UNIT ONE

Unit 1 Data Communication: Data Communications, Data Networking and Internet, Protocol Architecture,
TCP/IP and Internet based Applications, Data Transmission, Data and Signals-periodic analog, Digital signals,
Transmission Impairments, Data Rate Limits, Performance.

1.0 DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information
In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over a transmission
medium.
This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and software. The
hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate devices through
which the data passes. The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be commu -
nicated, how it is to be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
The following sections describes the fundamental characteristics that are important for the ef-
fective working of data communication process and is followed by the components that make up a
data communications system..

Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four fundamen-
tal characteristics:
Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.
Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any
errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered
data.
Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such a
data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the timeliness of data
being transmitted.

Components of Data Communication

A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the diagram below:

Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.

Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).

Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).

Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver. It can be
wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.
Protocol
It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to communicate
data.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication. A Protocol is a ne-
cessity in data communications without which the communicating entities are like
two persons trying to talk to each other in a different language without know the
other language.

DATA REPRESENTATION
Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information.There may be dif-
ferent forms in which data may be represented. Some of the forms of data used in communications
are as follows:

Text
Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case. It is stored as a pat-
tern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode
Numbers
Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9. It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encod-
ing system : ASCII, Unicode
Images
―An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying. In computers images are dig-
itally stored.

A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture

or image is a matrix of pixel elements.

The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of im-
age (black n white or color) each pixel would require different number of bits to
represent the value of a pixel.

Audio
Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted.
Example: What we hear on the radio is a source of data or information. Audio
data is continuous, not discrete.
Video
Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie

DATA TRANSMISSION
wo devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The data can flow be-
tween the two devices in the following ways.
Simplex
Half Duplex
Full Duplex
Simplex

In Simplex, communication is unidirectional. Only one of the devices sends the data and the
other one only receives the data.
 Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a monitor only receives data.

Half Duplex

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.
When one device is sending other can only receive and vice- versa (as shown in figure
above.)
Example: A walkie-talkie.
Full Duplex

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
Example: mobile phones

COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer Networks are used for data communications

Definition:
A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes. A node can be any device capable of
transmitting or receiving data.
The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication links.
A Compute network should ensure
reliability of the data communication process, should c
security of the data
performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller delay times
Categories of Network
Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The three basic categories of computer net-
works are:

Type of Connection
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect
the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.

A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In a mul-
tipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatiallyor temporally. If several devices can use the link
simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection
 TOPOLOGY
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. One or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is
the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and
ring

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device
Advantage: High reliability and fault tolerance.
Disadvantage: Expensive and complex.

Star Topology:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually called a hub. The de-
vices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices

Advantage: Reliable, easy to troubleshoot.

Disadvantage: Hub failure affects the whole network

Bus Topology:
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on the other
hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network
Advantage: Simple, low-cost, easy to install.

Disadvantage: If the main cable fails, the entire network goes down.

Ring topology: is a network design where devices are connected in a circular pattern to form a closed loop. Each device is
connected to exactly two other devices

Advantage: Efficient, avoids collisions.

Disadvantage: A single node failure can disrupt the entire network.

Categories of network

Local Area Network (LAN)

 Definition: A network that connects computers and devices within a limited area like homes, offices, or schools.
 Range: Up to 1 km.
 Devices Used: Routers, switches, Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi.
 Example: A school or office network.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Definition: A network covering a city or large campus.

 Range: 1 km – 100 km.
 Devices Used: Fiber optics, high-speed routers.
  Example: City-wide Wi-Fi or an ISP (Internet Service Provider) network.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Definition: A network that spans multiple cities, countries, or even continents.

 Range: More than 100 km.
 Devices Used: Satellite, fiber optics, leased telephone lines.
 Example: The Internet itself is the largest WAN.

PRO-
TOCOL

A Pro-
tocol is
one of
the components of a data communications system. Without protocol communication cannot occur.
The sending device cannot just send the data and expect the receiving device to receive and fur-
ther interpret it correctly. When the sender sends a message it may consist of text, number, im-
ages, etc. which are converted into bits and grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain
additional information called control information is also added to help the receiver interpret the
data. For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain
rules called protocol.
A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communications.
A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated and when it is to
be communicated.
Elements of a Protocol
There are three key elements of a protocol:
Syntax
It means the structure or format of the data. It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
Semantics
It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each section.
It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
Timing
It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data. It tells the sender at what
rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
Principles of Protocol Layering
Let us discuss two principles of protocol layering.

