ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Student Leaning Outcome

Represent a sinusoidally alternating current or voltage by an equation of the
form 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡.
1) Definition
a) Alternating Current
The current which changes its magnitude continuously and direction periodically
is called alternating current.
b) Alternating Voltage
A voltage which changes its polarity and causes the change in direction of
current at regular interval of time is called an alternating voltage.
2) Explanation
When a rectangular coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field with a constant
angular velocity ‘𝜔’, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil. Consequently, there is a
flow of current in the output of the coil. As the rotation of the coil is uniform so,
its output current varies periodically both in positive and negative directions
after an equal interval of time.
• This current is known as alternating current.
• A source which produces potential difference of changing polarity with
time is called alternating voltage source.
• In alternating current, A.C generator is used to make electrons flow first in
one direction then in reverse direction.
a) Graphical Representation
Consider an alternating voltage source connected to a resistor R.
𝑇
• In the first half of cycle (0 𝑡𝑜 ), the upper terminal of alternating voltage
2
source is positive and lower terminal negative so that current flows in the
circuit. The current is anti-clockwise.
 𝑇
• In the second half of the cycle ( 𝑡𝑜 𝑇 ), the polarities of the voltage
2

source are reversed, so that current now flows in the opposite direction,
which is now clockwise.

AC voltage has a time-varying waveform known as a Sinusoidal Waveform. It is

sinusoidal waveform because instantaneous value of the alternating current or

the voltage is maximum (equal to amplitude) when 𝜃 = 90° and sin 90° = 1.
b) Mathematical Form
Instantaneous alternating current is given as;
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜃
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 ∴ 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
Similarly, instantaneous alternating voltage is given as;
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜃
𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
Where;
• 𝐼 is instantaneous current, 𝑉 is instantaneous voltage
• 𝐼𝑜 is maximum current, 𝑉𝑜 is maximum voltage
• 𝜔 is the angular velocity of coil (of source e.g. AC generator)
c) Instantaneous Alternating Current & Voltage
Time Angle Voltage Current
(t) (𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡) 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
0 0° 0 0
𝑇 𝜋
= 90° +𝑉𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 +𝐼𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
4 2
𝑇
𝜋 = 180° 0 0
2
3𝑇 3𝜋
= 270° −𝑉𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 −𝐼𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
4 2
𝑇 2𝜋 = 360° 0 0
 A.C.TERMINOLOGIES
Student Leaning Outcome
Describe the terms time period, frequency, instantaneous peak value and root
mean square value of an alternating current and voltage.
1) Cycle
• One complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating
quantity is known as a cycle.
• A cycle can also be defined in terms of angular measure. One cycle
corresponds to 360° electrical or 2𝜋 radian.
2) Time Period
• The time taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity
is called its time period.
• It is generally represented by T.
3) Frequency
• The number of cycle that occurs in one second is called the frequency (𝑓)
of the alternating quantity.
• It is measured in cycle /s (C/s) or Hertz (Hz).
• One hertz is equal to 1 C/s
• The frequency of power system in Pakistan is 50 C/s or 50 Hz.
➢ It means that alternating voltage or current completes 50 cycles in
one second.
➢ The 50 Hz frequency gives the best results when used for operating
both lights and machinery.
4) Instantaneous Value
• The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called instantaneous
value.
 • The instantaneous values of alternating voltage and current are
represented by 𝑉 and 𝐼respectively.
• As an example, the instantaneous values of voltage at 0°, 90° and 270° are
0, + Vm , - Vm respectively.

5) Peak Value
• The maximum value attained by an AC waveform is called its peak value.
• It is also known as the maximum value or amplitude.
• The peak values of alternating voltage and current is represented by Vm
and lm respectively.

