Q. State the any four characteristics of fiber optic cable.

ANS:

Fiber optic cables are known for their high bandwidth, low signal loss,
immunity to electromagnetic interference, and ability to transmit data at high
speeds over long distances.

Here's a more detailed explanation of four key characteristics:

High Bandwidth:
Fiber optic cables can carry significantly more data than traditional copper
cables due to the high frequency of light signals, allowing for faster and
more efficient data transmission.
Low Signal Loss (Attenuation):
Fiber optic cables experience less signal degradation over long distances
compared to copper cables, meaning the signal remains strong and clear,
even over extended lengths.
Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):
Fiber optic cables are not susceptible to electromagnetic interference,
unlike copper cables, ensuring reliable data transmission in environments
with high levels of electrical noise.
High-Speed Data Transmission:
Fiber optic cables transmit data as pulses of light, allowing for extremely
fast data transfer rates, making them ideal for applications requiring high
bandwidth and speed.

Q.List the different modes of propagation.

ANS:

The main modes of electromagnetic wave propagation are ground waves (or
surface waves), sky waves (or space waves), and space waves (or line-of-
sight).

● Ground Waves (Surface Waves): These waves follow the Earth's

surface, traveling along the ground.
● Sky Waves (or Space Waves): These waves are reflected off the
ionosphere, allowing for long-distance communication.
● Space Waves (or Line-of-Sight): These waves travel in a straight line
from the transmitter to the receiver, without reflection.

Q.Describe Error control in short.

ANS:

Error control is a technique used in data communication and networking to

detect and correct errors that occur during data transmission. It ensures
reliable delivery of data between sender and receiver.

There are two main parts:

 1. Error detection – Identifying if an error has occurred using methods
like parity bits, checksums, or CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check).

2. Error correction – Fixing the detected errors using techniques like

Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) or Forward Error Correction (FEC).

error control helps maintain data accuracy and integrity during

communication.

Q.State different types of errors and explain any one.

ANS:

Types of Errors in Data Communication:

1. Single-bit error

2. Burst error

3. Random error

4. Burst-length error

Explanation of Single-bit Error:

A single-bit error occurs when only one bit in the data unit is changed during
transmission.
For example:
Original data: 10011010
Received data: 10011110 (only one bit is flipped)

Causes:

● Electrical noise or signal distortion

● Hardware malfunction
Detection & Correction:

● Detected using parity bits or CRC

● Corrected using techniques like Hamming code

This type is the simplest to detect and correct.

Q.List networking devices.

ANS:

Common Networking Devices:

1. Router
2. Switch
3. Hub
4. Bridge
5. Modem
6. Access Point (AP)
7. Repeater
8. Gateway
9. Network Interface Card (NIC)
10. Firewall

Q.State function of Hub.

ANS:
 Function of a Hub:

A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple computers or

network devices in a Local Area Network (LAN).

Main function:

● It receives data from one device and broadcasts it to all other

connected devices, regardless of the destination.

Note:

● Hubs operate at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.

● They do not filter data or have intelligence to send it to a specific

device.

Because of this, hubs are less efficient than switches and are rarely used in
modern networks.

Q.Explain Hamming Code with example.

ANS:

Hamming Code: Error Detection and Correction

Hamming Code is an error-detecting and error-correcting code developed by

Richard Hamming. It adds redundant (parity) bits to data bits to detect and
correct single-bit errors.

Key Concept:

For ‘d’ data bits, Hamming Code uses ‘r’ parity bits, where the number of
parity bits is the smallest number that satisfies:

2r≥d+r+12^r \geq d + r + 1

Steps to Generate Hamming Code:

1. Determine positions of parity bits (positions: powers of 2 → 1, 2,

4, 8…).

2. Insert parity bits at those positions and data bits in the remaining.

3. Calculate parity bits using even or odd parity.

4. Transmit the code.

Example:

Let’s take 4 data bits: 1 0 1 1

We need to find Hamming Code using even parity.

Step 1: Number of parity bits

We find smallest r such that

2r≥4+r+12^r \geq 4 + r + 1

Try r = 3 → 23=8≥4+3+1=82^3 = 8 \geq 4 + 3 + 1 = 8

So we need 3 parity bits.