First Principle
The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to make each
layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction. For example, the
third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other direction). The second layer
needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer needs to send and receive mail.
Second Principle
The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects under
each layer at both sites should be identical. For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites
should be a plaintext letter both sites should be a cipher text letter. The object under layer 1 at
both sites should be a piece of mail.
THE OSI MODEL
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to world-
wide agreement on international standards. Almost three-fourths of the countries in the world are
represented in the ISO. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
ISO is the organization; OSI is the model
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communica-
tion between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers,
each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network

Detailed
Explana-
tion of
Each Layer

1. Physical
Layer
(Layer 1)

 Tr
an
smits raw binary data over the physical medium.
 Involves cables, switches, modems, fiber optics.
 Example: Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi signals.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

 Divided into MAC (Media Access Control) and LLC (Logical Link Control).
 MAC Addressing: Unique hardware address for each device.
 Error Detection: Uses techniques like Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
 Example: Switches, Ethernet, Wi-Fi (802.11).

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

 Handles logical addressing (IP addresses).

 Determines optimal path (routing) using routers.
 Example: Routers, IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP (ping command).

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

 Ensures data transfer between systems.

 Uses TCP (reliable) and UDP (fast but unreliable).
 Example: TCP (web browsing, emails), UDP (video streaming, VoIP).

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

 Establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions.

 Example: Logging into a website, online banking sessions.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

 Data translation, encryption, and compression.

 Example: SSL/TLS encryption, JPEG image compression.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

 User interaction with applications.

 Example: Web browsers (HTTP/HTTPS), Emails (SMTP, IMAP), File Transfer (FTP).
Why is the OSI Model Important?

✔ Standardized communication between devices.

✔ Helps in troubleshooting network issues.
✔ Provides security layers for data transmission.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is a set of networking protocols that allows comput-
ers to communicate over the internet

TCP/IP Model Layers

Layer Number Layer Name

4 Application Layer

3 Transport Layer

2 Internet Layer

1 Network Access Layer

Explanation of Each Layer

1. Network Access Layer (Equivalent to OSI Layers 1 & 2)

 Deals with physical data transmission over the network.

 Uses technologies like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Fiber Optics.
 Defines MAC addresses and frame structures.
 Example Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi (802.11), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).

2. Internet Layer (Equivalent to OSI Layer 3)

 Handles logical addressing (IP addresses) and packet forwarding.

 Uses routers to determine the best path for data.
 Example Protocols:
o IP (Internet Protocol): Assigns unique addresses to devices.
o ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for diagnostics (e.g., ping).
o ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Translates IP addresses to MAC addresses.

3. Transport Layer (Equivalent to OSI Layer 4)

 Ensures end-to-end communication between applications.

 Uses two main protocols:
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) → Reliable, connection-oriented (e.g., web browsing, emails).
o UDP (User Datagram Protocol) → Fast, connectionless (e.g., video streaming, gaming).

4. Application Layer (Equivalent to OSI Layers 5, 6, 7)

 Provides services directly to applications and users.

 Example Protocols:
o HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol) → Web browsing.
o FTP (File Transfer Protocol) → File transfer.
o DNS (Domain Name System) → Resolves domain names to IPs.
o SMTP/POP3/IMAP → Email communication.

Comparison: TCP/IP vs. OSI Model

 Feature TCP/IP Model OSI Model

Number of Layers 4 7

Practicality Used in real-world internet communica- More of a theoretical model

tion

Focus End-to-end communication Layered approach for better understand-

ing

Example Proto- IP, TCP, UDP, HTTP, FTP Ethernet, IP, TCP, SMTP
cols

DATA & SIGNALS

To be transmitted, datamust be transformed to electromagnetic signals.
Data can be Analog or Digital.

1. Analog data refers to information that is continuous; ex. sounds made by a hu-
man voice
2. Digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Digital data take on
discrete values.
3. For example, data are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s

Signals can be of two types:

Analog Signal: They have infinite values in a range.
Digital Signal: They have limited number of defined values

Periodic & Non Periodic Signals

Signals which repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Periodic Signals. Signals which do
not repeat itself after a fixed time period are called Non-Periodic Signals.
In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals and non-periodic digital signals.

ANALOG SIGNAL
An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of time. As the wave moves
from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values along its path
as it can be seen in the figure below.
A simple analog signal is a sine wave that cannot be further decomposed into
simpler signals.

