Assignments

Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.

Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Question 1. Define path and cycle.
Ans.
Path: A path is a sequence of edges that begins at a vertex, and travels from vertex to vertex along
edges of the graph. The number of edges on the path is called the length of the path. A path is a walk
with no repeated vertices.

Cycle: A cycle is a closed trail in which the “first vertex = last vertex” is the only vertex that is repeated. The
definition of a cycle is a period or complete set of events that repeat. An example of a cycle is the earth's rotation
around the sun. An interval of time during which a characteristic, often regularly repeated event or sequence of
events occurs

Question 2. Define a simple graph.

Ans.
Simple graph: A simple graph, also called a strict graph. is an unweighted, undirected graph containing
no graph loops or multiple edges A simple graph may be either connected or disconnected. Unless stated
otherwise, the unqualified term "graph" usually refers to a simple graph.

Different type of graph

Question 3.What is sub graph explain with example?

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Ans.

Definition: A Subgraph of a graph is a graph whose vertex set is a subset of the vertex set , that is , and
whose edge set is a subset of the edge set , that is . Essentially, a subgraph is a graph within a larger
graph.

A subgraph H = (V ,E ) of a graph G = (V,E) is a pair V V and E E. ... Example Figure 4 shows two
subgraphs of G1. The first subgraph is an induced subgraph. All edges between the vertices 2,3,4, and 6
that are in G1 are also in this graph

Question 4. Explain Eulerian graph?

Ans.

Definition: A graph is considered Eulerian if the graph is both connected and has a closed trail (a walk
with no repeated edges) containing all edges of the graph. Definition: An Eulerian Trail is a closed walk
with no repeated edges but contains all edges of a graph and return to the start vertex.

Eulerian graph

Question 5. Define Hamiltonian graph Ans.

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Hamiltonian graph: A connected graph G is called Hamiltonian graph if there is a cycle which includes
every vertex of G and the cycle is called Hamiltonian cycle. Hamiltonian walk in graph G is a walk that
passes through each vertex exactly once

Hamiltonian graph

Question 6. What is tree?

Ans. Tree is a nonlinear data structure, compared to arrays, linked lists, stacks and queues, which are
linear data structures. A tree can be empty with no nodes or a tree is a structure consisting of one node
called the root and zero, one, or more subtrees.

Tree

Question 7. What is spanning tree? Ans.

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
A spanning tree is a subset of Graph G, which has all the vertices covered with minimum possible
number of edges. Hence, a spanning tree does not have cycles and it cannot be disconnected.. By
this definition, we can draw a conclusion that every connected and undirected Graph G has at least
one spanning tree

Given a graph G=(V,E), a subgraph of G that is connects all of the vertices and is a tree is called a
spanning tree . For example, suppose we start with this graph: We can remove edges until we are left
with a tree: the result is a spanning tree. Clearly, a spanning tree will have |V|-1 edges, like any other
tree.

Question 8. What is binary tree?

Ans.
In computer science, a binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two children,
which are referred to as the left child and the right child. It is also possible to interpret a binary tree as an
undirected, rather than a directed graph, in which case a binary tree is an ordered, rooted tree.

Question 9. Define fuzzy sets

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Ans. A fuzzy set is a pair where is a set (often required to be non-empty) and a membership function.
The reference set (sometimes denoted by or) is called universe of discourse, and for each the value is
called the grade of membership of in. The function is called the membership function of the fuzzy set.

Definition: In mathematics, fuzzy sets (a.k.a. uncertain sets) are somewhat like sets whose elements
have degrees of membership. ... In classical set theory, the membership of elements in a set is assessed
in binary terms according to a bivalent condition — an element either belongs or does not belong to
the set.

Question 10. What is basic operation of fuzzy sets? Ans.

Among the basic operations, which can be performed on fuzzy sets, are the operations of union,
intersection, complement, algebraic product and algebraic sum. ... Among the well-known operations,
which can be performed on fuzzy sets, are the operations of union, intersection, complement, algebraic
product and algebraic sum

A fuzzy set is a mapping of a set of real numbers (xi) onto membership values (ui) that (generally) lie in
the range [0, 1]. In this fuzzy package a fuzzy set is represented by a set of pairs ui/xi, where ui is the
membership value for the real number xi. We can represent the set of values as { u1/x1 u2/x2 ..

Question 11. Define 𝛼−𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠

Ans.
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
The level sets (Pedrycz and Gomide 2007) associated with F are defined as F α = {x/F(x) ≥ α}. Each F
α is a crisp subset of X consisting of the elements of X with membership grade of at least α in F. In the
case, where X is finite there exists a finite number of distinct membership grades associated with F

Level sets show up in many applications, often under different names. For example, an implicit curve is
a level curve, which is considered independently of its neighbor curves, emphasizing that such a curve

a1x1 + a2x2 + ⋯ + ...

is defined by an implicit ... (n − 1)-dimensional level sets for functions of the form f(x1, x2, ..., xn) =

Question 12. What is plain text?

Ans.

In computing, plain text is a loose term for data (e.g. file contents) that represent only characters of
readable material but not its graphical representation nor other objects (floating-point numbers, images,
etc.).
The known-plaintext attack (KPA) is an attack model for cryptanalysis where the attacker has access to
both the plaintext (called a crib), and its encrypted version (cipher text). These can be used to reveal
further secret information such as secret keys and codebooks.

