encoding a message by Hamming Code

The procedure used by the sender to encode the message encompasses the following steps −
 Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
 Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
 Step 3 − Calculating the values of each redundant bit.

Once the redundant bits are embedded within the message, this is sent to the user.

Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.

If the message contains m𝑚number of data bits, r𝑟number of redundant bits are added to it so
that m𝑟 is able to indicate at least (m + r+ 1) different states. Here, (m + r) indicates location of
an error in each of (𝑚 + 𝑟) bit positions and one additional state indicates no error. Since, r𝑟 bits
can indicate 2r𝑟 states, 2r𝑟 must be at least equal to (m + r + 1). Thus the following equation
should hold 2r ≥ m+r+1
AD

Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.

The r redundant bits placed at bit positions of powers of 2, i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 etc. They are
referred in the rest of this text as r1 (at position 1), r2 (at position 2), r3 (at position 4), r4 (at
position 8) and so on.
AD

Step 3 − Calculating the values of each redundant bit.

The redundant bits are parity bits. A parity bit is an extra bit that makes the number of 1s either
even or odd. The two types of parity are −
 Even Parity − Here the total number of bits in the message is made even.
 Odd Parity − Here the total number of bits in the message is made odd.
Each redundant bit, ri, is calculated as the parity, generally even parity, based upon its bit
position. It covers all bit positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in the ith position
except the position of ri. Thus −
 r1 is the parity bit for all data bits in positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the least significant position excluding 1 (3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and so on)
 r2 is the parity bit for all data bits in positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the position 2 from right except 2 (3, 6, 7, 10, 11 and so on)
 r3 is the parity bit for all data bits in positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the position 3 from right except 4 (5-7, 12-15, 20-23 and so on)
AD

Decoding a message in Hamming Code

Once the receiver gets an incoming message, it performs recalculations to detect errors and
correct them. The steps for recalculation are −
 Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
 Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
 Step 3 − Parity checking.
 Step 4 − Error detection and correction

Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits

Using the same formula as in encoding, the number of redundant bits are ascertained.
2r ≥ m + r + 1 where m is the number of data bits and r is the number of redundant bits.

Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits

The r redundant bits placed at bit positions of powers of 2, i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 etc.

Step 3 − Parity checking

Parity bits are calculated based upon the data bits and the redundant bits using the same rule as
during generation of c1,c2 ,c3 ,c4 etc. Thus
c1 = parity(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and so on)
c2 = parity(2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11 and so on)
c3 = parity(4-7, 12-15, 20-23 and so on)

Step 4 − Error detection and correction

The decimal equivalent of the parity bits binary values is calculated. If it is 0, there is no error.
Otherwise, the decimal value gives the bit position which has error. For example, if c 1c2c3c4 =
1001, it implies that the data bit at position 9, decimal equivalent of 1001, has error. The bit is
flipped to get the correct message.
Boolean theorems:
Boolean algebra:

Switching circuits called Logic circuits, gate circuits & digital circuits. Switching
algebra called Boolean Algebra. Boolean algebra is a system of mathematical logic. It is an
algebraic system consisting of the set of element (0,1) two binary operators called OR & AND
& One unary operator NOT.

A+A=A ,A.A=A because variable has only a logicvalue.

Complementation Laws:
Complement means invert(0’ as 1 & 1’ as 0)
Law1:0’=1
Law2:1’=0
Law3:If A=0 then A’ =1
Law4:If A=1 then A’ =0
Law5: (A’)’ =A(double complementation law)

AND laws:
Law 1: A.0=0(Null law)
Law 2:A.1=A(Identity law)
Law 3:A.A=A
Law 4:A.A’ =0

OR laws:
Law 1: A+0=A(Null law)
Law 2:A+1=1
Law 3:A+A=A
Law 4:A+ =0

Commutative laws: allow change in position of AND or OR variables.2 commutative laws

Law 1: A+B=B+A
Law 2: A.B=B.A
A B A+B = B A B+A A.B B.A
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Associative laws: This allows grouping of variables. It has 2 laws.

Law 1: (A+B)+C=A+(B+C) =A OR B ORed with C

This law can be extended to any no. of variables

(A+B+C)+D=(A+B+C)+D=(A+B)+(C+D)

AB C A+B (A+B)+C AB C B+C A+(B+C)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Law
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 2:
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 (A.
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 B).C
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 =A(
=
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 B.C)
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T
h
is law can be extended to any no. of variables
(A.B.C).D=(A.B.C).D

AB C AB (AB)C AB C BC A(BC)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 01 0 0 = 0 01 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Distributive Laws:
This has 2 laws
Law 1.A(B+C)=AB+AC
This law applies to single variables.
Ex:ABC(D+E)=ABCD+ABCE
AB(CD+EF)=ABCD+ABEF

AB C B+C A(B+C) AB C AB AC AB+AC

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 = 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Law 2.A+BC=(A+B)(A+C) RHF=(A+B)(A+C)

=AA+AC+BA+BC
=A+AC+AB+BC
=A(1+C+B)+BC
=A.1+BC
=A+BC LHF

16
 AB C BC A+BC AB C A+B A+C (A+B)(A+C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
=
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Redundant Literal Rule(RLR):

Law 1: A+ A’B=A+B
LHF = (A+A’)(A+B)
=1.(A+B)
=A+BRHF

Performing OR operation of a variable with the AND of the compliment of that variable with
another variable, is equal to the Performing OR operation of the two variables.

AB B A+ B A B A+B
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 = 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1

Law 2: A (A’+B) = AB
LHF = A.A’ + AB
= 0+AB
=AB RHF
Performing AND operation of a variable with the OR of the complement of that variable
with another variable, is equal to the performing AND operation of the two variables.

17
 AB A’+B A(A’+B) A B A+B
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 = 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Idempotent Laws:
Idempotent means same value. It has 2 laws.
Law 1=A.A=A
This law statesperforming AND operation of a variable with itself is equal to that variable
only

If A=0, then A.A=0.0=0=A

If A=1, then A.A=1.1=1=A

Law 2: A+A=A

This law states that performing OR operation of a variable with itself is equal to thatvariable
only.

If A=0, then A+A=0+0=0=A

If A=1, then A+A=1+1=1=A

Absorption Laws:
Law 1=A+A.B=A AB A.B A+(A.B)
0 0 0 0
= A(1+B) 0 1 0 0
=A.1
1 0 0 1
=A
1 1 1 1
i.e., A+A. any term=A

18
Law 2=A(A+B)=A
A(A+B)=A.A+A.B
= A+AB AB + A(A+B)
=A(1+B) 0 0 0 0
= A.1 =A 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
Transposition Theorem:
AB+ A‘C=
(A+C)(A‘+B)
RHS = (A+C)(A‘ +B)
=AA‘ +CA‘ +AB+CB
=0+ A‘C+AB+BC
=A‘C+AB+BC(A+A‘)
=AB+ABC+ C+ BC =AB+ CLHS

DeMorgan’s Theorem:
It represents two of the most powerful laws in Boolean algebra

Law 1: (A+B)‘ = A‘.B‘

This law states that the compliment of a sum of variables is equal to the product
of their individual complements.

LHS

RHS

NOR gate= Bubbled AND gate

This can be extended to any variables. (A+B+C+D+-----) ‘=A‘B‘C‘D‘----

Law 2: (AB)‘=A‘+B‘

Complement of the product of variables is equal to the sum of their individual components.

19
Digital Logic Operations and Logic Gates
Basic logic operations NOT, OR, AND:
Binary logic consists of binary variables and logic operations. Each binary variable consists of
two states called logic ‘0’ and logic ‘1’. There are 3 basic logical operations:
AND,OR,NOTand derived operations are NAND, NOR,X-OR, X-NOR.

AXIOMS:
Axioms or Postulates are a set of logical expressionswithout proof. Each axiom can be
interpreted as the outcome of an operation performed by a logic gate.

AND(A.B=C) OR(A+B=C) NOT(A’=B)

0.0=0 0+0=0 1’= 0
0.1=0 0+1=1 0’ = 1
1.0=0 1+0=1
1.1=1 1+1=1

LOGIC GATES:
Logic gates are fundamental building blocks of digital systems. Logic gateproduces one
output level when some combinations of input levels are present and a different output level
when other combination of input levels is present. Based on the axioms there 3 basic types of
logic gates were available which are indicated by AND, OR, NOT.
The interconnection of gates to perform a variety of logical operation is called Logic
Design. Inputs & outputs of logic gates can occur only in two levels i.e., 1,0 or High, Low or
True ,False or On , Off.
A table which lists all the possible combinations of input variables & the corresponding
outputs is called a Truth Table. It shows how the logic circuits output responds to various
combinations of logic levels at the inputs.
Level Logic, a logic in which the voltage levels represent logic 1 & logic 0.Level logic
may be Positive Logic or Negative Logic.
In PositiveLogicthe higher of two voltage levels represent logic 1 & Lower of two
voltage levels representlogic 0.In Negative Logic the lower of two voltage levels represent logic
1 & higher of two voltage levels represent logic 0.
Ex:
In TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic) Logic family voltage levels are +5V and 0V.Logic 1
represent +5Vand Logic 0 represent 0V.

AND Gate:
It is represented by “.”(dot) It has two or more inputs but only one output. The output
assume the logic 1 state only when each one of its inputs is at logic 1 state. The output assumes
the logic 0 state even if one of its inputs is at logic 0 state. The AND gate is also called an All or
Nothing gate.
Boolean Expression: A AND B, Y=A.B

20
Logic Symbol Truth Table

OR Gate:

It is represented by “+”(plus). It has two or more inputs but only one output. The output assumes
the logic 1 state only when one of its inputs is at logic 1 state. The output assumes the logic 0
state even if each one of its inputs is at logic 0 state. The OR gate is also called an any or All
gate. Also called an inclusive OR gate because it includes the condition both the inputs can be
present.