Fig. Sine wave

A sine wave is characterized by three parameters:
1. Peak Amplitude
2. Frequency
3. Phase
Characteristics of an Analog Signal
Peak Amplitude
The amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its intensity at time t. The peak amplitude of
a signal is the absolute value of the highest intensity.The amplitude of a signal is propor-

tional to the energy carried by the signal

Fig. Amplitude of a sine wave

Frequency
Frequency refers to the number of cycles completed by the wave in one second. Period refers to
the time taken by the wave to complete one second.

Fig: Frequency & Period of a sine wave

 Phase
Phase describes the position of the waveform with respect to time (specifically relative to time O).
Phase indicates the forward or backward shift of the waveform from the axis. It is mea-
sured in degrees or radian
The figure above shows the sine waves with same amplitude and frequency but different
phases

Fig: Phase of a sine wave*

Relation between Frequency & Period Frequency &

Period are inverse of each other. It is indicated by the following formula:

Example1. A wave has a frequency of 100hz. Its period(T) is given by

T = 1/ F = 1/ 100 = 0.01 sec
Example2. A wave completes its one cycle in 0.25 seconds.Its frequency is
given by
F = 1 / T = 1 / 0.25 = 4 Hz

Wavelength
The wavelength of a signal refers to the relationship between frequency (or period) and propagation
speed of the wave through a medium. The wavelength is the distance a signal travels in one
period. It is given by
Wavelength = Propagation Speed X Period
OR
Wavelength =Propagation Speed X 1
Frequency It is represented
by the symbol : λ (pronounced as lamda) It is measured in micrometers
It varies from one medium to another.

2.3.4. Time Domain and Frequency domain representation of signals

A sine wave can be represented either in the time domain or frequency do-
main.
The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time. It
indicates time and amplitude relation of a signal.
The frequency-domain plot shows signal frequency and peak amplitude.
The figure below show time and frequency domain plots of three sine waves.
 Fig: Time domain and frequency domain plots of three sine waves*

A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single spike in the
frequency domain

Composite Signal
A composite signal is a combination of two or more simple sine waves with different frequency,
phase and amplitude. If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies;

Fig: A Composite signal with three component signals

 For data communication a simple sine wave is not useful, what is used is a composite signal
which is a combination of many simple sine waves.
According to French Mathematician, Jean Baptist, any composite signal is a combination of sim-
ple sine waves with different amplitudes and frequencies and phases.
Composite signals can be periodic or non periodic.
A periodic composite signal can be decomposed into a series of signals with discrete frequen-
cies.

A non-periodic signal when decomposed gives a combination of sine waves with continuous fre-
quencies.

Fig The time and frequency domains of a non-periodic composite

analog signal

Digital Signal
Information can also be explained in the form of a digital signal.
A digital signal can be explained with the help of following points:

Definition:-
A digital is a signal that has discrete values. The signal will have value that is not continuous.

LEVEL
Information in a digital signal can be represented in the form of voltage levels.
Ex. In the signal shown below, a ‗1‘ is represented by a positive voltage and a ‗0‘ is repre-
sented by a Zero voltage.

Fig: A digital signal with Two levels. „1‟ represented by a positive voltage and „0‟ represented by a nega-
tive voltage
 A Signal can have more than two levels

11 10 01 00 00 01 10 10
LEVEL
4
LEVEL
3
LEVEL
2
LEVEL
1

Fig: A digital signal with four levels

In general, if a signal has L levels then, each level need Log2L bits
Example: Consider a digital Signal with four levels, how many bits are re-
quired per level?
Answer: Number of bits per level = Log2L
= Log24
=2
Hence, 2 bits are required per level for a signal with four levels.

BIT LENGTH or Bit Interval (Tb)

It is the time required to send one bit. It is measured in
seconds.
BIT RATE
It is the number of bits transmitted in one second. It is expressed as
bits per second (bps).
Relation between bit rate and bit interval can be as follows Bit rate = 1 / Bit in-
terval

TYPES OF CHANNELS:

Each composite signal has a lowest possible(minimum) frequency and a highest possible (maximum)
frequency. From the point of view of transmission, there are two types of channels:

Low pass Channel

This channel has the lowest frequency as ‗0‘ and highest frequency as some non-zero frequency
‗f1‘.
This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range 0 to f1.