With the advent of computing, the term plaintext expanded beyond human-readable documents to mean
any data, including binary files, in a form that can be viewed or used without requiring a key or other
decryption device. Information—a message, document, file, etc.—if to be communicated or stored in
encrypted form is referred to as plaintext.
Plaintext is used as input to an encryption algorithm; the output is usually termed cipher text, particularly
when the algorithm is a cipher. Code text is less often used, and almost always only when the algorithm
involved is actually a code. Some systems use multiple layers of encryption, with the output of one
encryption algorithm becoming "plaintext" input for the next.

Question 13. What is cipher text?

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Ans.: Definition: Cipher is an algorithm, which is applied to plain text to get cipher text. It is the
unreadable output of an encryption algorithm. The term "cipher" is sometimes used as an alternative
term for cipher text. Substitution Cipher: This offers an alternative to the plaintext.

One of the earliest and simplest ciphers is the Caesar cipher, which uses a symmetric key algorithm.
The Caesar cipher is a substitution cipher in which each letter in the plaintext is "shifted" a certain
number of places down the alphabet. Ciphers, also called encryption algorithms, are systems for
encrypting and decrypting data. A cipher converts the original message, called plaintext, into cipher
text using a key to determine how it is done.

Question 14. What is security?

Ans.: Security means safety, as well as the measures taken to be safe or protected. Often this word is
used in compounds such as a security measure, security check or security guard. The security
department in a business is sometimes just called security.

These security issues require a robust workplace security system to avoid any risk to a business, which
may be physical damage, robbery, theft, or system hacking. Physical security is arguably the most
critical aspect of workplace safety

Question 15. Write type of attacks?

Ans.: An attack is an information security threat that involves an attempt to obtain, alter, destroy,
remove, implant or reveal information without authorized access or permission. It happens to both
individuals and organizations. There are many different kinds of attacks, including but not limited to
passive, active, targeted, clickjacking, brandjacking, botnet, phishing, spamming, inside and outside .

Top 10 Most Common Types of Cyber Attacks

1. Denial-of-service (DoS) and distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks

2. Man-in-the-middle (MitM) attack
3. Phishing and spear phishing attacks
4. Drive-by attack
5. Password attack
6. SQL injection attack
7. Cross-site scripting (XSS) attack
8. Eavesdropping attack
9. Birthday attack
10. Malware attack

Question 16. What is Steganography?

Ans.: Well in the world of cybersecurity, steganography is the technique of hiding secret data within a
non-secret, ordinary file or message to avoid being detected. It will be decoded only at the destination.
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
The history of steganography dates back to 1500 when Johannes Trithemius used the term in his book
Steganography.

Steganography is the art of hiding a message. Steganography works by changing bits of useless or bot
used data in regular computer files (such as graphics, sound, text, HTML) with bits of different,
invisible information. This hidden information can be plain text, cipher text, or even images

Question 17. What is Symmetric and Asymmetric Key?

Ans.: Symmetric encryption is a type of encryption where only one key (a secret key) is used to both
encrypt and decrypt electronic information. ... This encryption method differs from asymmetric
encryption where a pair of keys, one public and one private, is used to encrypt and decrypt messages.

Asymmetric cryptography, also known as public-key cryptography, is a process that uses a pair of
related keys -- one public key and one private key -- to encrypt and decrypt a message and protect
it from unauthorized access or use. ... A private key -- also known as a secret key is shared only
with key's initiator.

The basic difference between symmetric and asymmetric key cryptography is that symmetric
encryption requires the same key to be encrypted and decrypted. In the other hand, asymmetric
encryption uses a key for encryption and uses another key for decryption. ... It is also known as
publickey cryptography.

Question 18. What is Encryption and Decryption?

Ans.: Encryption is defined as the conversion of something to code or symbols so that its contents
cannot be understood if intercepted. When a confidential email needs to be sent and you use a program
that obscures its content, this is an example of encryption. Encryption is the process of translating plain
text data (plaintext) into something that appears to be random and meaningless (cipher text).
Decryption is the process of converting cipher text back to plaintext. To decrypt a particular piece of
cipher text, the key that was used to encrypt the data must be used.

Definition: The conversion of encrypted data into its original form is called Decryption. It is generally
a reverse process of encryption. It decodes the encrypted information so that an authorized user can
only decrypt the data because decryption requires a secret key or password.

Encryption is the process of translating plain text data (plaintext) into something that appears to be
random and meaningless (cipher text). Decryption is the process of converting cipher text back to
plaintext. To decrypt a particular piece of cipher text, the key that was used to encrypt the data must be
used.
Question: 19 what is Key Range and Key Size?
Ans.: Key Range is total number of keys from smallest to largest available key. An attacker usually is
armed with the knowledge of the cryptographic algorithm and the encrypted message, so only the
actual key value remains the challenge for the attacker
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580

In cryptography, key size or key length is the size (measured in bits or bytes) of the key used in a
cryptographic algorithm (such as a cipher). Typical key sizes in modern symmetric ciphers are 128,
192, and 256 bits. Older symmetric ciphers used only 40, 56, or 64 bits, which can be broken by brute
force

Question: 20 What is DES?