Logic Symbol Truth Table

Boolean Expression:A OR B, A+B=Y

NOT Gate:
It is represented by “-“(bar).It is also called an Inverter or Buffer. It has only one
input and one output. Whose output always the compliment of its input.Theoutput assumes logic
1 when input is logic 0 & output assume logic 0 when input is logic 1.

Logic Symbol

Truth table:

A X
1 0
0 1

 Logic circuits of any complexity can be realized using only AND, OR , NOT gates.
Using these 3 called AND-OR-INVERT i.e, AOI Logic circuits.

21
The Universal Gates:

The universal gates are NAND, NOR. These gates are called universal gates because any
Boolean logic function including basic operations(AND, OR, INVERT) can be implemented
using NAND and NOR gates. More over AOI logic can be easily converted to NAND logic or
NOR logic.

NAND Gate:It is combination of AND gate followed by NOT gate

Boolean Expression:

NAND assumes Logic 0 when each of inputs assumes logic 1.

Logic Symbol

Truth table

Bubbled OR gate: The output of this is same as NAND gate.

Bubbled OR gate is OR gate with inverted inputs.

NAND gate as an Inverter:

All its input terminals together & applying the signal to be inverted to the common
terminal by connecting all input terminals except one to logic 1 & applying the signal to be
inverted to the remaining terminal.It is also called Controlled Inverter.

Bubbled NAND Gate: The output of bubbled NAND gate is same as OR gate

22
NOR Gate:

NOR gate is NOT gate with OR gate. i.e, OR gate is NOTed.

Boolean expression:

Logic SymbolLogic symbol with OR and NOT

Truth Table:

A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Bubbled AND gate:

It is AND gate with inverted inputs.The AND gate with inverted inputs is called a bubbled
AND gate. So a NOR gate is equivalent to a bubbled and gate.A bubbled AND gate is also called
a negative AND gate. Since its output assumes the HIGH state only when all its inputs are in
LOW state, a NOR gate is also called active-LOW AND gate.
Output Y is 1 only when both A & B are equal to 0.i.e, only when both A‘ and B‘ are equal
to 1.NOR can also realized by first inverting the inputs and performing AND operation those
inverted inputs.

Logic Symbol

Truth table:
Inputs Inverted Output
A B Inputs Y
A‘ B‘
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0

23
NOR gate as an inverter:

is tying all input terminals together & applying the signal to be inverted to the common
terminals or all inputs set as logic 0 except one & applying signal to be inverted to the remaining
terminal.

Neither bubbled NOR Gate: is AND gate.

The Exclusive OR (X-OR) gate:

It has 2 inputs& only 1 output. It assumes output as 1 when input is not equal called anti-
coincidence gate or inequality detector.

Logic Symbol

A B Y
Truth table: 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The high outputs are generated only when odd number of high inputs is present. This is why x-or
function also known as odd function.

24
The X-OR gate using AND-OR-NOT gates:

X-OR gate as an Inverter:

By connecting one of two input terminals to logic 1 & feeding the sequence to be
inverted to other terminal

Logic Symbol

X-OR gate using NAND gates only:

X-OR gate using NOR gates only:

The EX-NOR Gate:

It is X-OR gate with a NOT gate.It has two inputs & one output logic circuit. It assumes output
as 0 when one if inputs are 0 and other 1.It can be used as an equality detector because it outputs
a 1 only when its inputs are equal.

25
Proof: A ʘ B = (AB)’
= (AB’+A’B)’
= (A’+B).(A+B’)
= AA’+A’B’+AB+BB’
= AB+A’B’

Truth table:
Inputs Output
A B X= A B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
Logic Symbol. 1 0 1

Adders:
Digital computers perform various arithmetic operations. The most basic arithmetic operation
is the addition of two binary digits.

Different types of adders are discussed below:

Half Adder
Half adder is a combinational logic circuit that performs the addition of two bits.
Half adder circuit needs two binary inputs and two binary outputs.
The input variables designate the augend and addend bits, the output variables produce the sum
and carry.

Block diagram

A Sum(S)

B Half adder Carry(c)

Truth Table

Inputs Outputs

26
 A B Sum(s) Carry(c)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Circuit Diagram:

Logic Equations:
Sum(s)= A⊕B;
Carry(c)=AB;

Full Adder
The combinational circuit that performs the addition of three bits (two significant bits and
previous carry) is called full adder. It consists of three inputs and two outputs. Two significant
bits represented as A and B and the third input Cin represents the carry from the previous lower
significant position. The two outputs are Sum (s) and Carry(c).

Block diagram:

A Sum(s)
Full Adder

B Carry(c )

27
 Cin

Truth Table

Inputs outputs
A B Cin Sum Carry
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Circuit Diagram:

Logic Equations:
Sum(s)=A ⊕B⊕Cin
Carry(c)=AB+BCin+ACin

28
 FLIPFLOPS
 The synchronous sequential circuit which uses clock at the input of memory element is
referred as Clocked Sequential circuit and the memory element in this circuit known as
Flip-Flop that can store 1-bit of information, and thus forms a 1-bit memory cell.

 These circuits have two outputs, one giving the value of binary bit stored in it and the other
gives the complemented value.

 The real differences among various flip-flops are the number of inputs and the manner in
which binary information can be entered into it

 The flip-flops are 1-bit memory cells that can maintain the stored bit for desired period of
time which consists of two stable stages so it is called as Bi-stable device and states are 0V
and + 5V corresponding to Logic 0 and Logic 1 respectively

i. RS Flip-Flop
 A flip-flop circuit can be constructed either by using two 2-input OR gate or NAND gates.
These circuits consists of a cross coupled connection from output of one gate to the input of
the other gate constitutes a feedback path. Each flip-flop has two outputs, Q and Q’, and two
inputs, set, reset.

 The operation of basic flip-flop can be modified by proving an additional control input that
determines when the state of the circuit is to be changed.

 An RS flip-flop with a clock pulse (CP) input, which consists of a basic flip-flop circuit and
two additional NAND gates, is as shown in Fig. 4.

29
 Fig. 4. RS flip-flop with NAND gates
ii. D-Flip-flop

 The SR latch, which has two inputs S and R. At any time to store a bit, must activate both the
inputs simultaneously. This may be troubling in some applications. Use of only one data line
is convenient in such applications.

 Moreover the forbidden input combination S = R = 1 may occur unintentionally, thus leading
the flip-flop to indeterminate state. In order to deal such issues, SR flip-flop is further
modified as shown in Fig 5.

 The resultant is referred as D flip-flop which has only one input labelled D (called as Data
input). An external NAND gate (connected as inverter) is used to ensure that S and R inputs
are always complement to each other. Thus to store information in this latch, only one signal
has to be generated.

30
 Fig 5: D flip-flop or D latch
 Operation of this flip-flop is straight forward. At any instant of time the output Q is same as
D (i.e. Q = D). Since output is exactly same as the input, the latch may be viewed as a delay
unit.

 The flip-flop always takes some time to produce output, after the input is applied. This is
called propagation delay.

 Thus it is said that the information present at point D (i.e. at input) will take a time equal to
the propagation delay to reach to Q. Hence the information is delayed. For this reason it is
often called as Delay (D) Flip-Flop.

iii. JK FLIPFLOP

 A JK flip-flop is a refinement of the SR flip-flop in that the indeterminate state of the SR type
is defined in the JK type.
 Inputs J and K behave like inputs S and R to set and clear the flip-flop (note that in a JK flip-
flop, the letter J is for set and the letter K is for clear).
 When logic 1 inputs are applied to both J and K simultaneously, the flip-flop switches to its
complement state, ie., if Q=1, it switches to Q=0 and vice versa. A clocked JK flip-flop is
shown in Fig. 6.
 Output Q is ANDed with K and CP inputs so that the flip-flop is cleared during a clock pulse
only if Q was previously 1.
 Similarly, ouput Q' is ANDed with J and CP inputs so that the flip-flop is set with a clock
pulse only if Q' was previously 1.

31
 Fig.6 JK Flip-flop
 Note that because of the feedback connection in the JK flip-flop, a CP signal which remains a
1 (while J=K=1) after the outputs have been complemented once will cause repeated and
continuous transitions of the outputs.
 To avoid this, the clock pulses must have a time duration less than the propagation delay
through the flip-flop.

 The restriction on the pulse width can be eliminated with a master-slave or edge-triggered
construction. The same reasoning also applies to the T flip-flop presented next.

iv. T Flip-Flop

 The T flip-flop is a single input version of the JK flip-flop which is shown, in Fig.7and it is
obtained from the JK type if both inputs are tied together. The output of the T flip-flop
"toggles" with each clock pulse.

32
 Fig. 7 Clocked T flip-flop
Race around Condition and Solution
 Whenever the width of the trigger pulse is greater than the propagation time of the flip-flop,
then flip-flop continues to toggle 1-0-1-0 until the pulse turns 0.

 When the pulse turns 0, unpredictable output may result i.e. the state and output not known.
This is called race around condition.

 In level-triggered flip-flop circuits, the circuit is always active when the clock signal is high,
and consequently unpredictable output may result. For example, during this active clock
period, the output of a T-FF may toggle continuously.

 The output at the end of the active period is therefore unpredictable. To overcome this
problem, edge triggered circuits can be used whose output is determined by the edge, instead
of the level, of the clock signal, for example, the rising (or trailing) edge.

 Another way to resolve the problem is the Master-Slave circuit shown in Fig 8.