6) Average Value
• The average value of a waveform is the average of all its values over a
period of time.
• Finding an average value over time means adding all the values that occur
in a specifying time interval and dividing the sum by that time.
➢ The area above the time axis as positive area.
➢ The area below the time axis as negative area.
 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑛𝑒𝑡)𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
• The average value of A.C over one cycle is zero
7) R.M.S Value or Effective Value
• The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is that steady current
(D.C) which when flowing through a resistor produce the same amount of
heat as that produced by the alternating current when flowing through the
same resistance for the same time.
• The square root of mean square value of alternating current over full cycle
is called root of mean square value.
• The average value of A.C over one cycle is zero and is not suitable for
power calculation. Therefore, we use RMS value to measure the
effectiveness of an alternating current.
R.M.S. VALUE OF SINUSOIDAL CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
r.m.s. or effective value which is used to express the magnitude of an alternating voltage or
current. The peak and r.m.s.
1) R.M.S Value of Alternating Current
The instantaneous value of A.C varies between 0 and 𝐼𝑚 (peak value). Their square values
are 𝐼 2 , 02, 𝐼𝑚 2 respectively. The average value is given as;

2
02 + 𝐼𝑚 2
<𝐼 >=
2

2
𝐼𝑚 2
<𝐼 >=
2
1
𝑜𝑟 < 𝐼2 > = 𝐼 2
2 𝑚
By taking square root on both side;

1
√< 𝐼 2 > = √ 𝐼 2
2 𝑚

√< 𝐼 2 > = 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 is the root mean square vale of the alternating current.
 1
𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ 𝐼𝑚 2
2

1
𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ × √ 𝐼𝑚 2
2
1
𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = × 𝐼𝑚
√2
𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 0.706 𝐼𝑚
2) R.M.S Value of Alternating Voltage
The instantaneous value of alternating voltage varies between 0 and 𝑉𝑚 (peak value). Their
square values are 𝑉 2 , 02 , 𝑉𝑚 2 respectively. The average value is given as;

2
02 + 𝑉𝑚 2
<𝑉 >=
2

2
𝑉𝑚 2
<𝑉 >=
2
1
𝑜𝑟 < 𝑉2 > = 𝑉𝑚 2
2
By taking square root on both side;

1
√< 𝑉 2 > = √ 𝑉𝑚 2
2

√< 𝑉 2 > = 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 is the root mean square vale of the alternating voltage.

1
𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ 𝑉𝑚 2
2

1
𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = √ × √ 𝑉𝑚 2
2
1
𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = × 𝑉𝑚
√2
𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 = 0.706 𝑉𝑚
PHASE OF A.C
1) Definition
The angle which specifies the instantaneous value of alternating current or
voltage and it is known as phase angle or simply phase.
Explanation
As we know that;
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜃
Where ‘𝜃’ is the angle which is known as phase. It depends upon time t.
Consider an alternating current wave of time period T second.

• The maximum positive value (+Im) occurs at T/4 second or 90°. Therefore
phase of maximum positive value is T / 4 second or 90°.
• Similarly, the phase of negative peak (-Im) is 3T/4 second or 270°.
The word “phasor” is short for “phase vector.” It is a way to represent a sine or
cosine function graphically. The sinusoidal voltage wave can be represented by
a phasor rotating in anticlockwise, at an angular velocity ω rad/ s about point 0.
• The length of the phasor OA represents the magnitude of the alternating
quantity.
• The phase of the waveform for one complete revolution is 2π or 360°.
The vertical component of the phasor OB represents the magnitude of current.
It can be mathematically expressed as;
𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐴 sin 𝜃
Since 𝑂𝐵 = 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝐴 = 𝐼𝑚 therefore;
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin ωt

W here 𝐼 is the magnitude, 𝐼𝑚 is the amplitude of current and θ= ωt is the angle

through which the vector rotates.
PHASE DIFFERENCE
1) Definition
When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero
point, they are said to have a phase difference.
2) Explanation
The two waves I versus V have same amplitude and frequency, but they have
phase difference with each other.
Since both alternating quantities have the same frequency, the phase difference
between them remains the same through the cycle.
 • The quantity which crosses through its zero point earlier is said to leading
while the other is said to be lagging.
• The phase difference between voltage and current at any angle φ can be
expressed in the equations form as;
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − Φ)

A.C. THROUGH RESISTOR

Consider a circuit containing a resistance R connected across an alternating voltage source.
The applied voltage and current pass through their zero values at the same instant and
attain their positive and negative peaks at the same instant such that current is in phase
with the applied voltage.