Ans. The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric-key block cipher published by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). DES is an implementation of a Feistel Cipher. It uses 16
round Feistel structure.

Question: 21 What is RSA?

Ans.: RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is a public-key cryptosystem that is widely used for secure
data transmission. It is also one of the oldest. The acronym RSA comes from the surnames of Ron
Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman, who publicly described the algorithm in 1977. An
equivalent system was developed secretly, in 1973 at GCHQ (the British signals intelligence agency),
by the English mathematician Clifford Cocks. That system was declassified in 1997.

In a public-key cryptosystem, the encryption key is public and distinct from the decryption key, which
is kept secret (private). An RSA user creates and publishes a public key based on two large prime
numbers, along with an auxiliary value. The prime numbers are kept secret. Messages can be encrypted
by anyone, via the public key, but can only be decoded by someone who knows the prime numbers

The security of RSA relies on the practical difficulty of factoring the product of two large prime
numbers, the "factoring problem". Breaking RSA encryption is known as the RSA problem. Whether it
is as difficult as the factoring problem is an open question.There are no published methods to defeat
the system if a large enough key is used.

RSA is a relatively slow algorithm. Because of this, it is not commonly used to directly encrypt user
data. More often, RSA is used to transmit shared keys for symmetric key cryptography, which are then
used for bulk encryption-decryption.

Question: 22 What is Digital Signature?

Ans.: A digital signature: a type of electronic signature is a mathematical algorithm routinely used to
validate the authenticity and integrity of a message (e.g., an email, a credit card transaction, or a digital
document). Digital signatures are significantly more secure than other forms of electronic signatures.
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
A digital signature is exactly what it sounds like a modern alternative to signing documents with paper
and pen. It uses an advanced mathematical technique to check the authenticity and integrity of digital
messages and documents. It guarantees that the contents of a message are not altered in transit and helps
us overcome the problem of impersonation and tampering in digital communications.

Digital signatures also provide additional information such as the origin of the message, status, and
consent by the signer.

Question: 23. Explain the Zadeh’s Extension principle with example?

Ans.: Zadeh's extension principle is one of the most fundamental principles in fuzzy set theory. It
provides a powerful technique in order to extend a real continuous function to a function accepting fuzzy
sets as arguments. If the function is monotone, then the endpoints of the output can be determined quite
easily.

Zadeh's extension principle is one of the most fundamental principles in fuzzy set theory. It provides a
powerful technique in order to extend a real continuous function to a function accepting fuzzy sets as
arguments. If the function is monotone, then the endpoints of the output can be determined quite easily.
However, the difficulty arises when the function is non-monotone. In that case, the computation of the
output is not an easy task. The purpose of this paper is to provide a new method to reduce this difficulty.
The method is based on the implementation of optimization technique over the α-cuts of fuzzy set. By
doing so, the endpoints of the output can be approximated. The method proposed in this paper is easy to
implement and can be applied to many practical applications. Several examples are given to illustrate the
effectiveness of the proposed method.

The extension Principle : In a mapping provided by the general function f: y = f (x), if the input, x is
crisp, then the resulting output, y, is also crisp. We say that the crisp function f : X → Y is fuzzified
when it is extended to act on fuzzy sets defined on X and Y.

Extension Principle: Let X be a cartesian product of universes X=X1…Xr, and be r fuzzy sets in
X1,…,Xr, respectively. f is a mapping from X to a universe Y, y=f(x1,…,xr), Then the extension
principle allows us to define a fuzzy set in Y by where Extension Principle. Example
1f(x)=x2Extension Principle
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Question 24. Explain Cartesian product of two or more fuzzy sets with examples?

Ans.

A concept of fuzzy Cartesian product is introduced using a suitable lattice. A fuzzy relation is then
defined as a subset of the fuzzy Cartesian product analogously to the crisp case. Results corresponding
to those on ordinary equivalence relations are proved for fuzzy equivalence relations

Advertisements. Fuzzy sets can be considered as an extension and gross oversimplification of classical
sets. It can be best understood in the context of set membership. Basically it allows partial membership
which means that it contain elements that have varying degrees of membership in the set.

A new approach to Cartesian product, relations and functions in fuzzy set theory is established. A
concept of fuzzy Cartesian product is introduced using a suitable lattice. A fuzzy relation is then defined
as a subset of the fuzzy Cartesian product analogously to the crisp case. Fuzzy equivalence relations are
introduced and investigated. Results corresponding to those on ordinary equivalence relations are proved
for fuzzy equivalence relations. Finally, the notion of a fuzzy function is introduced, as a special type of
fuzzy relations, and is then investigated. This fuzzy function generalizes Zadeh's definition of functions
in the fuzzy context.

Question 25. What is spanning tree? Also explain binary tree with example?
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Ans.: A spanning tree is a subset of Graph G, which has all the vertices covered with minimum possible
number of edges. Hence, a spanning tree does not have cycles and it cannot be disconnected.. By this
definition, we can draw a conclusion that every connected and undirected Graph G has at least one
spanning tree

Given a graph G=(V,E), a subgraph of G that is connects all of the vertices and is a tree is called a
spanning tree . For example, suppose we start with this graph: We can remove edges until we are left
with a tree: the result is a spanning tree. Clearly, a spanning tree will have |V|-1 edges, like any other
tree.

