12-2 CONTROLLED

ACCESS
□In controlled access, the stations consult one
another to find which station has the right to
send.
□A station cannot send unless it has been
authorized by other stations.
□Three controlled-access methods:
1) Reservation
2) Polling
3) Token passing
 Reservation

□ In the reservation method, a station needs to make

a reservation before sending data.

□ Time is divided into intervals.

□ In each interval, a reservation frame precedes

the data frames sent in that interval.
Reservation access method
 Polling
□Polling works with topologies in which one device is
designated as a primary station and the other devices
are secondary stations.
□All data exchanges must be made through the primary
device even when the ultimate destination is a
secondary device.
□The primary device controls the link; the secondary
devices follow its instructions.
□ It is up to the primary device to determine
which device is allowed to use the channel at a given
time.
Select and poll functions in polling-access method
 Polling

■ If primary wants to receive data, it asks the

secondary's if they have anything to send.
■ This is called Polling.
■ If primary wants to send data, it tells
the secondary to get ready to receive.
■ This is called Select function.
 Token Passing

□In the token-passing method, the stations in a network

are organized in a logical ring.
□ In other words, for each station, there is a
predecessor and a successor.
□The predecessor is thestation which is logically
before the station in the ring;
□The successor is the station which is after the station
in the ring.
Logical ring and physical topology in token-passing
access method
 12-3 CHANNELIZATION

□Channelization(or channel partition, as it is

sometimes called) is a multiple-access
method in which the available bandwidth
of a link is shared in time, frequency, or
through code, among different stations.

□Discuss three protocols:

□ FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA.
 FDMA
□In frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), the
available bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.
Each station is allocated a band to send its data.
□In other words, each band is reserved for a specific
station, and it belongs to the station all the time.
□Each station also uses a bandpass filter to confine the
transmitter frequencies.
□To prevent station interferences, the allocates
bands are separated from one another by guard
bands.
FDMA specifies a predetermined frequency band for
the entire period of communication
Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
 FDMA
■ FDMA is access method in DLL.
■ DLL in each station tells the PL to make band pass
signal from the data passed to it.
■ The signal must be created in the allocated band.
■ There is no physical multiplexer at the physical layer.
■ Signals created at each stations are automatically
band pass filtered and mixed when they are sent to
the common channel.
 TDMA

□In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations

share the bandwidth of the channel in time.
□ Each station is allocated a time slot during which it
can send data.
Each station transmits its data in its assigned
time slot.
□Main problem of TDMA lies in achieving
synchronization between different stations.
□Each station needs to know beginning of its time
slot and location of its slot.
Time-division multiple access
(TDMA)
 TDMA
■ This may be difficult because of propagation delays
introduced in the system if the stations are spread
over a large area.
■ Synchronization is normally accomplished by having
some synchronization bits at the beginning of each
slot.
■ TDMA is an access method in DLL.
■ DLL in each station tells its physical layer to use
allocated time slots.
■ There is no physical multiplexer at the physical
layer.
 CDMA
□Code-division multiple access(CDMA) was conceived
several decades ago.
□Recent advances in electronic technology have
finally made its implementation possible.
□CDMA differs from FDMA in that only one
channel occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.
It differs from TDMA in that all stations can send data
simultaneously; there is no timesharing.
Idea: Assume that there are 4 stations 1,2,3 and 4 connected
to the same channel.
□The data from station1 are d1, station2 are d2, station 3 are d3
and station 4 are d4.
□ The code for station1 is C1, station2 is C2, station 3 is C3 and
station 4 is C4.
 CDMA
■ Assume that assigned codes have two properties
1)If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
2) if we multiply each code by itself, we get 4.
□ Station 1 multiplies its data by its code to get d1.c1.
□ Station 2 multiplies its data by its code to get d2.c2.
□ Station 3 multiplies its data by its code to get d3.c3.
□ Station 4 multiplies its data by its code to get d4.c4.
■ The data that go on channel is sum of all these terms.
■ CDMA is based on coding theory.
■ Each station is assigned a code, which is a sequence
of numbers called Chips.
Simple idea of communication with code
Chip sequences
 Chips
■ Sequence is not choosen randomly.
■ They are called orthogonal sequences and have following
properties.
1) Each sequence is made of N elements, where N is number
of stations.
2) If we multiply a sequence by a number, every element in the
sequence is multiplied by that number. This is called
multiplication of a sequence by a scalar.
Eg: 2.[+1 +1 -1 -1] = [+2 +2 -2 -2]
3) If we multiply two same sequences element by element, and
add the results, we get N. Where N is number of elements in
each sequence. This is called Linear product of two equal
sequences.
 Chips
Eg: [+1 +1 -1 -1]. [+1 +1 -1 -1]= 1+1+1+1=4.
4). If we multiply two different sequences, elementby
element and add the results, we get 0.This is called
inner product of two different sequences.
Eg: [+1 +1 -1 -1]. [+1 -1 -1+1]= +1-1+1-1=0
5) Adding two sequences means adding the
corresponding elements. The result is
another sequence.
Eg: [+1 +1 -1 -1]+ [+1 +1 -1 -1]= [+2+2 0 0]
Data representation in CDMA
 Data representation in CDMA
■ Follow the following rules for encoding.
■ If a station needs to send 0 bit, it encodes it as
-1, to send 1 bit, it encodes it as +1.
■ When station is idle, it sends no signal.
Sharing channel in CDMA
 Encoding and decoding
■ Assume that stations 1 and 2 are sending a 0 bit, station 4
is sending 1 bit. Station 3 is silent.
■ The data at the sender site are translated to -1,-1,0 and +1.
■ Each station multiplies corresponding number by its chip,
which is unique for each station.
■ The result is a new sequence which is sent to the channel.
■ We Assume that all stations send the resulting sequences
at the same time.
■ The sequence on the channel is the sum of all
four sequences.
 Continued..

■ Imagine station 3, which is silent, listening

to station 2.
■ Station 3 multiplies the total data on the
channel by the code for station 2, which is
[+1 -1 +1 -1], to get
[-1 -1 -3 +1[.[+1 -1 +1 -1]=-4/4=-1□bit 0.
Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA
Decoding of the composite signal for one in CDMA
 General rules and examples of creating Walsh
tables
■ To generate chip sequences, walsh table is
used which is a two dimensional table with an
equal number of rows and columns.
 Walsh table
■ In walsh table, each row is a sequence of chips.
■ W1 for a one-chip sequence has one row and
one column.
■ We choose -1 or +1 for the chip.
■ According to Walsh, if we know the table for
N sequences Wn, we can create a table for
2N sequences W2n.
■ The number of sequences in a Walsh table
needs to be N = 2m.