Fig 8: Master slave circuit

33
The operation of a Master-Slave FF has two phases as shown in Fig.8
• During the high period of the clock, the master FF is active, taking both inputs and feedback
from the slave FF. The slave FF is de-activated during this period by the negation of the clock
so that the new output of the master FF won’t affect it.
• During the low period of the clock, the master FF is deactivated while the slave FF is active.
The output of the master FF can now trigger the slave FF to properly set its output. However,
this output will not affect the master FF through the feedback as it is not active.

Fig 9: Master slave operation

 It is seen that the trailing edge of the clock signal will trigger the change of the output of the
Master-Slave FF. The master-slave combination can be constructed for any type of flip-flop
by adding a clocked RS flip-flop with an inverted clock to form the slave. A master-slave JK
flip-flop constructed with NAND gates is shown in Fig.10.

 It consists of two flip-flops; gates1 through 4 form the master flip-flop, and gates 5 through 8
form the slave flip-flop. The information presented at the J and K inputs is transmitted to the
master flip-flop on the positive edge of the clock pulse and is held there until the negative
edge of the clock pulse occurs, after which it is allowed to pass through to the slave flip-flop.

 The clock input is normally 0, which keeps the outputs of gates 1 and 2 at the 1 level. This
prevents the J and K inputs from affecting the master flip-flop.

 The slave flip-flop is a clocked RS type, with the master flip-flop supplying the inputs and the
clock input being inverted by gate 9. When the clock is 0, the output of gate 9 is 1, so that
output Q is equal to Y, and Q’ is equal to Y’.

 When the positive edge of a clock pulse occurs, the master flip-flop is affected and may
switch states. The slave flip-flop is isolated as long as the clock is at the level1, because the
output of gate 9 provides a 1 to both inputs of the NAND basic flip-flop of gates 7 and 8.

 When the clock input returns to 0, the master flip-flop is isolated from J and K inputs and the
slave flip-flop goes to the same state as the master flip-flop.

34
 Fig.10 Clocked master-slave JK flip-flop
Operating Characteristics of Flip-flops
The operation characteristics specify the performance, operating requirements, and operating
limitations of the circuits. The operation characteristics mentions here apply to all flip-flops
regardless of the particular form of the circuit.
Propagation Delay Time—is the interval of time required after an input signal has been applied
for the resulting output change to occur.
Set-up Time—is the minimum interval required for the logic levels to be maintained constantly
on the inputs (J and K, or S and R, or D) prior to the triggering edge of the clock pulse in order
for the levels to be reliably clocked into the flip-flop.
Hold Time—is the minimum interval required for the logic levels to remain on the inputs after
the triggering edge of the clock pulse in order for the levels to be reliably clocked into the flip-
flop.
Maximum Clock Frequency—is the highest rate that a flip-flop can be reliably triggered.
Power Dissipation—is the total power consumption of the device.
Pulse Widths—are the minimum pulse widths specified by the manufacturer for the Clock, SET
and CLEAR inputs.
Flip-Flop Applications
 Frequency Division
 Parallel Data Storage

REGISTER:
 A clocked sequential circuit consists of a group of flip‐flops and combinational gates. The
flip‐flops are essential because, in their absence, the circuit reduces to a purely combinational
circuit (provided that there is no feedback among the gates).
 A circuit with flip‐flops is considered a sequential circuit even in the absence of
combinational gates. Circuits that include flip‐flops are usually classified by the function they
perform rather than by the name of the sequential circuit. Two such circuits are registers and
counters.

35
 A register is a group of flip‐flops, each one of which shares a common clock and is capable of
storing one bit of information. An n ‐bit register consists of a group of n flip‐flops capable of
storing n bits of binary information.
 In addition to the flip‐flops, a register may have combinational gates that perform certain
data‐processing tasks. In its broadest definition, a register consists of a group of flip‐flops
together with gates that affect their operation.
 The flip‐flops hold the binary information, and the gates determine how the information is
transferred into the register.
 A counter is essentially a register that goes through a predetermined sequence of binary states.
The gates in the counter are connected in such a way as to produce the prescribed sequence of
states.
 Although counters are a special type of register, it is common to differentiate them by giving
them a different name.
 Various types of registers are available commercially. The simplest register is one that
consists of only flip‐flops, without any gates.
 A register constructed with four D ‐type flip‐flops to form a four‐bit data storage register is
shown in figure below.
 The common clock input triggers all flip‐flops on the positive edge of each pulse, and the
binary data available at the four inputs are transferred into the register.
 The value of ( I 3 , I 2 , I 1 , I 0 ) immediately before the clock edge determines the value of (
A 3 , A 2 , A 1 , A 0 ) after the clock edge.
 The four outputs can be sampled at any time to obtain the binary information stored in the
register.
 The input Clear_b goes to the active‐low R (reset) input of all four flip‐flops. When this input
goes to 0, all flip‐flops are reset asynchronously.
 The Clear_b input is useful for clearing the register to all 0’s prior to its clocked operation.
The R inputs must be maintained at logic 1 (i.e., de-asserted) during normal clocked
operation.
 Note that, depending on the flip‐flop, either Clear, Clear_b, reset,
or reset_b can be used to indicate the transfer of the register to an
all 0’s state.
SHIFT REGISTERS:
 A register capable of shifting the binary information held in each
cell to its neighbouring cell, in a selected direction, is called a
shift register.
 The logical configuration of a shift register consists of a chain of
flip‐flops in cascade, with the output of one flip‐flop connected to
the input of the next flip‐flop.

36
 All flip‐flops receive common clock pulses, which activate the shift of data from one stage to
the next. The simplest possible shift register is one that uses only flip‐flops, as shown in Fig.1
 The output of a given flip‐flop is connected to the D input of the flip‐flop at its right. This
shift register is unidirectional (left‐to‐right).
 Each clock pulse shifts the contents of the register one bit position to the right. The
configuration does not support a left shift.
 The serial input determines what goes into the leftmost flip‐flop during the shift. The serial
output is taken from the output of the rightmost flip‐flop.

Fig 1: 4 –Bit Register

Fig 2: Four bit Shift register

 Sometimes it is necessary to control the shift so that it occurs only with certain pulses, but not
with others. As with the data register discussed in the previous section, the clock’s signal can
be suppressed by gating the clock signal to prevent the register from shifting.
 A preferred alternative in high speed circuits is to suppress the clock action, rather than gate
the clock signal, by leaving the clock path unchanged, but recirculating the output of each
register cell back through a two‐channel mux whose output is connected to the input of the
cell.
 When the clock action is not suppressed, the other channel of the mux provides a data path to
the cell.
 Shift registers have found considerable application in arithmatic operations. Since, moving a
binary number one bit to the left is equivalent to multiplying the number by 2 and moving the
number one bit position to the right amounts to dividing the number by 2.
 Thus, multiplications and divisions can be accomplished by shifting data bits. Shift registers
find considerable application in generating a sequence of control pulses.

37
 Fig 2: Data Transmission in Shift Register
Universal Shift Register:
A Universal Shift register can shift the data directional along with the parallel load operation.
The following are the functions done by a Universal Shift register.
 A clear control to clear the register to 0.
 A CP input for clock pulse to synchronize all operations
 A shift-right control to enable the shift-right operation and the serial input and output
lines associated with the shift right.
 A shift-left control to enable the shift-left operation and the serial input and output lines
associated with the shift left.
 A parallel-load control to enable a parallel transfer and n input lines associated with the
parallel transfer.
 N parallel output lines.
 A control state that leaves the information in the register unchanged even though clock
pulses are continuously applied.

38
 Fig 5: 4- Bit Universal Shift Register
 The Universal Shift Register that is shown in Fig. 5 has all the capabilities that are listed
above. It consists f four D-flip-flops and four multiplexers which has two selection lines. The
S1 and S0 inputs control the mode of operation of the register which is specified in Table.1
 When S1 S0=00, the present value of the register is applied to the D-inputs of the flip-flops
which forms a path from output of each flip-flop into the input of the same flip-flop. So no
change of state occurs.
 When S1 S0=01, terminal 1 of the multiplexer inputs have a path to the D inputs of the flip-
flops which causes a shift-right operation.
 When S1 S0=10, a shift-left operation results, with the other serial input going into flip-flop
A1.
 Finally, when S1 S0=11, the binary information on the parallel input lines is transferred into
the register simultaneously during next clock pulse.

Table.1: Functional Table for Universal Shift Register

Mode Control
S1 S0 Register Operation

0 0 No change

0 1 Shift right

1 0 Shift left

39
 1 1 Parallel Load

APPLICATIONS OF SHIFT REGISTERS

Shift registers can be found in many applications. Here is a list of a few.
 To Produce Time Delay
 To Simplify Combinational Logic
 To Convert Serial Data to Parallel Data

RIPPLE COUNTER
 A register that goes through a prescribed sequence of states upon the application of input
pulses is called a counter.
 The input pulses may be clock pulses, or they may originate from some external source and
may occur at a fixed interval of time or at random.
 The sequence of states may follow the binary number sequence or any other sequence of
states.
 A counter that follows the binary number sequence is called a binary counter. An n ‐bit binary
counter consists of n flip‐flops and can count in binary from 0 through 2n - 1.
 Counters are available in two categories: ripple counters and synchronous counters.
 In a ripple counter, a flip‐flop output transition serves as a source for triggering other
flip‐flops. In other words, the C (clock)input of some or all flip‐flops are triggered, not by the
common clock pulses, but rather by the transition that occurs in other flip‐flop outputs.
 In a synchronous counter, the C inputs of all flip‐flops receive the common clock.