The alternating voltage is be given by;

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − − − − − −𝑒𝑞. 1
The alternating current is be given by;
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − − − − − −𝑒𝑞. 2
Equation-1 and equation-2 show that alternating voltage and alternating current are in
phase.
From Ohm’s law;
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
Here V and I are root mean square values of alternating voltage and current respectively.
Therefore;
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
= 𝑅
√2 √2
𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
POWER LOSS IN AN RESISTOR
The power curve for a pure resistive circuit is obtained from the product of the
corresponding instantaneous values of voltage and current.

Power is always positive except at points 0°, 180° and 360° at which it drops to zero for a
moment. This means that the voltage source is constantly delivering power to the circuit
which is consumed by the circuit.
The average power dissipated in resistor R over one complete cycle of the applied is;
𝑃 = < 𝑉𝐼 >
By putting values of V and I;
𝑃 = < 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 × 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 >
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 < sin2 𝜔𝑡 >
1
As sin2 𝜔𝑡 =
2
1
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ×
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 =
2
2 can be written as √2 × √2 therefore;
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 =
√2 × √2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 = ×
√2 √2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

A.C. THROUGH INDUCTOR

An inductor is a two-terminal electrical component which resists changes in electric current
passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil.
Consider an alternating voltage applied to a pure inductance of L.

When a sinusoidal current I flow in time t then;

• A back e.m.f. is induced due to the inductance of the coil.
• This back e.m.f. at every instant opposes the change in current through the coil.
• As there is no drop in potential, so the applied voltage has to overcome the back
e.m.f.
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓
The changing current sets up a back e.m.f in the coil. The magnitude of back e.m.f is
∆𝐼
𝜀 = 𝐿
∆𝑡
To maintain a constant current the applied e.m.f must be constantly applied. The
magnitude of applied voltage is;
∆𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐿
∆𝑡
∆ (𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑉 = 𝐿
∆𝑡
∆ (sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑉 = 𝐿𝐼𝑚
∆𝑡
From calculus;
∆ (sin 𝜔𝑡)
= 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
∆𝑡
Therefore;
𝑉 = 𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
Since 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 , hence;
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ) − − − − − − − −𝑒𝑞. 1
2
The induced current is given as;
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − − − −𝑒𝑞. 2
𝜋
From Eqs (i) and (iv) it is clear that current lags behind the voltage by radians or 90°.
2

Hence in a pure inductance, current lags behind the voltage by 90°.

a) Inductive Reactance
Inductance opposes the change in current and serves to delay the increase or decrease of
current in the circuit.
• This causes the current to lag behind the applied voltage
• Inductance opposes the flow of current in the circuit So the opposition offered by an
inductor to the flow of A.C. is called inductive reactive reactance X L.
In analogy to Ohm law;
𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑋𝐿
𝑉𝑚
𝑜𝑟 𝑋𝐿 =
𝐼𝑚
Since inductive reactance is ratio of voltage to current.
As 𝑉𝑚 = 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 , hence;
𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚
𝑋𝐿 =
𝐼𝑚
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
By putting 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
The reactance of coil depends upon frequency of A.C. In case of D.C. inductive reactance
𝑋𝐿 is zero.
b) Power Loss in an Inductor
Consider the power curve for a pure inductive circuit.