Band pass channel

This channel has the lowest frequency as some non-zero frequency ‗f1‘ and highest frequency as
some non-zero frequency ‗f2‘. This channel can pass all the frequencies in the range f1 to f2.
 Fig: Lowpass Channel & Bandpass Channel

Transmission of Digital signal

Digital signal can be transmitted in the following two ways:

Baseband Transmission
The signal is transmitted without making any change to it (ie. Without modulation) In baseband
transmission, the bandwidth of the signal to be transmitted has to be less than the bandwidth of
the channel.
Ex. Consider a Baseband channel with lower frequency 0Hz and higher frequency 100Hz, hence its
bandwidth is 100 (Bandwidth is calculated by getting the difference between the highest and
lowest frequency). We can easily transmit a signal with frequency below 100Hz, such a channel
whose bandwidth is more than the bandwidth of the signal is called Wideband channel. Logically a
signal with frequency say 120Hz will be blocked resulting in loss of information, such a channel
whose bandwidth is less than the bandwidth of the signal is called Narrowband channel

Broad band Transmission

Given a bandpass channel, a digital signal cannot be transmitted directly through it In broadband
transmission we use modulation, i.e we change the signal to analog signal before transmitting it.
The digital signal is first converted to an analog signal, since we have a bandpass channel we can -
not directly send this signal through the available channel. Ex. Consider the bandpass channel with
lower frequency 50Hz and higher frequency 80Hz, and the signal to be transmitted has frequency
10Hz. To pass the analog signal through the bandpass channel, the signal is modulated using a car-
rier frequency. Ex. The analog signal (10Hz) is modulated by a carrier frequency of 50Hz resulting
in an signal of frequency 60Hz which can pass through our bandpass channel.
The signal is demodulated and again converted into an digital signal at the other end as shown in
the figure below.

Fig: Broadband Transmission Involving Modulation & Demodu-

lation

TRANSMISSION MODES
 Data is transmitted between two digital devices on the network in the form of bits
Transmission mode refers to the mode used for transmitting the data. The transmission medium
may be capable of sending only a single bit in unit time or multiple bits in unit time.
When a single bit is transmitted in unit time the transmission mode used is Serial Transmission and
when multiple bits are sent in unit time the transmission mode used is called Parallel transmission.
Types of Transmission Modes:
There are two basic types of transmission modes Serial and Parallel as shown in the figure below.
Serialtransmission is further categorized into Synchronous and
Asynchronous Serial transmission.

Fig. Types of Transmission Modes

Parallel Transmission
It involves simultaneous transmission of N bits over N different channels
Parallel Transmission increases transmission speed by a factor of N over serial
transmission
Disadvantage of parallel transmission is the cost involved, N channels have to be used, hence, it can
be used for short distance communication only

Fig. Parallel Transmission of Data over N = 8 channels

Example of Parallel Transmission is the communication between CPU and the
Projector.
Serial Transmission
In Serial Transmission, as the name suggests data is transmitted serially, i.e. bit by bit, one
bit at a time.
Since only one bit has to be sent in unit time only a single channel is required.

Fig. Serial Transmission of Data over N = 8 channels Types of Serial Transmis-

 sion:
Depending upon the timing of transmission of data there are two types of serial transmission as de-
scribed below
ASynchronous Transmission

In asynchronous serial transmission the sender and receiver are not synchronized.
The data is sent in group of 8 bits i.e. in bytes. The sender can start data transmission at any
time instant without informing the receiver.
To avoid confusing the receiver while receiving the data,
―start‖ and ―stop‖ bits are inserted before and after every group of 8 bits as
shown below

0 1 BYTE 1

Fig: Start and Bit before and after every data byte
The start bit is indicated by ―0‖ and stop bit is indicated by
―1‖.
The sender and receiver may not be synchronized as seen above but at the bit level they have to be
synchronized i.e. the duration of one bit needs to be same for both sender and receiver for accurate
data transmission.
There may be gaps in between the data transmission indication that there is no data being transmit-
ted from sender. Ex. Assume a user typing at uneven speeds, at times there is no data being trans-
mitted from Keyboard to the CPU.
Following is the Diagram for Asynchronous Serial Transmission.