Binary Ripple Counter

 A ripple counter is an asynchronous counter where only the first flip-flop is clocked by an
external clock. All subsequent flip-flops are clocked by the output of the preceding flip-flop.
 Asynchronous counters are also called ripple-counters because of the way the clock pulse
ripples it way through the flip-flops.
 The MOD of the ripple counter or asynchronous counter is 2 n if n flip-flops are used. For a 4-
bit counter, the range of the count is 0000 to 1111.
 A counter may count up or count down or count up and down depending on the input control.
The count sequence usually repeats itself. When counting up, the count sequence goes from
0000, 0001, 0010, ... 1110 , 1111 , 0000, 0001, ... etc.
 When counting down the count sequence goes in the opposite manner: 1111, 1110, ... 0010,
0001, 0000, 1111, 1110, ... etc.
 The complement of the count sequence counts in reverse direction. If the uncomplemented
output counts up, the complemented output counts down. If the uncomplemented output
counts down, the complemented output counts up.

40
 There are many ways to implement the ripple counter depending on the characteristics of the
flip flops used and the requirements of the count sequence.
 Clock Trigger: Positive edged or Negative edged
 JK or D flip-flops
 Count Direction: Up, Down, or Up/Down
 Asynchronous counters are slower than synchronous counters because of the delay in the
transmission of the pulses from flip-flop to flip-flop.
 With a synchronous circuit, all the bits in the count change synchronously with the assertion
of the clock. Examples of synchronous counters are the Ring and Johnson counter.
 It can be implemented using D-type flip-flops or JK-type flip-flops. The circuit below uses 2
D flip-flops to implement a divide-by-4 ripple counter (2n = 22 = 4). It counts down.

Fig. 6: Two bit Ripple Conter

 Click on CLK (Red) switch and observe the changes in the outputs of the flip flops. The
CLK switch is a momentary switch (similar to a door bell switch - normally off).
 PR and CLR are both connected to VCC (set to 1)
 The D flip flop clock has a rising edge CLK input. For example Q0 behaves as follows
 The D input value just before the CLK rising edge is noted (Q00).
 When CLK rising edge occurs, Q0 is assigned the previously noted D value (Q00).
 Thus, whenever a rising edge appears at the CLK of the D flip flop, the output Q changes
state (or toggles).
 The MOD or number of unique states of this 2 flip flop ripple counter is 4 (22).
 Simulate and Breadboard the Ripple Counter circuit.
 A Truncated Ripple Counter is used if a MOD of less than 2n is required. For example,
if you want to change the sequence from 3,2,1,0,3,2,1,0 ... to 3,2,0,3,2,0 ...
41
BCD Ripple Counter
 A decimal counter follows a sequence of 10 states and returns to 0 after the count of 9. Such a
counter must have at least four flip‐flops to represent each decimal digit, since a decimal digit
is represented by a binary code with at least four bits.
 The sequence of states in a decimal counter is dictated by the binary code used to represent a
decimal digit. If BCD is used, the sequence of states is as shown in the state diagram of Fig 7.
A decimal counter is similar to a binary counter, except that the state after 1001 (the code for
decimal digit 9) is 0000 (the code for decimal digit 0).

Fig.7 State Diagram of BCD counter

 The logic diagram of a BCD ripple counter using JK flip‐flops is shown in Fig.15, the four
outputs are designated by the letter symbol Q, with a numeric subscript equal to the binary
weight of the corresponding bit in the BCD code.
 Note that the output of Q1 is applied to the C inputs of both Q2 and Q8 and the output of Q2
is applied to the C input of Q4. The J and K inputs are connected either to a permanent 1
signal or to outputs of other flip‐flops.
 A ripple counter is an asynchronous sequential circuit. Signals that affect the flip‐flop
transition depend on the way they change from 1 to 0. The operation of the counter can be
explained by a list of conditions for flip‐flop transitions. These conditions are derived from
the logic diagram and from knowledge of how a JK flip‐flop operates.
 Remember that when the C input goes from 1 to 0, the flip‐flop is set if J = 1, is cleared if K
= 1, is complemented if J = K = 1, and is left unchanged if J = K = 0.

42
Fig.8: BCD counter

43
 Objective Questions:
Number Systems:
1. Which number system has a base 16
a) Hexadecimal b)octal c)binary d)decimal
2. Temperature variation is a/an
a) Analog quantity b) Digital quantity

c) Either Analog or Digital quantity d) discrete quantity

3. One nibble is equal to how many bits
a) 4 b) 2 c) 16 d) 8
4. What is the radix of the octal number system?
a) 2 b) 8 c) 16 d) 10

Conversion of Number Systems:

1. Let (A2C) 16 = (X) 8. Solve value of X [L3]

(A) 7054 (B) 6054 (C) 5154 (D) 5054
2. The (128)10 = (1003) b, calculate the possible base b is[L3]
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6
3. Convert decimal number 227 to hexadecimal number [L2]
A. A3 B. E3 C. CC D. C3
4. The binary number 10110.11 is expressed in decimal format is [L2]
A. 16.75 B. 20.75 C. 16.50 D. 22.75
5. The following hexadecimal number (1E.43)16 is equivalent to
i. (36.506)8 b) (36.206)8 c) (35.506)8 d) (35.206)8

Other Binary Codes:

1. Decimal 43 in Hexadecimal and BCD number system is expressed as[L2]
(A) B2, 0100 011 (B) 2B, 0100 0011 (C) 2B, 0011 0100 (D) B2, 0100 0100
2. Tell how many bits are in an ASCII character?[L1]
(A) 16 (B) 8 (C) 7 (D) 14
3. Decimal 11 in BCD is expressed as ________.[L2]
(A) 00001011 (B) 00001100 (C) 00010001 (D) 00010010
4. The two types of parity are stated as ________ and ________.[L1]
5. For a code to be an error detecting code, describe the minimum hamming distance
between two code words must be ________.[L2]
6. The parity of the binary number 11011001 is defined as[L1]
(A) Even (B) odd (C) same as the number of zeros (D) none
7. Recognize Which of the following is an invalid BCD code?[L1]
(A) 0011 (B) 1101 (C) 0101 (D) 1001
8. Convert the 127 decimal number to BCD.[L2]
(A) 011100100001 (B) 111010001 (C) 001010111 (D) 000100100111
44
 9. The binary-coded decimal (BCD) system can be used to represent each of the 10
decimal digits as an:[L2]
(A) 4-bit binary code (B) 8-bit binary code (C) 16-bit binary code (D) ASCII code
10. For 2-bit error detecting, calculate the minimum hamming distance[L3]
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
11. Recognize The number of parity bits in a 12-bit hamming code is[L1]
(A) 4 (B) 5 (C) 6 (D) 8
12. The decimal number 874 is expressed in BCD code as : [L2]
A. (100001110100) BCD B. (010001111000) BCD
C. (100001000111) BCD D. (011110000100) BCD
13. A seven -bit Hamming code is received as 1111101. Calculate the correct code? [L3]
A. 1101111 B. 1011111 C. 1111111 D. 1111011
14. The excess-3 code for 584 is given by

a) 100010110111 b) 100001110111 c) 100010010110 d) 100001010110

Digital Logic operations and gates:

1. Boolean expression for the output of XNOR logic gate with inputs A and B is described
as [L1]
(A). AB’ + A’B (B) (AB)’ + AB (C).(A’ + B)(A + B’) (D) (A’ + B’)(A + B)
2. Every logical operation in a Boolean expression represents a ----------[L2]
3. If and only if all of the inputs are on, the output will be off. This is defined as ---------
[L1]
(A) NAND (B) NOR (C) X-OR (D) OR
3. How many entries will be in the truth table of a 4-input NAND gate
a) 4 b) 8 c)32 d) 16
4. Which of these sets of logic gates are known as universal gates?
a) XOR, NAND, OR b)OR, NOT, XOR c) NOR, NAND, XNOR d) NOR, NAND
5. In Digital electronics (Boolean algebra), the OR operation is performed by which of the
given properties.
a) Distributive properties b) Commutative properties
c) Associative properties d) All of these
6. Suppose the output of an XNOR gate is 1. Which of the given input combination is
correct?
a) A = 0, B' = 1 b) A = 1, B = 1 c) A = 0, B = 1 d) A = 0, B = 0
7. The AND operation is equivalent to
a) Union b) Intersection c) Division d) Both option a and b

45
 8. The basic building blocks of the arithmetic logic unit in digital computers are
a) Adders b) Attenuator c) Demultiplexer d) Subtractors
9. The number of inputs in a half adder is
a) 8 b) 2 c) 11 d) 32

Basic theorems:

1. Relate the following [L3]

1) DeMorgan’s law A) A (A + B) = A
2) Distributive law B) A+1=1
3) Identity law C) (A+B)’=A’.B’
4) Redundancy Law D) A + (B C) = (A + B). (A + C)
2. The Boolean expression A+BC in reduced form is expressed as [L2]
(A) AB+BC (B) (A+B)(A+C) (C) (A+C)B (D) AB

3. Solve A+AB+ABC+ABCD+ABCDE+---- =[L3]

(A) 1 (B) A (C) A+AB (D) AB
4. DeMorgan's Law states that
a) (A+B)' = A'*B b) (AB)' = A' + B' c) (AB)' = A' + B d) (AB)' = A + B

Boolean Functions:

1. Describe the Boolean expression for the logic circuit shown below[L2]

A. C(A+B)DE B. [C(A+B)D+E’] C.[C(A+B)D]E’ D. ABCDE

2. For the circuit shown below, the output F is expressed by [L2]

(A) 1 (B) 0 (C) x

(D) x’
3. For the logic circuit shown in the figure the required input(A,B,C) condition to describe
the output(X) = 1 is[L1]

46
 (A) (1,0,1) (B) (0,0,1) (C) (1,1,1) (D)(0,1,1)
4. For the circuit shown below the output is expressed as [L2]

(A) (PR OR Q)XOR R (B) (PR AND Q)XOR R

(C) (PR NOR Q)XOR R (D) (PR XOR Q) XOR R

5. The Boolean expression for the truth table shown is expressed as [L2]

(A) (A+C)(A’+C’) (B) B(A+C’)(A’+C)