• During the first 90° of the cycle, the voltage is positive and the current is negative,
therefore, the power supplied is negative. This means the power is flowing from the
coil to the source.
• During the next 90° of the cycle, both voltage and current are positive and the power
supplied is positive. Therefore, power flows from the source to the coil.
• Similarly, for the next 90° of the cycle, power flows from the coil to the source and
during the last 90° of the cycle, power flow from the source to the coil.
• The power curve over one cycle shows that positive power is equal to the negative
power.
• The resultant power over one cycle is zero i.e. a pure inductance consumes no
power. The electric power merely flows from the source to the coil and back again.
The average power loss in an inductive circuit is,
𝑃 = < 𝑉𝐼 >
By putting (for inductor);
• 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
• 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑃 = < 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 × 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 >
 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 < cos 𝜔𝑡 × sin 𝜔𝑡 >
As cos 𝜔𝑡 × sin 𝜔𝑡 = 0 , therefore;
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 < 0 >
𝑃 = 0
A.C. THROUGH A CAPACITOR
Let a capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ is connected to A.C. source.

The amount of charge stored in the capacitor due to instantaneous voltage is

given by;
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
By putting 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
As we know that;
∆𝑞
𝐼 =
∆𝑡
By putting 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡;
∆ (𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝐼 =
∆𝑡
(∆ sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚
∆𝑡
(∆ sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡) ∴ = 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡)
∆𝑡
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡)
𝜋
As cos(𝜔𝑡) = sin(𝜔𝑡 + ) therefore;
2
 𝜋
𝐼 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
2
By putting 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚
𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
2
By comparing;
𝜋
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
2
Voltage and current are out of phase when pass through a capacitor.
𝜋
• Current is leading by 90° =
2
𝜋
• Voltage is lagging by 90° =
2

Capacitance opposes the change in voltage and serves to delay the increase or
decrease of voltage across the capacitor. This causes the voltage to lag behind
the current.
a) Capacitive Reactance
Capacitor also opposes the flow of A.C. in the circuit. The opposition offered by
capacitance to current flow is called capacitive reactance.
As we know that;
𝐼𝑚 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 𝜔𝐶
𝑜𝑟 =
𝑉𝑚 1
 𝑉𝑚 1
𝑜𝑟 =
𝐼𝑚 𝜔𝐶
1
Where 𝑋𝑐 = and is called capacitive reactance.
𝜔𝐶
1
𝑋𝑐 =
𝜔𝐶
1
𝑜𝑟 𝑋𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝑉
• Just like ohm law the ratio of is the measure of opposition offered by a
𝐼

resistor to the flow of current. In case of capacitor this opposition is

capacitive reactance which opposes the flow of current.
• It has the same dimensions as resistance and is, therefore, measured in Ω
• The capacitive reactance depends upon frequency of A.C. In case of D.C.,
𝑋𝑐 has infinite value.
b) Power Loss in a Capacitive Circuit
In pure capacitive circuit the current leads the voltage by 90° in phase therefore
the average power loss in capacitive circuit is,
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
By putting the values of V and I;
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 × 𝐼𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 (sin 𝜔𝑡 × cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑃 = 0
∴ sin 𝜔𝑡 × cos 𝜔𝑡 = 0
In one cycle the positive power is equal to negative
power so power absorbed by capacitor in one cycle
is zero.
CHOKE
1) Definition
A choke coil is an inductor that presents relatively high impedance in order to
control the current in an A.C. circuit.
2) Explanation
A choke coil consists of an insulated thick copper wire wound closely in large
number of turns over a soft iron laminated core.
• Since the wire of the coil is of thick copper, so its resistance is very small.
Thus, its power loss is extremely, small. Thus, its power loss is extremely
small.
• However, due to the large number of turns, the inductance of the choke
coil is very large.
For example,
• A fluorescent tube light requires 120V for its fluorescence, but our applied
voltage is 220V.
• If we use a resistor to control the extra current due to potential difference
of 220V, a lot of power would be dissipated by resistor in the form of heat.
• To overcome this problem, a choke coil is connected in series with the
tube or any other electric device.
• It offers the reactance to the flow of current.
• The power dissipation (l2R) of a choke coil is almost zero, but it controls to
extra current in the circuit.
3) Use of Choke
The choke is used as a filter in power supply to prevent ripple. It also prevents
unwanted signals to enter other parts of the circuits, e.g. radio frequency choke
(RFC) prevents radio frequency signals from entering audio frequency circuits.
4) Choke in D.C Circuit
In case of D.C., f = 0, then XL = 0 and Z = R, this shows that a choke coil cannot
be used to control D.C. because its resistance is negligible, but it is used to
control A.C. only.
R.L SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT
1) Definition
A circuit which consists of a pure resistance (R) is connected in series with pure
inductance (L) is called an RL series circuit.
2) Explanation
Consider an RL series circuit.