In computer science, a binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two children,
which are referred to as the left child and the right child. It is also possible to interpret a binary tree as an
undirected, rather than a directed graph, in which case a binary tree is an ordered, rooted tree.

Question 26. Explain trees and their properties? Show with figure?
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Ans. A tree is a nonlinear data structure, compared to arrays, linked lists, stacks and queues which are
linear data structures. A tree can be empty with no nodes or a tree is a structure consisting of one node
called the root and zero or one or more subtrees.

Definition − A Tree is a connected acyclic undirected graph. There is a unique path between every pair
of vertices in G. A tree with N number of vertices contains (N-1) number of edges. The vertex, which is
of 0 degree, is called root of the tree

Properties. Every tree is a bipartite graph. Every tree is a median graph. Every tree with only countably
many vertices is a planar graph. Every connected graph G admits a spanning tree, which is a tree that
contains every vertex of G and whose edges are edges of G.

A tree is a representation of the non-linear data structure. A tree can be shown using different userdefined
or primitive types of data. We can use arrays, and classes connected lists or other kinds of data structures
to implement the tree. It is a group of interrelated nodes.

Question 27. Explain Chi-square test?

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Ans.: A chi-squared test, also written as χ² test, is a statistical hypothesis test that is valid to perform
when the test statistic is chi-squared distributed under the null hypothesis, specifically Pearson's
chisquared test and variants thereof.

Chi-Square Independence Test - What Is It? if two categorical variables are related in some population.
Example: a scientist wants to know if education level and marital status are related for all people in
some country.

Chi Square Test?

There are two types of chi-square tests. Both use the chi-square statistic and distribution for different
purposes:-

• A chi-square goodness of fit test determines if sample data matches a population. For more details
on this type, see: Goodness of Fit Test.
• A chi-square test for independence compares two variables in a contingency table to see if they are
related. In a more general sense, it tests to see whether distributions of categorical variables differ
from each another.
• A very small chi square test statistic means that your observed data fits your expected data
extremely well. In other words, there is a relationship.
• A very large chi square test statistic means that the data does not fit very well. In other words, there
is not a relationship.

Key take a ways

• A chi-square (χ2) statistic is a measure of the difference between the observed and expected
frequencies of the outcomes of a set of events or variables.
• χ2 depends on the size of the difference between actual and observed values, the degrees of
freedom, and the samples size.
• χ2 can be used to test whether two variables are related or independent from one another or to test
the goodness-of-fit between an observed distribution and a theoretical distribution of frequencies.

Where:
c= Degrees of freedom O= Observed value(s) E=Expected value(s)

Question 28. Explain t-students distribution?

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Ans.: The one sample hypothesis test described in Hypothesis Testing using the Central Limit
Theorem using the normal distribution is fine when one knows the standard deviation of the
population distribution and the population is either normally distributed or the sample is sufficiently
large that the Central Limit Theorem applies.

The problem is that the standard deviation of the population is generally not known. One approach for
addressing this is to use the standard deviation s of the sample as an approximation for the standard
deviation σ for the population. In fact, as is described below, such an approach is possible using the t
distribution.

Definition 1: The (Student’s) t distribution with k degrees of freedom, abbreviated T(k) has probability
distribution function given by

Observations: Key statistical properties of the t distribution are:

• Mean = 0 for k > 0

• Median = 0
• Mode = 0
• Range = (-∞, ∞)
• Variance = k ⁄ (k – 2) for k > 2
• Skewness = 0 for k > 3
• Kurtosis = 6 ⁄ (k – 4) for k > 4

The overall shape of the probability density function of the t distribution resembles the bell shape of a
normally distributed variable with mean 0 and variance 1, except that it is a bit lower and wider. As the
number of degrees of freedom grows, the t distribution approaches the standard normal distribution, and
in fact the approximation is quite close for k ≥ 30.

Question 29. What is Level of significance?

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Ans. The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is a measure of the strength of the evidence
that must be present in your sample before you will reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the
effect is statistically significant. Compare your p-value to your significance level.

The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
when it is true. For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a
difference exists when there is no actual difference

The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is a measure of the strength of the evidence that must
be present in your sample before you will reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the effect is
statistically significant. The researcher determines the significance level before conducting the
experiment.

The significance level is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For example, a
significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a difference exists when there is no
actual difference. Lower significance levels indicate that you require stronger evidence before you will
reject the null hypothesis.

Use significance levels during hypothesis testing to help you determine which hypothesis the data
support. Compare your p-value to your significance level. If the p-value is less than your significance
level, you can reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the effect is statistically significant. In other
words, the evidence in your sample is strong enough to be able to reject the null hypothesis at the
population level.

Question 30 : Explain Expectation and variance of random variable?