Fig: Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Advantages
1. Cheap and Effective implementation
2. Can be used for low speed communication
Disadvantages
Insertion of start bits, stop bits and gaps make asynchronous transmission slow.
Application
Keyboard
Synchronous Transmission
In Synchronous Serial Transmission, the sender and receiver are
highly synchronized. No start, stop bits are used. Instead a common master clock is used for refer-
ence. The sender simply send stream of data bits in group of 8 bits to the receiver without any start
or stop bit.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to regroup the bits into units of 8 bits once they are received.
 When no data is being transmitted a sequence of 0‘s and 1‘s indicating IDLE is put on the transmis -
sion medium by the sender.

Fig: Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Advantage
3. There are no start bits, stop bits or gaps between data units
4. Since the above are absent data transmission is faster.
5. Due to synchronization there are no timing errors.

Comparison of serial and parallel transmission

Sr.no Parameter Parallel transmission Serial transmission

1 Number of wire re- N wire 1 wire

quired to
transmit N bits

2 Number of bits N bits 1 bit

transmitted simulta-
neously

3 Speed of data False Slow

transfer

4 Cost Higher due to more Low, since only one

number of conduc- wire is used
tor

5 Application Short distance Long distance

communication such computer to
as computer to computer communica-
printer tion.
communication

Transmission Impairments & Types

Data is transmitted through transmission medium which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment. Due to the imperfection error is introduced in the transmitted data i.e. the origi-
nal signal at the beginning of the transmission is not the same as the signal at the Receiver.
 There are three causes of impairment: attenuation, distortion, and noise as
shown below:

Fig: Transmission Impairment Types

Attenuation
• Attenuation results in loss of energy. When a signal travels through a medium, it loses some of its
energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium.
• The electrical energy in the signal may converted to heat.
• To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal. Figure below shows the effect
of attenuation and amplification.

Fig. Attenuation
Distortion
Distortion changes the shape of the signal as shown below

Fig. Distortion

Noise
Noise is any unwanted signal that is mixed or combined with the original signal
during transmission.
Due to noise the original signal is altered and signal received is not same as
the one sent.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• Transmission media is ameans by which a communication signal is carried from one system
 to another
• A transmission medium can be defined as anything that can carry information from a source
to a destination.
• The transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable or fiber – optic cable.

Figure: Transmission of data from sender to receiver through a medium

Categories of transmission media

Figure : Categories of Transmission Medium

GUIDED MEDIA

• Guided Transmission media uses a cabling system that guides the data signals along a spe -
cific path.
• Guided media also known as Bounded media, which are those that provide a conduit from one
device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
• Out of these twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable transport signals in the form of electric signals
and fiber-optic cable transport signals in the form of light.
Types:
1. Twisted-Pair Cable
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Fiber-OpticCable

Twisted-pair cable
 • The wires is twisted twisted together in pairs.
• Each pair would consist of wire used for the +ve data signal and a wire used for the —ve data
signal. Any noise that appears on +ve/—ve wire of the pair would occur on the other
wire.
• Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of phase (180 degree
phases or definition of opposite polarity) when the noise appears on both wires, it cancels or
nulls itself out at the receiving used.
• Twisted pair cables are most effectively used in a system that uses a balanced line method of
transmission.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP) &Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP)

Fig. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

Fig. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

• Cables with the shield are called shielded twisted pair and commonly abbreviated STP.
• Cables without a shield are called unshielded twisted pair or UTP.
• Twisting the wires together results in characteristics impedance for the cable.
• UTP or unshielded twisted pair cable is used on Ethernet
UTP cables are used for Ethernet cabling where 4 twisted pair cables (a total of 8 wires are used)

Co-Axial Cable

Figure: Co-axial cable

• Coaxial cable consists of 2 conductors.

• The inner conductor is contained inside the insulator with the other conductor weaves around
it providing a shield.
• An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer conduc-
tor.
 · The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical sig-
nals.
• The distance between the outer conductor (Shield) and inner conductor plus the type of mate-
rial used for insulating the inner conductor determine the cable properties or impedance. The
excellent control of the impedance characteristics of the cable allow higher data rates to be
transferred than twisted pair cable.

Fibre Optic Cable

Figure Fiber Optic Cable

• Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that can carry information at frequencies in the visible
light spectrum.
• The typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the
cladding.
• A typical core diameter is 62.5 microns.
• Typically cladding has a diameter of 125 minors. Coating the cladding is a protective coating
consisting of plastic, it is called the jacket.
• The device generating the message has it in electromagnetic form (electrical signal); this has
to be converted into light (i.e. optical signal) to send it on optic fiber cable. The process of
converting light to electric signal is done on the receiving side.