(C) B’(A+C’)(A’+C) (D) B’(A+C)(A’+C’)
6. The reduced form of logic Function is represented as [L2]
A) A’B’ B) AB’ C) B’D’ D) AD’

7. The logic function f(A, B, C, D) = (A+BC) (B+ CD) can be expressed to [L2]
A) AB+BC+AC’D+BCD B) AB+AB’+ACD+BCD’
C) AB+A’B’+A’CD+BC’D D) AB’+AB’+ACD’+BCD

8. IF x=1, compute the given logic equation [x+z{ +( +x )}] { + (x+y)}=1 [L3]
(A)y=z (B)y= (C)z=1 (D)z=0
9. The boolean expression for the truth table shown is expressed as [L2]
A B C F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

47
 (A) (B)
(C) (D)

Flipflops
1. Which is used for storing one bit digital data?
[L1]
a) NAND gate b) Gate c) Flipflop d) Register
2. Which condition is shown in JK flipflop as no changes next state from next state?
[L3]
a) J=0,K=0 b) J=0,K=1 c) J=1,K=0 d) J=1,K=1
3. Master slave configuration is used in flip flop to
[L2]
a) increase its clock rate b) reduces power dissipiation c)eliminates race around condition
d)improves its reliability
4. Which of the following logic circuits do not have no change condition?
[L2]
a) D- FF b) T- FF c) JK -FF d) SR latch
5. In a JK flip flop when J=1, K=1 then it will be considered as
[L2]
a) set condition b) reset condition c) no change d) toggle condition

Registers
1. A register can be defined as
a) The group of transistors for storing n- a bit of information
b) The group of transistors for storing two bits of information
c) The group of flip-flops for storing n bit of information
d) The group of flip-flops for storing binary information.

2. The shift registers are categorized into ________

a) one b) two c) three d) four
3. A shift register is made up of how many flip-flops?
a) Two b) three c) three or more d) one
4. Which of the following type of shift register is used in 8085 microprocessor?
a) SIPO b) PIPO c) SISO d) PISO
5. The primary difference between a counter and a register is
a) counter has the capability to store n bit of information whereas a register has one bit.
b) A register counts data.
c) A register has no specific sequence of states.
d) A counter has no particular sequence of states.

48
 SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
Number Systems
1. Explain the classification of different number systems. [L2]

Conversion of Number systems

1. Describe the conversion of decimal number to hexadecimal number with an

example.[L2]
2. Express the following decimal numbers to octal numbers[L2]
(a) 4796 (b) 8957.75
3. Represent the following numbers with the given radix to decimal.[L2]
i) (334)5 ii) (12345)7 iii) (768)9
4. Compute the following [L3]

i) (AD012)16 = (X)5 ii) (5.204)10 = (X)3

5. Compute the following [L3]
a) (137.64)10 = ( )6 = ( )2
b) (1111.1011)2= ( )8=( )16
6. Assume an arbitrary number system having a radix of 5 and 0, 1, 2, L and M
as its independent digits. Calculate:[L3]
i) The decimal equivalent of (2LM.L1)
ii) The octal equivalent of (21L.M2)
iii) The hexagonal equivalent of (LM1.L2)

Other Binary Codes

1. Express the equivalent (743)10 in BCD code.[L2]

2. What is hamming code? Illustrate How is the hamming code word tested and
corrected? [L3]
3. Represent the unsigned decimal numbers 351 and 986 in BCD. [L2]
4. Develop the Hamming code for the given 11-bit message 10001110101. [L3]
5. Detect and compute errors if any in the Hamming codes and write the correct
code[L3]
(i) 1100110 (ii) 0011101
6. Compute the following hamming code sequence for 11-bit message and correct if
necessary[L3]

(100, 1101, 1110, 1011)

6. Write a notes on BCD code
7. Explain about gray code and excess-3 codes.

Digital Logic Operations and Logic gates

49
 1. Apply De-Morgan’s theorem, convert the following Boolean expression to equivalent
expression that have only OR and complement operations[L3]
F=
2. State and prove Demorgan’s theorem. [L1]
3. Given AB’+ A’B=C, then Solve AC’+A’C=B.[L3]
4. Sketch the logic diagram of the following Boolean expressions without simplifying
them:[L3]
i) ii)
5. Why are NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates? Explain.
6. Draw the logic symbol and construct the truth table for each of the following gates.
a) Two input NAND gate b) two input OR gate c) two input EX-OR gate
7. State and prove the associate laws and commutative laws in Boolean algebra.
8. State and prove the distributive law, absorption law and idempotent laws in Boolean
algebra.
9. Draw and explain the half adder circuit.
10. Draw and explain the full adder circuit.

Flipflops
1. Design a characteristic equation of a T-flip flop.
2. Derive the excitation table and logic diagram for SR flip flop
3. Reproduce the truth tables of T Flip Flop and SR flip Flop and write their characteristic
equations.
4. Derive the excitation table and logic diagram for JK flip flop.
5. Derive the excitation table and logic diagram for D flip flop

Registers
1. Design a 4-bit universal shift register.

Counters
1. Explain binary ripple counter.
2. Explain BCD ripple counter.

50
 ASSIGNMENT – CUM – TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

UNIT-1
DC&AC CIRCUITS
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS:

1. write the statement of Kirchiffs current and Kirchiffs voltage laws with an example.
2. write the statement of superposition theorem and explain it with one numerical problem.
3. Define the terms (i) time period ( ii)frequency (iii)amplitude
(iv)RMS value (v)average value
4. Derive the equivalent current and volatage relation for R,L circuits
5. Derive the equivalent current and volatage relation for R,C circuits.
6.Derive the equivalent current and volatage relation for L,C circuits
7.What is series,parallel and series – parallel circuits.derive the equivalent reistance for
each circuit.
8. Find current flowing through 5 Ω

9.Determine current through 1 Ω resistor

10.Find current through 20 ΩΩ resistor.

11.Find Current flowing through 1Ω resistor by using superposition theorem.

12.Find current flowing through 5 Ω using superposition theorem.

13) Find current through 20 ΩΩ resistor.

14)Resistors of R1= 10Ω, R2 = 4Ω and R3 = 8Ω are connected up to two batteries (of negligible
resistance) as shown. Find the current through each resistor.
15) Define the terms i)Amplitude
ii)Phase
iii)RM S value
iv)Reactive power

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. A system which follows the superposition principle is known as L1
a. System
b. Control System
c. Linear System
d. Unilateral System

2.The superposition theorem can be applied only to circuits having L1

a. resistive elements
b. passive elements
c. linear bilateral elements
d. non-linear elements
3.Electricity may be generated by a wire: L1

a) carrying current
b) wrapped as a coil
c) that has neutral domains
d) passing through a flux field
4.The electrical energy consumed by a coil is stored in the form of: L1
a) an electrical field
b) a force field
c) an electrostatic field
d) a magnetic field

5)What is magnetic flux? L1

a) the number of lines of force in webers
b) the number of lines of force in maxwells
c) the number of lines of force in teslas
 d) the number of lines of force in flux density

6)As current travels within a conductor: L1

a) the magnetic field aids the current
b) a magnetic field is developed around it
c) the wire tries to point north
d) an electrostatic field opposes the curre

7)What type of device consists of a coil with a moveable iron core? L2

a) solenoid
b) reed switch
c) relay
d) armature

8)in a purely inductive circuit, L1

a) current leads voltage by 90°
b) voltage lags current by 90°
c) voltage leads current by 90°
d) voltage and current are in phase (0°)

9)A series RL filter circuit with an output across the inductor will result in what type of filtering?
L1
a) passing of the higher frequencies
b) passing of the lower frequencies
c) blocking of the higher frequencies
d) blocking of a certain range of frequencies
10)On a schematic, dashed lines between two vertical coils usually mean the transformer has: L2
a) an air core
b) an iron core
c) a nonmetallic core
d) a ferrite core
11)Faraday's law states that the: L1
a) direction of the induced voltage produces an opposition
b) direction of an induced current produces an aiding effect
c) emf depends on the rate of cutting flux
d) emf is related to the direction of the current
12)A henry value divided by a circuit resistive value provides the: L1
a) counter emf value
b) induced voltage amplitude
c) rise or decay time constant
d) quality factor of the coil
13)What does Faraday's law concern? L1

a) a magnetic field in a coil

b) a magnetic field cutting a conductor
c) a magnetic field hystersis
d) a magnetic field in a conductor

14)The polarity of induced voltage while a field is collapsing is: L1

independent of the force creating it

a) opposite to the force creating it
b) identical to the force creating the field
c) present only if the force is stationary
15)Electromagnetism is the: L1
a) magnetic field caused by a permanent magnet
b) action between a permanent and an artificial magnet
c) magnetic field action with a current-carrying wire
d) current in the coil
16)A magnetic field has: L1
a) polar fields
b) lines of force
c) magnetomotive force
d) lines of reluctance
17)magnetic circuit breaker will open to protect equipment only when: L2
a) voltage is exceeded
b) an open is in the equipment
c) the equipment is operating properly
d) current is exceeded
18)Electromagnetic induction is the generation of: L1
a) electricity from magnetism
b) electricity from electricity
c) magnetism from electricity
d) magnetism from magnetism
20)During a current change, the ability of a conductor to produce counter emf within itself is
called: L2
a) back emf
b) self-induction
c) a henry
d) impedance
21)When a transformer secondary lead has been connected to a middle loop that is not an end
connector, it is called a: L2
a) multiple-tapped secondary
b) center-tapped secondary
c) multiple winding secondary
d) single winding secondary
22)When a magnet enters a coil and a voltage is induced, the process is known as: L2
a) an alternation
b) self-inductance
c) counter emf
d) flux linkage
23) phasor represents
a) the magnitude and a quantity direction L1
b) the width of a quantity
c) the phase angle
d) the magnitude of a quantity

Unit –II
ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Explain the construction and working principle of DC motor.