Ans. The expected value (or mean) of X, where X is a discrete random variable, is a weighted average
of the possible values that X can take, each value being weighted according to the probability of that
event occurring. The expected value of X is usually written as E(X) or m

The random variable being the marks scored in the test. The variance of a random variable shows the
variability or the scatterings of the random variables. It shows the distance of a random variable from its
mean. It is calculated as σx2 = Var (X) = ∑i (xi − μ)2 p(xi) = E(X − μ)2 or, Var(X) = E(X2) − [E(X)]2.

A measure of spread for a distribution of a random variable that determines the degree to which the
values of a random variable differ from the expected value. The variance of random variable X is often
written as Var(X) or σ2 or σ2x.
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
Question 31. What is Network analysis (PERT/ CPM).

Ans.: Project Management has scientific ways of planning, implementing, monitoring & controlling.
It considers various parameters of a project. These include money, material, work force, time, and
other resources. It includes Scope, Time & Cost.

We have network planning methods for this. These are PERT and CPM. PERT project management and
CPM are two famous managerial techniques. PERT is an abbreviation of the Program Evaluation and
Review Technique. CPM is an abbreviation of the Critical Path Method.

PERT was developed by the US Navy for the planning and control of the Polaris missile program. PERT
was developed essentially to simplify the planning and scheduling of large and complex projects. It was
developed for the U.S, Navy Special Projects Office. This happened in 1957 to support the U.S. Navy's
Polaris nuclear submarine project. Emphasis was on completing the program as soon as possible. Later,
this found applications across industries. It was used for the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble.

They applied PERT from 1965 until the opening of the 1968 Games. This project model was the first of
its kind, a revival of scientific management, founded by Frederick Taylor and later refined by Henry
Ford. DuPont's critical path method was invented at roughly the same time as PERT.

CPM was developed by DuPont to solve project scheduling problems. Emphasis was on the trade-off
between the cost of the project and its overall completion time

Managing a project with these generally involves four steps:

• Planning
• Scheduling (Diagramming the network)
• Allocation of resources
• Controlling & Monitoring the Project Progress

PERT

Program Evaluation and review technique (PERT) is a technique for estimating. It applies a weighted
average of optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely estimates when there is uncertainty with the
individual task/activity estimates. So, PERT is a method to evaluate and estimate the time required to
complete a task. This is like a Three-Point estimate but here we give more weightage to the most likely
estimate. The accuracy of single-point task duration estimates may be improved by considering
estimation uncertainty and risk. This concept originated with the program evaluation and review
technique (PERT). PERT uses three estimates to define an approximate range for a task’s duration:

Most likely estimate (M): This estimate is based on the duration of the task, given the resources likely to
be assigned, their productivity, realistic expectations of availability for the activity, dependencies on
other participants, and interruptions.
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580

.CPM

Let us have look and understand what is the critical path method? Critical Path Method (CPM) is one of
the Tools & Techniques of Project Time Management. It is used to develop a schedule. Schedule
network analysis is a technique that generates the project schedule. It uses analytical techniques.
Example: Critical path method, critical chain method, what-if analysis, and resource optimization. These
techniques calculate the early and late, start and finish dates, for the remaining portions of project tasks .

Some network paths may have points of path convergence or divergence. These can be seen and used in
schedule compression analysis or other analyses.

The critical path method is used to estimate the minimum project duration. This will help determine the
amount of scheduling flexibility available on network paths. It calculates the early start, early finish, late
start, and late finish dates for all tasks. These do not consider any resource limitations by performing a
forward and backward pass analysis through the schedule network, as shown in Figure. We would be
using the term task and activity interchangeably.

Framework for PERT and CPM:

• Define the project

• Project should have a single start and finish task

• Develop relationships among the tasks

• Draw the "network" connecting all the tasks

• Assign time and/or cost estimates to each task

• Compute the critical path

• Use the network to help plan, schedule, monitor and control the project

Basic terms in a network:

Task / Activity:

• PERT activity: The actual performance of a task which consumes time and requires resources. It can be
representing the time, effort, and resources required to move from one event to another. A PERT activity
cannot be performed until the predecessor event has occurred or completed.

• PERT sub-activity: A PERT activity can be further decomposed into a set of sub-activities. For example,
activity P1 can be decomposed into P1.1, P1.2, and P1.3. Sub-activities have all the properties of
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
activities; in particular, a sub-activity has predecessor or successor events just like an activity. A sub-
activity can be decomposed again into finer-grained sub-activities.

Event:

• PERT event: It is a point that marks the start or completion of one or more tasks. It consumes no
time and uses no resources. When it marks the completion of one or more tasks, it is not
"reached" (does not occur) until all the tasks leading to that event have been completed.

• Predecessor event: This is an event that immediately precedes some other event without any
other events intervening. An event can have multiple predecessor events and can be the
predecessor of multiple events.

• Successor event: This is an event that immediately follows some other event without any other
intervening events. An event can have multiple successor events and can be the successor of
multiple events.
Management tools:

PERT supplies many tools for management with the determination of concepts. Let us have a look at a
few

• Float or slack: Is a measure of the excess time and resources available to complete a task. It is
the amount of time that a project task can be delayed without causing a delay in any subsequent
tasks (free float) or the whole project (total float). Positive slack would indicate ahead of
schedule; negative slack would indicate behind schedule, and zero slack would indicate on
schedule.