Since R and L are in series therefore;

• The current flowing through ‘R’ and ‘C’ is same at any instant.
• Voltage drop across each component is different.
a) Resultant Voltage
The resultant voltage can be calculated with the help of phasor diagram.
• In a resistor ‘VR’ in phase with I. So, the phasor for ‘VR’ is parallel to the
current.
• In an inductor, ‘VL’ leads the current by 90°
• V is the resultant voltage (applied voltage = r.m.s. value ) and it is equal to
the vector sum of VR and VL.
From the triangle ABC in the phasor diagram;
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐿 2

𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐿 2

By putting 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿

𝑉 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 )2

𝑉 = √𝐼2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼2 𝑋𝐿 2

𝑉 = √𝐼2 (𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )

𝑉 = √𝐼2 √ (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )

𝑉 = 𝐼√ (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )

𝑉
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 =
√ (𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 )

√ (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 ) is the opposition offered to current flow and is called

impedance of the RL series circuit. It is represented by Z and is measured in

ohms (Ω). Hence;
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑍
The phasor diagram is a triangle whose sides represent R, XL and Z. The triangle
that is created when adding the resistance to the reactance XL is known as an
impedance triangle of RL series circuit.

b) Phase Angle
The phasor diagram shows that V leads current I by an angle Φ. This angle or
phase difference can be calculated as;
𝑉𝐿
tan Φ =
𝑉𝑅
−1
𝑉𝐿
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan
𝑉𝑅
By putting 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿
𝐼𝑋𝐿
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1
𝐼𝑅
𝑋𝐿
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1
𝑅
𝑋𝐿
Since XL and R are known, Φ can be calculated. Greater the ratio , greater is
𝑅

the phase difference.

c) Power
• For purely resistive circuit, the power factor is 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 1 as current and
voltage are in phase.
• For the inductance circuit, the power factor is 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° = 0 as current and
voltage are 90° out of phase.
Therefore average power is;
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 + 0
<𝑃> = cos Φ
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
<𝑃> = cos Φ
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑜𝑟 <𝑃> = × cos Φ
√2 √2
𝑜𝑟 < 𝑃 > = 𝑉𝐼 cos Φ
Where;
• V and I are r.m.s values of voltage and current respectively.
• The term cos Φ is known as power factor.
R.C SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT
1) Definition
A circuit which consists of a pure resistance (R) is connected in series with pure
capacitance (C) is called an RC series circuit.
2) Explanation
Consider an RC series circuit.

Since R and L are in series therefore;

 • The current flowing through ‘R’ and ‘C’ is same at any instant.
• Voltage drop across each component is different.
• The voltage, V across the combination is equal to the phasor sum of the
two component voltages, VR and VC.
a) Resultant Voltage
The resultant voltage can be calculated with the help of phasor diagram.
• In a resistor ‘VR’ in phase with I. So, the phasor for ‘VR’ is parallel to the
current.
• In a capacitor, ‘VC’ lags behind the current by 90°
• V is the resultant voltage (applied voltage = r.m.s. value ) and it is equal to
the vector sum of VR and VC.