2. Explain the working principle of PMMC instrument.
3. Explain the construction and working of transformer.
4. Explain the working principle of MI attraction type instrument.
5. Explain the construction and working principle of DC generator.
6. Explain the working principle of wheatstones bridge instrument.
7. Explain the working principle of MI respulsion type instrument.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1)Laminations of core are generally made of L2

1. Case iron
2. Carbon
 3. Silicon steel
4. Stainless steel
2)The armature of dc generator is laminated to L2

a) Reduce the bulk

b) Provide the bulk
c) Insulate the core
d) Reduce the eddy current loss
3)Torque developed in an electromechanical energy conversion device depends upon L2
a) stator field strength and torque angle
b) stator field and rotor field strengths
c) stator field and rotor field strengths and the torque angle
d) stator field strength only
4)In electromechanical energy conversion devices (e.g generators and motors) a small air gap is
left between the stator and the rotor in order to L2
a) reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path
b) increase flux density in the air gap
c) permit mechanical clearance
d) avoid saturation of field

5)If a current carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field direction of magnetic induction,
then L1
a) the net force and torque on the coil are both zero
b) the net force is zero but torque is finite
c) the net force is finite but toque is zero
d) the net force and torque are both finite
6)A rotating electrical machine having its self-inductances of both the stator and the stator
windings, independent of rotor position will definitely not develop. L2
a) Starting torque
b) Synchronizing torque
c) Hysteresis torque
d) Reluctance torque

7)The emf induced in a conductor rotating in a bipolar field is L2

a) DC
b) AC
c) Dc and ac both
d) None of these
8)EMF induced ina coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field will be maximum when the L2
a) Flux linking with the coil is maximum
b) Rate of change of flux linkage is minimum
c) Rate of change of flux linkage is maximum
d) Rate of cutting flux by the coil sides is minimum
9)In a dc motor energy conversion would not have been possible but for L2
a) Input energy from the supply
b) Production of back emf in the armature
c) Use of commutator
d) Rotation of the mach

10)With the increase in speed of a dc motor L2

a) Both back emf as well as line current increase
b) Both back emf as well as line current fall
c) Back emf increases but line current falls
d) Back emf falls and line current increases
11)If the back in a dc motor vanishes suddenly, the motor will L2
a) Start hunting
b) Burn
c) Run at very high speed
d) Run at very slow speed
12)The output power of any electrical motor is taken from the L2
a) Armature
b) Field
c) Coupling mounted on the shaft
d) Motor frame

13)The output indicated on the name plate of any motor is always the L2
a) Gross power
b) Power drawn in kVA
c) Power drawn in kW
d) Output power at the shaft

14)The basic function of a transformer is to change L2

a) The level of the voltage
b) The power levels
c) The power factor
d) The frequency

15)In an ordinary transformer which of the following does not change L2

a) Voltage
b) Current
c) Frequency
d) All of the above
16)The efficiency of a power transformer is around L2
a) 50%
b) 60%
c) 80%
d) 95%
17)In a transformer, electrical power is transferred from primary to secondary L2
a) Through air
b) By magnetic flux
c) Through insulating medium
d) None of these

18)The two windings of a transformer are L2

a) Conductively linked
b) Inductively linked
c) Not linked at all
d) Electrically linked

19)Transformer action requires a L2

a) Constant magnetic flux
b) Increasing magnetic flux
c) Alternating magnetic flux
d) Alternating electric flux

20)The flux created by the current flowing through the primary winding induces emf in L1
a) Primary winding only
b) Secondary winding only
c) Transformer core only
d) Both primary and secondary windings

21)An induction motor works with L2

a) DC only
b) AC Only
c) Both AC & DC
d) None of these
22)The stator frame in an induction motor is used to L2
a) Hold the armature stampings in position
b) Ventilate the armature
c) Protect the whole machine
d) Provide return path for the flux

23)Which of the following instruments indicate the instantaneous value of the electrical quantity
being measured at the time at which it is being measured? L2
a) Absolute instruments
b) Indicating instruments
c) Recording instruments
d) Integrating instruments

24)Which of the following are Integrating instruments? L1

a) Ammeters
 b) Voltmeters
c) Wattmeters
d) Ampere-hour and Watt-hour meters
25)Resistances can be measured with the help of L1
a) Wattmeters
b) Voltmeters
c) Ammeters
d) Ohmmeters and resistance bridges
26)Which of the following essential features is possessed by indicating instrument? L1
a) Deflecting device
b) Controlling device
c) Damping device
d) All of the above

27)A _________ device prevents the oscillation of the moving system and enables the latter to
reach its final position quickly L1
a) Deflecting
b) Controlling
c) Damping
d) Any of the above

Unit-III

ENERGY RESOURCES, ELECTRICITY BILL & SAFETY MEASURES

DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS

1)Explain the principle of operation of circuit breaker.

2)Define shock and earthing.

3)Explain the principle of operation of fuse.

4)calculate the monthly bill of domestic service with the following loads for a month of
30 days
i) four lamps of 100W each used for 6hrs a day.
ii) 2KW immersion heater used for 1hr a day.
iii) 3 fans of 60W each used for 10hrs a day.

iv) 2KW electrical iron used for 1hr a day.

The cost per unit of consumption is 50 paise.
5)EXplain the layout and hydel power generation.
6)Define tariff,electric shock and give the safety measures to be taken during electric
shock.
7)Explain the layout and wind power generation.
8)Define electric shock and earthing.

9)Define two part tariff

10)calculate the monthly bill of domestic service with the following loads for a month of
30 days
i) four lamps of 100W each used for 6hrs a day.
ii) 2KW immersion heater used for 1hr a day.
iii) 3 fans of 60W each used for 10hrs a day.

iv) 2KW electrical iron used for 1hr a day.

The cost per unit of consumption is 50 paise.
11)Explain the layout and working principle of a hydropower plant by which it converts the
energy of flowing water into electricity. Discuss the advantages and challenges associated with
hydropower as a renewable energy source.

12)Explain the process of electricity generation with a layout in a nuclear power plant, detailing
the role of nuclear reactors and the components of a nuclear reactor. Discuss the advantages and
challenges associated with nuclear power as a source of energy.

13)Explain the technology and functioning of a solar power plant with a layout , including the
conversion of sunlight into electricity. Discuss the different types of solar power technologies
and their applications.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1)The commercial sources of energy are L1
a) Fossil fuels, water and radioactive substances
b) Solar, wind, biomass
c) Wood, animal wastes and agricultural wastes
d) None of the above

2)Which of the following power plants is the least reliable? L1

a) Wind
 b) Tidal
c) Geothermal
d) Solar

3)A hydroelectric power station is commonly found in L1

a) Desert areas
b) Hilly areas
c) Swamps
d) Grasslands
4)In hydroelectric power plants L1
a) Operating cost is low and initial cost is high
b) Operating cost is high and initial cost is low
c) Both Operating cost as well initial cost are high
d) Both Operating cost as well as initial cost are low

5)The advantage of hydroelectric power station over thermal power station is L1

a) The initial cost of hydroelectric power station is low
b) The operating cost of hydroelectric power station is low
c) Hydroelectric power station can supply the power throughout the year
d) Hydroelectric power station can be constructed at the place where the energy is required

6)A penstock is used as a conduit between L1

a) The steam chest and the turbine in a thermal station
b) The dam and the turbine in a hydro station
c) The turbine and the discharge drain
d) The turbine and the discharge drain
7)The term “Surge Tank” is associated with which type of power plant? L2
a) High head hydro Power Plant
b) Low head hydro Power Plant
c) Medium head hydro Power Plant
d) Thermal Power Plant
8)Location of a surge tank, in an hydroelectric power station, is near L1
a) Turbine
b) Tail race
c) Reservoir
d) Dam

9) high head and low discharge, the water turbine used is L1

a) Pelton Wheel
b) Kaplan Turbine
c) Francis Turbine
d) Propeller Turbine

10)Rotameter is used for measuring L2

a) Fluid discharge
 b) Fluid density
c) Fluid viscosity
d) All of the above

11.The cheapest plant in operation and maintenance is..... L2

A.Staem power plant

B.Nuclear power palnt
C.Hydro-electric power plant
D.None of the above
12. The annual depriciation of a hydro power plant is about........ L2

A.0.5% to 1.5%
B.10% to 15%
C.15% to 20%
D.20% to 25%

13. The power output from a hydro-electric power plant depends on three parameters....... L2

A.Head,type and dam of discharge

B.Head,discharge and efficiency of the system
C.Efficiency of the system,type of draft tube and type of turbine used
D.Type of dam,discharge and type of catchment area

14.Location of the surge tank in a hydro-electric station is near to the........ L2

A.Tailrace
B.Turbine
C.Reservoir
D.None of the above

15.The function of a surge tank is........ L2

A.To supply water at constant pressure

B.To produce surges in the pipe line
C.To relieve water hammer pressures in the penstock pipe
D.None of the above

16. The nuclear energy is measured as

(A) MeV (B) Curie (C) Farads (D) MW

17.The control rods in the control system of nuclear reactors are used to
(A) Absorb excess neutrons (B) Control fuel consumption

(C) Control temperature

 (D) All of these Correct Answer

18.A moderator
(A) Absorbs neutrons

(B) reduces speed of neutrons

(C) Accelerates neutrons
(D) None of these
19.In a solar collector, why is the transparent cover provide for?

a. Protect the collector from dust.

b. Reduce the heat losses from collector beneath to atmosphere.
c. Transmit solar radiation only
d. All of the above.