• Critical path: The longest possible continuous pathway taken from the initial event to the
terminal event. It determines the total calendar time required for the project; and, therefore, any
time delays along the critical path will delay the reaching of the terminal event by at least the
same amount.

• Critical Activity: An activity on a critical path is a critical activity. This has total float equal to
zero. There could be activities with zero float buy that may not necessarily be on the critical path
since its path may not be the longest.

• Lead Time: The time by which a predecessor event must be completed in order to allow enough
time for the activities that must elapse before a specific PERT event reaches completion.

• Lag Time: The earliest time by which a successor event can follow a specific PERT event.

• Fast Tracking: Here one would be performing more critical activities in parallel
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
• Crashing critical path: Shortening duration of critical activities.

Question: 32 What is inventory system?

Ans.: Inventory management is a part of the supply chain management, which includes various aspects
such as the process of ordering, storing and using the company’s inventory like raw materials, its
components, and the finished products. It is also used for controlling the number of products for sale. It
helps to manage the inventory and stock of the company.

Inventory management has been defined quite simply as having the right inventory of the right quantity
and place to be sold at the right time with the right cost. Having effective inventory management helps
to ensure that there is a sufficient amount of stock available at hand to meet the customer demands.
Mishandling of inventory management could result in enormous losses for businesses due to the
fulfillment of potential sales or overstocking. Inventory management ensures that such mistakes are
avoided.

Methods of Inventory Management

Here are some of the widely used inventory management techniques that are used by traders and online
sellers.

Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)

EOQ is the least amount of inventory that should be ordered for meeting peak customer demands
without running out of stock or producing obsolete inventory. The purpose of EOQ is to reduce
inventory to the minimum and lower the cost of inventory to the least possible amount. EOQ uses the
three variables, viz.,
• Demand
• Relevant Ordering Cost
• Relevant Carrying Cost

Minimum Order Quantity (MOQ)

It is the least set amount of stock that a supplier is prepared to sell. In case the buyer does not agree to
purchase the MOQ of a product, then the supplier will not agree to execute the order.
The purpose of MOQ is to ensure suppliers can increase their profits while selling more inventory
quicker and eliminating “bargain shoppers.” MOQ is fixed depending on the total cost of inventory
including other expenses to be paid before making a profit. This ensures MOQs help the wholesalers in
maintaining profitability with healthy cash flow.

ABC Analysis
The analysis is a sorting method depending on the demand for the product and the expenses that will be
incurred to hold the particular stock.
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580

A Goods – Bestsellers and taking the least amount of storage space

B Goods – Mid-range but in regular demand and more expensive to store as compared to ‘A’ items C
Goods – The rest of the inventory which contributes the least but takes up the bulk of inventory costs.

Just-in-Time Inventory

This inventory is making goods that are needed, when they are required, in the amount they are required.
Many companies hold a small stockpile in case of unexpected demand for commodities. Just-in-time
Inventory establishes a “zero inventory” system. The goods are manufactured by order and operate on a
“pull” system. The system triggers a sequence of activities once an order comes through. The staff gets
into the process of either organizing the stock or manufacturing them.

Safety Stock Inventory

Safety Stock Inventory is keeping aside a small amount of stock as a safeguard against the variability of
the product in market demand. It helps in preventing loss of revenue, customers, and market share. The
reason behind this is:
• Protection against a sudden spike in demands
• Prevention against incorrect market forecasts
• Safety from stock out
• Buffer against unexpectedly longer lead times

FIFO / LIFO

This accounting method helps in valuing your inventory and calculating profitability.
First In, First Out – In the FIFO system, the oldest items in the inventory are sent out first.
Last In, First Out – In the LIFO system, the newest items in the inventory are sent out first.

Drop Shipping

In this method, you sell and ship products that are neither owned nor stocked by you. The benefits of this
system are:
• Low cost of start-up and inventory
• A low cost incurred for fulfilling the order
• More scope in testing newer products with minimum risk

Maintaining Reorder Level

This method ensures that you know exactly when you need to order more stock. This method protects
you from market slumps and spikes and ensures that you have the required amount of stock in hand
every month. Sometimes, there is a high demand for a specific product, which is great for businesses as
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
it means that you are making profits with each sale, but it also says that your inventories are coming
down at an equally fast pace.

Reordering before running out of stock also means an additional charge for storage and delay in ordering
means stock out and losing your customers to your competitors. For calculating the reorder point:

• Calculate lead time in days

• Account for safety stock in days
Question: 33 Explain Basic characteristics of an inventory system?

Ans.:

Inventory characteristics include how much inventory to order, the order cycle, which is how often to
place orders for the product; as well as supplier information, product cost, product lead time, minimum
and maximum order quantities, lot-size availability, product unit of measure (pieces, each, tons, bags)
and other

An inventory app can have distinctive features, depending on the businesses it is serving to. You can
integrate end number of elements as per your industry and use. However, there are some standard
features, which every inventory management app should have in place.

1. Inventory Management

The module or feature is all meant to keep your essential warehouse functions centralized. This helps in
tracking every single inventory details like stock level, product history, and other product specifications.
More importantly, the data syncs with all other modules in the inventory system. This helps in accurately
operating inventory which enhances productivity by promoting a sense of collaboration among team
members working from different locations on their systems.