From the triangle ABC in the phasor diagram;

𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐶 2

𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅 2 + 𝑉𝐶 2

By putting 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶

𝑉 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐶 )2

𝑉 = √𝐼2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼2 𝑋𝐶 2

𝑉 = √𝐼2 (𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 )
 𝑉 = √𝐼2 √ (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 )

𝑉 = 𝐼√ (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 )

𝑉
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 =
√ (𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 )

√ (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶 2 ) is the opposition offered to current flow and is called

impedance of the RC series circuit. It is represented by Z and is measured in

ohms (Ω). Hence;
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑍
The phasor diagram is a triangle whose sides represent R, XC and Z. The triangle
that is created when adding the resistance to the reactance XC is known as an
impedance triangle of RC series circuit.

b) Phase Angle
The phasor diagram shows that circuit current I leads the applied voltage V by
an angle Φ. This angle or phase difference can be calculated as;
𝑉𝐶
tan Φ = −
𝑉𝑅
𝑉𝐶
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1 (− )
𝑉𝑅
By putting 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶
 𝐼𝑋𝐶
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1 (− )
𝐼𝑅
𝑋𝐶
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1 (− )
𝑅
𝑋𝐶
Since XC and R are known, Φ can be calculated. Greater the ratio , greater is
𝑅

the phase difference.

c) Power
• The area of positive curve is greater than negative area of curve,
• Thus power is consumed by the RC series circuit.
• But power is consumed in resistance only; capacitor does not consume
any power.

• For purely resistive circuit, the power factor is 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0° = 1 as current and
voltage are in phase.
• For the capacitance circuit, the power factor is 𝑐𝑜𝑠 90° = 0 as current
and voltage are 90° out of phase.
Therefore average power is;
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 + 0
<𝑃> = cos Φ
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
<𝑃> = cos Φ
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑜𝑟 <𝑃> = × cos Φ
√2 √2
 𝑜𝑟 < 𝑃 > = 𝑉𝐼 cos Φ
Where;
• V and I are r.m.s values of voltage and current respectively.
• The term cos Φ is known as power factor.
R-L-C SERIES A.C CIRCUIT
1) Definition
When a pure resistor (R), an inductor (L), and a capacitor (C) are connected
together in series combination with each other then RLC Series Circuit is
formed.
2) Explanation

Since R, L and C are in series therefore;

• The current flowing through ‘R’ , ‘L’ and ‘C’ is same at any instant.
• Voltage drop across each component is different.
• The voltage, V across the combination is equal to the phasor sum of the
three component voltages, VR , VL and VC.
a) Voltage
• The P.D. across R is VR = IR in this case VR is in phase with I
• The P.D. across L, is VL = IXL in this case VL leads I by 90°
• The P.D. across C, is VC = IXC in this case where VC lags I by 90
 • VL and VC are thus 180° out of phase
It follows that the circuit can either be effectively inductive or capacitive
depending upon which voltage drop (VL or VC ) is predominant.
• If VL > VC then the net voltage drop across L-C combination is VL - VC and
their resultant is in the direction VL represented by BC.
• Therefore, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VL-VC
From the triangle ABC in the phasor diagram;
𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅 2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2

𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅 2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2

By putting 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶

𝑉 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶 )2

𝑉 = √𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼2 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

𝑉 = √𝐼2 √ (𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )

𝑉 = 𝐼√ (𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
The quantity (XL- XC ) is called the reactance of the circuit, denoted by X,

𝑉 = 𝐼√ 𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2
𝑉
𝑜𝑟 𝐼 =
√ 𝑅2 + 𝑋 2
√ 𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 is the opposition offered to current flow and is called impedance
of the RLC series circuit. It is represented by Z and is measured in ohms (Ω).
Hence;
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑍
b) Phase Angle
𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶
tan Φ =
𝑉𝑅
 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1
𝑉𝑅
By putting 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 , 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑋𝐶
(𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶 )
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1
𝐼𝑅
𝐼(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1
𝐼𝑅
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1
𝑅
Since 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋
𝑋
𝑜𝑟 Φ = tan−1
𝑅

c) Power
The power factor of RLC circuit is
< 𝑃 > = VI cos Φ
RESONANCE IN R-L-C SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT
1) Definition
Angular frequency of the A.C. source at which the impedance (Z) has its smallest
value and the current amplitude reaches at its maximum value is called
resonance frequency.
2) Explanation
Consider a resistor, a capacitor and an inductor which are connected in series
across the source of A.C. of constant voltage but adjustable angular frequency
‘𝜔’.
As the components are in series, so there is same current in the circuit.
𝑉
𝐼 =
𝑍
where ‘Z’ is the impedance of the RLC series circuit and it depends upon the
frequency.
If the frequency increases, then:
• The inductive reactance (𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿) increases
1
• The capacitive reactance (𝑋𝐶 = ) decreases
𝜔𝐶