20. Tidal energy utilizes

a. Kinetic energy of water
b. Potential energy of water.
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. None of these

21. What is tariff?

a. The rate at which electrical energy is produced in the plant.
b. The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to the consumers.
c. Both (a) and (b).
d. None of these.

22. Flat rate tariff is charged on what basis?

a. Connected load.
b. Units consumed.
c. Maximum demand.
d. Both (a) and (b).

23. Which of the following is a disadvantage of a flat-rate electric tariff?

Encourages energy conservation

Does not reflect the actual cost of electricity production

Promotes the use of renewable energy

Reduces overall electricity consumption

24. Two part tariff is charged on what basis?

a. Connected load
b. Units consumed.
c. Maximum demand.
d. Both (b) and (c)

25. What is the purpose of using insulated tools in electrical work?

a. To keep tools clean

b.To prevent electric shock

c. To improve grip

d. To reduce tool weight

26. What type of fire extinguisher is suitable for electrical fires?

a. Water-based
b. Foam-based
c. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
d. Dry chemical
27. Which of the following is a disadvantage of improper earthing?
A. Increased safety
B. Decreased electrical noise

C. Risk of electric shock and fire hazards

D. Improved power quality

28. What is the primary purpose of earthing in electrical systems?

A. To increase voltage

B. To provide a path for fault currents to safely dissipate into the ground
C. To reduce resistance in the circuit
D. To isolate electrical
 PART-B

ELECTRONICS

UNIT- I

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Objective Questions
1. In a PN junction with no external voltage, the electric field between acceptor and donor ion is
called a L2
a. Peak
b. Barrier
c. Threshold
d. Path
2. In a PN junction the potential barrier is due to the charges on either side of the junction, these
charges are L2
a. Majority carriers
b. Minority carriers
c. Both (a) and (b)
d. Fixed donor and accepter ions
3. For a PN junction diode, the current in reverse bias maybe L2
a. Few milliamperes
b. Between 0.2 A and 15 A
c. Few amperes
d. Few micro or nano amperes
4. When PN junction is in forward bias, by increasing the battery voltage L2
a. Circuit resistance increases
b. Current through P_N junction increases
c. Current through P_N junction decreases
d. None of the above
5. When a PN junction is reverse biased L2
 a. Holes and electrons tend to concentrate towards the junction
b. The barrier tends to break down
c. Holes and electrons tend to move away from the junction
d. None of these
6. A PN junction L2
a. Has low resistance in forward as well as reverse directions
b. Has high resistance in forward as well as reverse directions
c. Conductors in the forward direction only
d. Conducts in the reverse direction only
7. A PN junction is said to be forward-biased when L2
a. The positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-side and the negative side to
the N-side
b. Junction is earthed
c. N-side is connected directly to the p-side
d. The positive terminal of the battery is connected to N-side and the negative side to the P-
side.
8. In a reverse-biased PN junction, the current through the junction increases abruptly at L3
a. 0.5 V
b. 1.1 V
c. 0.72 V
d. Breakdown voltage
9. In Zener diode, the Zener breakdown takes place L3
a. Below 6 V
b. At 6 V
c. Above 6 V
d. None of the above
10. Which of the following controls the current in a Zener diode? L2
a. Zener diode resistance
b. Potential barrier
c. Reverse bias voltage
d. External circuits
11. A Zener diode when biased correctly L2
a. Never overheats
b. Has a constant voltage across it
c. Acts as a fixed resistance
d. Has a constant current passing through it
12. In Zener diode, the breakdown is due to Zener, has a doping L2
a. Lowest
b. Moderate
c. High
d. Low
13. Depletion region behaves as L2
a. Semiconductor
b. Insulator
c. Conductor
d. High resistance
14. The emitter-base junction of a transistor is ………. Biased while the collector-base junction
is …………. L2
a. Reverse, Forward
b. Reverse, Reverse
c. Forward, forward
d. Forward, reverse
15. A NPN transistor conducts when L2
a. Both collector and emitter are positive with respect to the base
b. Collector is positive and the emitter is negative with respect to the base
c. Collector is positive and the emitter is at the same potential as the base
d. Both collector and emitter are negative with respect to the base
16. Which of the following is true L2
a. Common base transistor is commonly used because the current gain is maximum
b. Common emitter is commonly used because the current gain is maximum
c. Common collector is commonly used because the current gain is maximum
d. Common emitter is the least used transistor
17. Which is the least doped region in a transistor? L2
a. Either emitter or collector
b. Base
c. Emitter
d. Collector
18. The transistors provide good power amplification when they are used in L2
a. Common collector configuration
b. Common emitter configuration
c. Common base configuration
d. None of these
19. For a transistor the parameter b= 99. The value of the parameter is a is L3
a. 0.9
b. 0.99
c. 1
d. 9
20. In a PNP transistor the base is the N-region. Its width relative to the P-region is L2
a. Smaller
b. Larger
c. Same
d. Not related
21. BJT is ___ type of source device? L2
a) Current driven
b) Voltage driven
c) Load driven
d) All the above
22. The coupling capacitors in an amplifier are used L2
a) to limit the bandwidth
b) to match the impedance
c) Prevent DC mixing with output
d) to control output voltage signal
23. The number of depletion layers in a transistor is ………… L2
 a) four
b) three
c) one
d) two
24. The collector of a transistor is …………. doped L2
a) heavily
b) moderately
c) lightly
d) none of the above
25. The value of α of a transistor is ………. L2
a) more than 1
b) less than 1
c) 1
d) none of the above
26. The relation between β and α is ………….. L2
a) β = 1 / (1 – α )
b) β = (1 – α ) / α
c) β = α / (1 – α )
d) β = α / (1 + α )

Descriptive Questions
1. Explain the principle of operation of PN junction diode.
2. Explain the difference between PNP and NPN transistors.
3. What is the operating point of transistor amplifier?
4. Draw and explain the input-output characteristics of CE amplifier.
5. What is P-N junction diode? How its terminals are identified?
6. What are the different configurations of transistor?
7. Describe the similarities and dissimilarities in the operation of PNP and NPN transistors.
8. Define α and β of a transistor and give relation between them.
9. Explain the V-I Characteristics of a junction diode when it is forward and reverse biased.
10. Explain the V-I Characteristics of a Zener diode when it is forward and reverse biased.
11. Explain the operation of NPN transistor with neat circuit diagram.
12. Describe the NPN transistor operation in the common base configuration. What are its
operating regions?
 13. With a neat circuit, draw the input – output characteristics of a N – P – N transistor in
Common Collector configuration.
14. What is the meaning of Biasing of p – n junction?
15. Explain the significance of threshold voltage in forward characteristics of a p – n
junction.

UNIT -II

BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTTAION

Objective Questions
1. Regulated power supplies are used in __________ L1

a) Mobile chargers
b) Measurement devices
c) Computers
d) All of the above

2. The Zener current is maximum when the load current is ___________ L1

a) Zero
b) Infinity
c) One
d) None of the above

3. The regulated DC power supply also called ________ L2

a) Linear power supply

b) Non-linear power supply
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above
4.______ are the building blocks of regulated DC power supply L2

a) Rectifier, DC filter
b) Regulator
c) Step down transformer
d) All of the above

5. The rectification is a process of converting ________ L2

a) Alternating current into direct quantity

b) Alternating voltage into direct quantity
 c) Alternating current or voltage into direct quantity
d) None of the above

6. Rectification can be done by using ______ L2

1. Transformers
2. Conductors
3. Bridge rectifiers
4. None of the above

7. The output of the rectification is ______ L2

1. Unidirectional
2. Bidirectional
3. Multidirectional
4. None of the above

8. The unregulated power supply used in ______ L2

a) Relays
b) Actuators
c) Solenoids
d) All of the above

9. ____________ rectifiers are full-wave rectifiers L2

a) Center-tapped
b) Bridge
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above

10. Which transformer is used in a regulated DC power supply? L2

a) Step up
b) Step down
c) Both a or b
d) None of the above

11. The maximum rectification efficiency of bridge full-wave rectifier is around ________L3

a) 10%
b) 81.2%
c) 30%
d) 40%
 12. How many diodes does bridge full-wave rectifier consists? L2

a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) Four

13. The maximum rectification efficiency of half-wave rectifier is around ________ L3

a) 10.4%
b) 20.4%
c) 30.5%
d) 40.6%

14. The ripple factor of the full-wave rectifier is __________ L3

a) 100%
b) 48%
c) 110%
d) 10%

15. Which filter reduces the ripple? L2

a) Capacitor filter
b) RC filter
c) R filter
d) RC filter

16. ______ are the examples of AC-DC power supplies L2

a) Laptop power adapter

b) Phone charger
c) Desktop PC power supply
d) All of the above
17. The output obtained by the rectifier is ________ L2
a. Pulsating DC
b. Pulsating AC
c. Non-pulsating AC
d. None of the above

18. The AC component present in output voltage is called _________ L2

a. Ripple
b. Switching regulator
c. Non-linear regulators
 d. None of the above

19. The capacitor reactance is infinity when the frequency is _______ L2

a. Zero
b. Infinity
c. One
d. None of the above

20. _____________ are used in power supplies to eliminates ripples / fluctuation and produce
constant DC voltage at output. L2

a. Filters
b. Transformer
c. Rectifier
d. Transistor

21. Which type of system is the PA system in audio devices? L2

a. Electroacoustic
b. Electro dynamic
c. Electromagnetic
d. Piezo-electric

22. To which stage is the output of microphone fed in PA system? L2

a) Voltage amplifier
b) Loudspeaker
c) Power amplifier
d) Mixer

23. Which of the following convert electrical signals into pressure variations resulting in sound
waves in PA system? L2
a) Mixer
b) Microphone
c) Loudspeaker
d) Driver