The Inventory Management module enables you to have multiple sub-categories and features to get
realtime reports for all necessary inventory. The automated shortage reports help in controlling any
issues quickly and timely manner; alerts and reports let you efficiently tackle any unfortunate inventory
mishaps. Inventory management empowers you to successfully build your ecommerce presence at
various locations.

Here are the top things you can do with Inventory Control feature:-

• Categorization of products in stocks

• Measurement of products
• Inventory/Products history
• Cycle counting
• Livestock reports
• Vendor management
• Ecommerce
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
• Total Inventory Management

2. Barcoding & Tagging

Barcoding module helps you eliminate standard human error, which often occurs due to manual data
accumulations. Scanning barcode provides fast and reliable solutions compared to manual data entry. At
the same time, having a barcode system in place reduces employee-training time, as it requires no more
than a few minutes to master. The traditional means used to require immense efforts and workforce to
train an employee on how to record products details.
Barcoding improves inventory control and tracks things such as pricing and product details precisely.
Here are some of the most essential things, which you can get with the support of barcode module;

• Scan barcode easily

• Faster performance
• Records things faster than the workforce
• Get precise details of products
• Locate products
• Barcode and Tagging
• Inventory Management System

3. Inventory Tracking

Warehouse requires a workforce to keep a tab at every step. Barcode, which we have understood earlier
in this article, plays a significant role in letting you track your inventory accurately. Assets serial
number, RFID, and other things important here as these are the things, which let, you know real-time
data of everything inventory.

Things you can do with the Inventory tracking;

• Product tracking
• Tagging
• Reports and audits
• Inventory Tracking Solutions

4. Reporting Tools

For any inventory business to be efficient, you need to be updated with real-time data regarding product
status, driver’s whereabouts, order status, shipment and much more. An efficient Inventory Management
app comes with the capabilities of integrating various reporting tools and features that makes the
reporting process easier. This is a crucial feature for any hardcore inventory business.

Here are the benefits you can get from optimized reporting tools:

• Smooth and flawless communication

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
• Enhanced Productivity
• Reduced common human error
• Reporting Tools for Inventory Management
• Businesses who actively manage their inventory report a 2-10% increase in sales

5. Inventory Forecasting

You would never want to disappoint your customers with their favorite products out of the stocks, would
you? Inventory forecast, as the name suggests, lets you find out which products are going to out of stock
soon and what’s in abundance. This is a great trick to have up your sleeve for serving an excellent user
experience to your customers. The biggest advantage of forecasting is it gives you the control and
wisdom of spending your resources wisely. You should be more alert about sales attributes such as size,
color, material, scent and other features to be better prepared. This gives you a better judgement of
purchase quantity and a better understanding of what to purchase when.

Here is what you your business get with:

• Powerful future insights

• Align sales and marketing efforts
• Reduce the risk of stock outs
• Lower holding costs
• Increased turnover rates
• Maximizes asset efficiency
• Inventory Forecasting

6. Inventory Alerts

Gone are the days when you had to waste your valuable business time and money on manually
monitoring the critical stock data. What if it directly be alerted via a low stock inventory alert? With the
right inventory alert feature, you will be able to find out the possible issues which might occur in the
future directly via email or SMS alert. What goes out; what comes in; status of a shipment, issues alerts,
etc. important aspects of running a business accurately will be easily managed by getting a reliable
inventory alerts.

Here are some awesome benefits that you got with this feature:

• Reduced stock waste

• Optimized inventory levels
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
• Improved cross department visibility of stock data
• Helps manage your Investment Style
• Drive sales
• Maintain operational control
• Inventory Alert

7. Inventory Security and Backups

No matter what business you are in, having the right security for your inventory is essential. If you have
Inventory Management Apps, the proper protection should be put in place. Right from protecting your
assets to the data it accumulates should be safe and adequately backed up. Generally, the inventory
should be securely optimized, to protect our data from hacking.

8. Io T Integration

Io T-driven inventory management is an increasing demand and as an IoT along with RFID helping
manufacturers outflank the problems faced manually. Right from real-time visibility of the inventory to
record details of the inventory automatically can help you manage the inventory smartly.
IoT integrated with inventory system boils down to the data fetched by RFID readers into productive and
meaningful insights. Integrating the IIoT into the inventory system will get you insights will keep you
more focused while it will keep in you informed about the items’ location, assets’ live status, movement
and so much more.

Besides, it has plenty of other benefits such as:

• Automated tracking and reporting
• Keeps a constant tab on assets, location, movement, and quantity
• Keeps inventory optimized
• Lead time optimization
• IOT Integrated Inventory Management System

9. Cloud-Based Software with Real-Time Updates

When you have a cloud-based inventory system, you are supposed to access the inventory app into any
device. It empowers you with the ability to track inventory in real-time. You are able to access the
system into any device, anytime, anywhere, that means it will improve the coordination between among
staffs. Having accurate coordination will lead to taking a quick and perfect decision.