In between these lower and higher frequencies, there is always a frequency fo

at which both reactances become same but in opposite direction. So both are
cancelled to each other. As a result we have minimum impedance (Z) and
maximum current. Thus, the frequency 𝑓𝑟 at which the impedance (Z) has its
smallest value and the current amplitude reaches at its maximum value is called
resonance frequency.
3) Derivation
The resonance occurs when;
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
1
𝜔𝐿 =
𝜔𝐶
1
𝑜𝑟 𝜔2 =
𝐿𝐶

1
𝑜𝑟 √𝜔 2 = √
𝐿𝐶
 1
𝑜𝑟 𝜔 =
√𝐿𝐶
As 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 therefore;
1
2𝜋𝑓𝑟 =
√𝐿𝐶
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
For a given value of inductance and capacitance, there is only one resonant
frequency.
The magnitude of the current as a function of frequency is plotted as resonance
curve.

• Resonance curve shows that the current I starts at near to zero, reaches
maximum value at the resonance frequency 𝑓𝑟 and then drops again to
nearly zero as becomes infinite.
• At resonance, the circuit power factor is unity.
PRINCIPLE OF METAL DETECTORS
A coil and capacitor are electrical components, which together can produce
oscillations of current. An L-C circuit behaves just like an oscillating mass-spring
system. In this case energy oscillates between a capacitor and an inductor. The
circuit is called an electrical oscillator. Two such oscillators A and B are used for
the operation of common type of metal detector.
 • In the absence of any nearby metal object, the inductances LA and LB are
the same and hence the resonance frequency of the two circuits is also
same.
• When inductor B, called the search coil comes near a metal object the
inductance LB decreases and corresponding oscillator frequency increases
and thus a beat note is heard in the attached speaker.
• Such detectors are extensively used not only for various security checks
but also to locate buried metal objects.

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

1) Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
The maximum power transfer theorem states that “the maximum amount of
power will be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the source
resistance of the network supplying the power”.
2) Explanation
Consider an A.C. circuit having a load resistance RL (impedance = ZL )which is
connected across the A.C. source of resistance ‘RS’ (impedance = ZS ).
According to maximum power transfer theorem the maximum power is
transferred from source to load when the impedance of source ZS and
impedance of load ZL are matching to each other, i.e.
𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑆
𝑜𝑟 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑆
This equation holds in case of a communication system where a signal transfers
with its maximum power between transmitting antenna and receiving antenna
when the impedances of the transmitter and the receiver match to each other.

MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
1) Introduction
Maxwell's Equations are a set of equations that describe how electric and
magnetic fields propagate, interact, and how they are influenced by objects.
2) Explanation
James Clerk Maxwell [1831-1879] unified Gauss’ law, Faraday’s law and
Ampere's law into a set of Equations known as Maxwell's Equations.
 • These equations predict the existence of electromagnetic waves and that
such waves are radiated by accelerating charges.
• These equations describe Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory.
Maxwell unified following laws into his equations;
• Gauss's law for static electric fields
• Gauss's law for static magnetic fields
• Faraday's law
• Ampere’s law
a) Equation 1
𝐴 ∆𝐵
𝐸 =
2𝜋𝑟 ∆𝑡
• This equation shows that a changing magnetic flux gives rise to an electric
field.
• Experiments have shown that the electric field produced by changing
magnetic field is present even if the conducting loop is absent.
b) Equation 2
∆𝜙𝐸
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝑛
∆𝑡
This equation shows that a changing Electric field E or electric flux (∆𝜙𝐸 ) creates
a Magnetic field B.
c) Equation 3
𝜕𝐵
∇ ×𝐸 = −
𝜕𝑡
A changing E-field creates a B-field, which in turn creates an E-field, an
electromagnetic disturbance or waves are generated.
 • The fundamental requirement for generation of electromagnetic waves is
an electric charge with changing velocity (acceleration) since it will create
changing electric flux.
• The velocity of an oscillating charge as it moves to and fro along a wire is
always changing.
d) Equation 4
Light is a type of electromagnetic waves. Maxwell predicted theoretically that
the velocity of electromagnetic waves in free space is given by;
1
𝑐 =
√𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
1
𝑐 =
√8.85 × 10−12 × 4𝜋 × 10−7
𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
Maxwell was one of the first to determine the speed of propagation of
electromagnetic waves was the same as the speed of light - and hence to
conclude that electromagnetic waves and visible light are the same things.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
1) Definition
The waves which compose of oscillating electric and magnetic fields at right
angle to each other also perpendicular to the direction of their motion through
space are called Electromagnetic waves, these waves do not require any
medium for their propagation.
2) Explanation
Electromagnetic wave has many forms such as radio waves, microwaves,
infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and Gamma-rays.
• All these electromagnetic waves travel through free space with the same
speed equal to speed of light ‘c’.
 • These radiations are different only in wavelength and frequency.
i) Light
• It is the visible region of the spectrum.
• The wavelength of the visible region ranges from about 400 nm (violet) to
about 700nm (red).
• Light is often emitted when the outer (or valence) electrons in atoms
change their state of motion: for this reason, such transitions in the state
of the electron are called optical transitions.
• The color of the light provides information about the atoms or the object
from which it was emitted.
• The study of the light emitted from the Sun and from distant stars gives
information about their composition.
ii) Infrared
Infrared radiation has wavelengths longer than the visible (from 0.7 pm to about
1 mm).
• It is commonly emitted by atoms or molecules when they change their
rotational or vibrational motion.
• Infrared radiation is an important means of heat transfer and is sometimes
called heat radiation.
• Objects of temperatures ranges from 3K to 3000 K emit their most intense
thermal radiation in the infrared region of the spectrum.
• The main technology used in home remote controls is infrared light.
• The signal between a remote control handset and the device it controls
consists of pulses of infrared light, which is invisible to the human eye.
iii) Microwaves
Microwaves can be regarded as short radio waves, with typical wavelengths in
the range 1 mm to 1 m.
• They are commonly produced by electromagnetic oscillators in electric
circuits, as in the case of microwave ovens.
• Microwaves are often used to transmit telephone conversations.
• Microwaves also reach us from extraterrestrial sources.
➢ Neutral hydrogen atoms, which populate the regions between the
stars in our galaxy, are common extraterrestrial source of
Microwaves emitting radiation with a wavelength of 21 cm.
iv) Radio waves
Radio waves have wavelengths longer than 1 m.
• They are produced from terrestrial sources through electrons oscillating in
wires of electric circuits.
• Traveling outward at the speed of light, the expanding of TV signals
transmitted on Earth
• Radio waves reach us from extraterrestrial sources, the sun being a major
source that often interferes with radio or TV reception on Earth.
• Mapping the radio emissions from exraterrestrial sources, known as radio
astronomy, has provided information about the universe that is often not
obtainable using optical telescopes.
v) Ultraviolet radiation
The UV region covers the wavelength range 100-400 nm.
• Ultraviolet lamp is used to produce UV rays.
• This UV light is extremely effective in killing and eliminating bacteria,
yeast's, viruses, molds and other harmful organisms known to man.
vi) X-rays
X rays (typical wavelengths 0.01 nm to 10 nm) can be produced with discrete
wavelengths in individual transitions among the inner electrons are decelerated.
• X-rays can easily penetrate soft tissue but are stopped by bone and other
solid matter.
• For this reason they have found wide use in medical diagnosis.
vii) Gamma rays
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations with the shortest wavelengths (less
than 10 pm).
• They are the most penetrating of electromagnetic radiations,
• Exposure to intense gamma radiation can have a harmful effect on the
human body.