24. RC coupling is used for ………………. amplification L2

Voltage

Current

Power
 a. None of the above

25. In an RC coupled amplifier, the voltage gain over mid-frequency range ……………. L2

a. Changes abruptly with frequency

b. Is constant
c. Changes uniformly with frequency
d. None of the above

26. In an RC coupling scheme, the coupling capacitor CC must be large enough ……….. L2

a. To pass d.c. between the stages

b. Not to attenuate the low frequencies
c. To dissipate high power
d. None of the above

27. RC coupling is generally confined to low power applications because of ……… L2

a. Large value of coupling capacitor

b. Low efficiency
c. Large number of components
d. None of the above

Descriptive Questions

1. Describe the operation of DC power supplysystem with neat block diagram.

2. Obtain the expression for efficiency of full wave rectifier with relevant waveforms and
circuit.
3. Derive the efficiency and ripple factor of half wave rectifier.
4. Describe the operation of capacitor filter in the rectifier network with relevant
waveforms.
5. Draw the circuit diagram of a full wave bridge rectifier and explain its operation with the
help of input and output wave forms.
6. Draw the circuit diagram and explain the working of common emitter RC coupled
amplifier with its frequency response.
7. What is Zener diode? Explain how Zener diode works as a voltage regulator.
8. Explain with the help of circuit, the working of a transistor as an amplifier in CE
configuration
9. Explain the operation of CE amplifier with its frequency response.
10. Explain the operation of a Transistor as an Amplifier and give its advantages.
11. Draw and explain the equivalent circuit of a CE amplifier.
 12. Describe the operation of Public Address system with neat block diagram.
13. Demonstrate the principle of an electronic instrumentation system with a block diagram

UNIT -III
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Objective Questions

1. The highest decimal number that can be described with 10 binary digits is L3

a. 512
b. 1023
c. 1024
d. 211-1

2. Which of these number systems has a base of 16? L3

a. Decimal
b. Binary
c. Hexadecimal
d. Octal

3. The addition of these binary numbers 101001+ 010011 would generate: L3

a. 101110
b. 000111
c. 111100
d. 010100

4. A JK flip-flop in the toggle mode has: L3

a. K = 1 and J = 1
b. K = 1 and J = 0
c. K = 0 and J = 1
d. K = 0 and J = 0

5. _____ is a digital circuit that is capable of storing only a single bit. L3

a. Flip-flop
b. NOR gate
 c. XOR gate
d. Register

6. The De-Morgan’s Law would state that: L3

a. (AB)’ = A + B

b. (A+B)’ = A’*B

c. (AB)’ = A’ + B

d. (AB)’ = A’ + B’

7. The radix of an octal number system is: L3

a) 8
b) 2
c) 16
d) 10

8. The representation of octal number (532.2)8 in decimal is ________ L3

a) (346.25)10
b) (532.864)10
c) (340.67)10
d) (531.668)10
9. The decimal equivalent of the binary number (1011.011) 2 is ________ L3

a) (11.375)10
b) (10.123)10
c) (11.175)10
d) (9.23)10

10. An important drawback of binary system is ________ L3

a) It requires very large string of 1’s and 0’s to represent a decimal number
b) It requires sparingly small string of 1’s and 0’s to represent a decimal number
c) It requires large string of 1’s and small string of 0’s to represent a decimal number
d) It requires small string of 1’s and large string of 0’s to represent a decimal number

11. The decimal equivalent of the octal number (645) 8 is ______ L3

a) (450)10
b) (451)10
c) (421)10
d) (501)10
12. The largest two digit hexadecimal number is ________ L3
a) (FE)16
b) (FD)16
c) (FF)16
d) (EF)16

13. The given hexadecimal number (1E.53)16 is equivalent to ____________ L3

a) (35.684)8
b) (36.246)8
c) (34.340)8
d) (35.599)8

14. The octal number (651.124)8 is equivalent to ______ L3

a) (1A9.2A)16
b) (1B0.10)16
c) (1A8.A3)16
d) (1B0.B0)16

15. The octal equivalent of the decimal number (417)10 is _____ L3

a) (641)8
b) (619)8
c) (640)8
d) (598)8

16. Which gate is known as the universal gate? L2

a) NAND
b) OR
c) AND
d) None

17. Which of the following is not a logic gate? L2

a) AND
b) OR
c) IF
d) NOT

18. How many types of logic families exist? L2

a) Two
b) Six
c) Four
d) Seven
19. What is the boolean operation performed by an OR gate? L3

a) Equivalent of addition
b) Equivalent of multiplication
c) Equivalent of dificsin
d) Equivalent of subtraction.

20. A NAND gate has —– inputs and —— outputs. L2

a) High input and High output

b) High input and low output
c) Low input and low output
d) Low input and high output

21. What will be the output of the given logic gate? L3

a) NOR
b) NAND
c) AND
d) OR

22. What combination is a NAND gate? L2

a) NOT, AND
b) NOT , OR
c) NOT, NOT
d) AND, OR

23. XOR circuits can be constructed using L2

a) OR gates only
b) AND, OR gates
c) AND, NOT gates
d) AND, NOT and OR gates

24. The output of the two-input OR gate is high L2

a. Only if both inputs are high

b. Only if both inputs are low

 c. Only if one input is high and the other is low

d. If at least one of the inputs is high

25. The output of a two-input AND gate is high L2

a. Only if both the inputs are high

b. Only if both the inputs are low

c. Only if one input is high and the other is low

d. If at least one input is low

26. The output of the two-input NAND gate is high L2

a. Only if both the inputs are high

b. Only if both the inputs are low

c. Only if one input is high and the other is low

d. If at least one input is low

27. The output of two-input NOR gate is high L2

a. Only if both the inputs are high

b. Only if both the inputs are low

c. Only if one input is high and the other is low

d. If at least one input is high

28.If A and B are the inputs of a half adder, the sum is given by __________ L2

a) A AND B
b) A OR B
c) A XOR B
d) A EX-NOR B

29. If A and B are the inputs of a half adder, the carry is given by __________ L2
a) A AND B
b) A OR B
c) A XOR B
d) A EX-NOR B
30. Half-adders have a major limitation in that they cannot __________ L2
a) Accept a carry bit from a present stage
b) Accept a carry bit from a next stage
c) Accept a carry bit from a previous stage
d) Accept a carry bit from the following stages

31. If A, B and C are the inputs of a full adder then the sum is given by __________ L3
a) A AND B AND C
b) A OR B AND C
c) A XOR B XOR C
d) A OR B OR C

32. If A, B and C are the inputs of a full adder then the carry is given by __________ L3
a) A AND B OR (A OR B) AND C
b) A OR B OR (A AND B) C
c) (A AND B) OR (A AND B)C
d) A XOR B XOR (A XOR B) AND C

33. How many AND, OR and EXOR gates are required for the configuration of full adder? L3
a) 1, 2, 2
b) 2, 1, 2
c) 3, 1, 2
d) 4, 0, 1

34. When both inputs of a J-K flip-flop are zero, the output will ___________ L3
a) Be invalid
b) Change
c) Not change
d) Toggle

35. Which of the following is correct for a gated D-type flip-flop? L3

a) The Q output is either SET or RESET as soon as the D input goes HIGH or LOW
b) The output complement follows the input when enabled
c) Only one of the inputs can be HIGH at a time
d) The output toggles if one of the inputs is held HIGH

36. The logic circuits whose outputs at any instant of time depends only on the present input but
also on the past outputs are called ________________ L3
a) Combinational circuits
b) Sequential circuits
c) Latches
d) Flip-flops
37. In digital logic, a counter is a device which ____________ L3
a) Counts the number of outputs
b) Stores the number of times a particular event or process has occurred
c) Stores the number of times a clock pulse rises and falls
d) Counts the number of inputs

39. What is the maximum possible range of bit-count specifically in n-bit binary counter
consisting of ‘n’ number of flip-flops?
a) 0 to 2n
b) 0 to 2n + 1
c) 0 to 2n – 1
d) 0 to 2n+1/2

40. A decimal counter has ______ states.

a) 5
b) 10
c) 15
d) 20

41. Ripple counters are also called ____________

a) SSI counters
b) Asynchronous counters
c) Synchronous counters
d) VLSI counters

42. BCD counter is also known as ____________

a) Parallel counter
b) Decade counter
c) Synchronous counter
d) VLSI counter

Descriptive Questions

1. (a) Perform the conversion for the following code conversion.

i. (157)8 = ( )10
ii. (234)10 = ( )2
2. Explain the classification of different number systems.
3. Describe the conversion of decimal number to hexadecimal number with an example.
4. Express the following decimal numbers to octal numbers (a) 4796 (b) 8957.75
5. Compute the following [L3]
 a) (137.64)10 = ( )6 = ( )2
b) (1111.1011)2= ( )8=( )16
6. State and prove Demorgan’s theorem.
7. What is Gray code? Describe the procedure to convert a given binary number in to Gray
code with an example.
8. Explain about the following codes
i) BCD code ii) Excess-3 code
9. State and Prove Commutative and Associative Laws.
10. What are universal gates? Implement AND gate using any one universal gate?
11. Describe the operation of below gates with their truth tables
i) AND ii) OR iii) XOR iv) XNOR
12. Explain the operation of half adder? Construct half adder using logic gates.
13. Explain the operation of full adder? Construct full adder using logic gates.
14. Explain the functionality D flip-flop with necessary diagrams and truth table.
15. Explain the operation of S-R flip-flop with circuit diagram and truth table.
16. Draw and explain operation JK Flip Flop using NAND Gates.
17. Explain the operation of T flip-flop with circuit diagram and truth table.
18. Explain the working of a Serial - in, Serial – out shift register with a neat diagram.
19. Draw the logic circuit for a 4 – bit Binary Ripple Counterand explain its operation.
20. Draw the logic circuit for a 4 – bit BCD ripple Counterand explain its operation.