Following are some benefits of integrating your inventory with cloud support:
• Cost Savings
• Ease of access
• Always Safe and Secure
• Real-time visibility
• Enhanced Efficiency
• Improved Coordination
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
• Cloud Integrated Inventory Management

10. Inventory App Integration with Other Systems

There are companies which have already installed some other software such ERP system. In such a case,
an Inventory management app can easily be integrated into it and provide more sophisticated data
relentlessly. You can choose not to incorporate into the inventory system into ERP.

11. Transfer Management Capabilities

For a growing inventory-related business, the more you grow, the more you will have to manage
recurring and complicated inventory transfer requests. Managing these transfer requests is not an easy
task. But it is an important one. Successful transfer requests are the key to ensuring warehouses are
securely stocked and to ensure the business operations continue seamlessly through this transitions.

Here are some of the benefits of having Transfer Management Capabilities in your Inventory
Management System:
• Reduces chance of miscommunication
• Real-time monitoring to ensure transfer gets done in a secured manner
• Notifications and alerts for any discrepancies
• Saves time and money

12. Mobile Support

No matter how efficient your inventory management system is, it really doesn’t amount to much if it
can’t be monitored/managed remotely. Most efficient Inventory Management apps come with either a
mobile website or a native mobile application. Mobile support depends on OS specifications so you
should keep that in mind as well. Most vendors would try to create apps that support all platforms, but it
is still a good habit to double check.
• The benefits of having capabilities of mobile support in your Inventory Management app are 
Boosts Productivity
• Give 24/7 real-time access
• Reduce/Eliminate inter-department paperwork
• Real-time data inputs can help increase efficiency

13. Stock Returns Handling

This is one of the most important feature any Inventory Management System should have. When you are
dealing in the Ecommerce platform, there will be many instances where your products would be
purchased, delivered to the customer and returned for various reasons. In such a case, it can be
overwhelming to manually keep track of returned stocks, and deciding what happens with them. Hence,
if you have an efficient Inventory Management System in place, it will be able to create, confirm or
cancel returns, assign it to the desired warehouse and add pick-up date. There should also be a return
reason based on which it can decide if the inventory should go for refund or replacement. Such software
 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
should also be capable of sending return updates via SMS or email and sync tracking with the shipping
partner.

Stock Returns handling can help you:

• Gives you a competitive advantage
• Helps save time and money
• Improves customer satisfaction
• Reduces chances of wrong entry
• Helps you streamline a tedious process

These are some of the top, and standard features which you will have in inventory applications, though
you can integrate as many features and functionalities along with customization and optimizations as per
your industry needs.

Question 34. Prove that the following are equivalent for a graph T. (i)
T is a tree.
Ans. The maximum distance, maxd(v, vi) from a given vertex v to any other vertex occurs only when vi
is a pendant vertex. With this observation, let T be a tree having more than two vertices. Tree T has two
or more pendant vertices. Deleting all the pendant vertices from T, the resulting graph T is again a tree.

Since tree (T) is a connected graph, there exist at least one path between every pair of vertices in a tree
(T). Now, suppose between two vertices a and b of the tree (T) there exist two paths. The union of these
two paths will contain a circuit and tree (T) cannot be a tree. Hence the above statement is proved

(ii) Any two vertices are connected in T by a unique path.

Ans.: A graph is a tree iff any 2 vertices are connected by a unique path (Proof Verification). Hence,
there is a unique path between any 2 vertices. For the other direction suppose for contradiction there is a
cycle in T i.e. u,u1,u2,...,un,u

Suppose TT is a tree and u,vu,v are vertices s.t there are 2 distinct paths between them.

i.e. u,u1,u2,...,un,vu,u1,u2,...,un,v and u,u′1,u′2,...,u′m,vu,u1′,u2′,...,um′,v.

If ∀ui∀ui, ui∉{u′1,u′2,...,u′m}ui∉{u1′,u2′,...,um′} this implies u,u1,..,v,u′m,..,uu,u1,..,v,um′,..,u is a

cycle in T. Contradiction

If not let II be the least index s.t ui∈{u′1,u′2,...,u′m}ui∈{u1′,u2′,...,um′}.

Therefore, u,u1,u2,...,uI,u′I−1,u′I−2,...,uu,u1,u2,...,uI,uI−1′,uI−2′,...,u is now a cycle in T. Contradiction.

Hence, there is a unique path between any 2 vertices.

 Assignments
Program M.Tech - HSE Semester I Sem.
Subject Advanced Computational Methodology Subject Code MSCCP101
Name Ram Niwas Enrollment No. SRUAA1580
For the other direction suppose for contradiction there is a cycle in T i.e. u,u1,u2,...,un,uu,u1,u2,...,un,u.
Then, u,u1u,u1 and u,un,un−1,..,u1u,un,un−1,..,u1 are 2 distinct paths in T.

(iii) T is a cyclic and εT = νT −1.

Ans. :If1yt lis ergodic and its rth momentµr is finite, then T −1 ∑T t =1 y r t ... E [εt εt −j. ] =
Cov(εt , εt −j ) = 0 for t = 1, 2, . . . , j = 0. An i.i.d. series with finite second moments is trivially white
noise, but other ... yt +h = β1 + β2 ˆyt +h|t + νt ... be used to “extract” a stationary cyclic component from
a time-series which contains both short