Step 2: Position bits

Positions: P1 P2 D1 P4 D2 D3 D4
Fill in data bits:
__1_011

Step 3: Calculate parity bits (even parity)

● P1 checks positions 1,3,5,7 → bits: P1, D1, D2, D4 → P1 1 0 1 →

sum = 2 → P1 = 0

● P2 checks positions 2,3,6,7 → bits: P2, D1, D3, D4 → P2 1 1 1 →

sum = 3 → P2 = 1 (to make total even)

● P4 checks positions 4–7 → P4, D2, D3, D4 → P4 0 1 1 → sum =

2 → P4 = 0

Step 4: Final Hamming Code

Positions: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bits: 0110011

So the Hamming code is: 0110011

Q.Describe component of PPP.

ANS
 Components of PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol):

PPP is a data link layer protocol used to establish a direct connection between
two nodes. It is widely used in dial-up connections, DSL, and other WAN
technologies.

Main Components of PPP:

1. Framing

○ Encapsulates network layer packets into PPP frames for

transmission.

○ Adds headers and trailers for proper delivery.

2. Link Control Protocol (LCP)

○ Establishes, configures, tests, and terminates the data link.

○ Handles authentication, error detection, and compression options.

 3. Network Control Protocols (NCPs)

○ Used to configure and enable different network layer protocols

(like IP, IPX).

○ Examples: IPCP (for IP), IPXCP (for IPX).

Bonus (optional features):

● Authentication Protocols: Like PAP and CHAP.

● Error Detection: Uses CRC in the frame.

● Compression: Supports data compression using options like CCP

(Compression Control Protocol).

Q.With neat diagram list and explain transition phase of PPP protocol.
PPP Transition Phases Explained:

1. Link Dead

○ Initial phase; no active connection.

○ The link is idle, and no traffic is exchanged.

2. Link Establishment Phase

○ Uses LCP (Link Control Protocol) to establish and configure the

link.

○ Negotiates link parameters (authentication, compression, etc.).

 3. Authentication Phase (Optional)

○ If enabled, authentication is performed using PAP or CHAP.

○ Ensures that the connection is with a legitimate user/device.

4. Network Layer Protocol Phase

○ After authentication, NCP (Network Control Protocols) configure

network layer protocols like IP (via IPCP).

○ The actual data transfer begins.

5. Link Termination Phase

○ Either side can terminate the connection using LCP Terminate

packets.

○ The link returns to the Link Dead state.

Q.Draw and explain working of bridge.

ANS:
Bridge Diagram:

Working of a Bridge:

A bridge is a network device used to connect and filter traffic between

two or more LAN segments at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI
model.

How It Works:

1. MAC Address Learning:

○ The bridge learns MAC addresses of devices on each

connected LAN segment by examining incoming frames.

2. Forwarding Decision:

○ When the bridge receives a frame, it checks the destination

MAC address.

○ If the destination is on a different segment, it forwards the

frame to that segment.

○ If the destination is on the same segment, it does not forward

(prevents unnecessary traffic).

3. Filtering:
 ○ Prevents traffic from crossing segments when not needed.

○ Improves network performance and reduces collisions.

Example:

● If Host A sends data to Host B, the bridge sees that both are on LAN
A, so it doesn't forward the data to LAN B.

● If Host A sends data to Host C, the bridge forwards it to LAN B,

since Host C's MAC is known to be there.

Q.Difference between IPv4 and IPv6.

ANS:

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address 32-bit 128-bit

Length

Address Decimal (e.g., Hexadecimal (e.g.,

Format 192.168.1.1) 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334)

Address ~4.3 billion ~340 undecillion addresses

Space addresses (massively larger)

Header Size 20 bytes 40 bytes

Security Optional (IPSec is Built-in (IPSec is mandatory)

 optional)

Configurati Manual or DHCP Auto-configuration supported

on

Broadcastin Supports No broadcasting, uses multicast

g broadcasting instead

Fragmentati Done by sender Done only by sender

on and routers

Compatibilit Widely used, older Newer, not fully adopted everywhere

y technology yet