Advantages:
1. Small size and light weight: The size of the optical fibers is very small.Therefore a large number
of optical fibers can fit into a cable of small diameter.
2. Easy availability and low cost: The material used for the manufacturing of optical fibers is ―Sil-
ica glass‖. this material is easily available. So the optical fibers cost lower than the cables with
metallic conductors.
3 No electrical or electromagnetic interference: Since the transmission takes place in the form of light
rays the signal is not affected due to any electrical or electromagnetic Interference.

3. Large Bandwidth: As the light rays have a very high frequency in GHz range, the bandwidth of
the optical fiber is extremely large.
4. Other advantages: - No cross talk inside the optical fiber cable. Signal can be sent up to 100
times faster.

UNGUIDED (WIRELESS) TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

• Unguided media transport data without using a physical conductor. This type of communica-
tion is often referred to as wireless communication.
• It uses wireless electromagnetic signals to send data.
• There are three types of Unguided Media
(i) Radio waves
(ii) Micro waves
(iii) Infrared.
• Before understanding the different types of wireless transmission medium, let us first under-
stand the ways in which wireless signals travel. These signals can be sent or propagated in
the following three ways:
1. Ground-wave propagation
 2. Sky-wave propagation
3. Line-of-sight propagation
1. Ground-wave propagation

Figure : Ground Propagation of waves

Characteristics of Ground-wave propagation are as follows:
i. Follows contour of the earth
ii. Can Propagate considerable distances
iii. Frequencies up to 2 MHz
iv. Example
a. AM radio

2. Sky-wave propagation

Figure :of waves

Characteristics of Sky Propagation are as follows:

i. Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth
ii. Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and
earth‘s surface
iii. Reflection effect caused by refraction
iv. Examples
a. Amateur radio
b. CB radio
3. Line-of-sight propagation
 Figure : Line of Sight Propagation of waves

Characteristics of Line of Sight Propagation are as follows:

Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight
a. Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not reflected by iono-
sphere
b. Ground communication – antennas within effective
line of site due to refraction

1. Radio waves:
• Electromagnetic wave ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1GHz are normally called ra-
dio waves.
• Radio waves are omni-directional when an antenna transmits radio waves they are propa-
gated in all directions. This means that sending and receiving antenna do not have to he
aligned. A sending antenna can send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
• Radio waves particularly those waves that propagate in sky mode, can travel long distances.
This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
• Radio waves particularly those of low and medium frequencies can penetrate walls. It is an ad-
vantage because; an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is the disadvantage be-
cause we cannot isolate a communication to first inside or outside a building.

2. Microwaves:
• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
• Microwaves are unidirectional; when an antenna transmits microwaves they can be narrowly
focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidi-
rectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without inter-
fering with another pair of aligned antennas.
• Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas needs to
be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall, the curvature of
the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate
using microwaves, Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication very high fre-
quency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
• Parabolic dish antenna and horn antenna are used for this means of trans-
mission
3 Infrared
• Infrared signals with frequencies ranges from 300 GHz to 400 GHz can be used for short range
communication.
• Infrared signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This helps to prevent inter -
ference between one system and another. Infrared Transmissionin one room cannot be af-
fected by the infrared transmission in another room.
• Infrared band, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Transfer digital data is possi -
ble with a high speed with a very high frequency. There are number of computer devices
which are used to send the data through infrared medium e.g. keyboard mice, PCs and print-
ers. There are some manufacturers provide a special part called the IrDA port that allows a
 wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC.

COMPARISON BETWEEN WIRED AND WIRELESS MEDIA

Wired media Wireless media

The signal energy is contained The signal energy propa-

and guided within a solid gates in the form of un-
medium guided electromagnetic
waves.
Twisted pair wires, coaxial ca- Radio and infrared lights are
ble, optical fiber cables are the examples of wireless
the examples of wired media. media.

Used for point to Used for radio broadcasting

point communication in all direction

Wired media lead to dis- Wireless media

crete network topology leads to continu-
ous network topology
Additional transmission capac- It is not possible
ity can be procured by adding procure additional capac-
more wire ity.

Installation is costly and Installation needs less

time consuming time and money

Attenuation depends Attenuation is proportional

exponentially on the distance to square of the distance.
COMPARISON BETWEEN TWISTED PAIR CABLE, CO-AXIAL CABLE AND OPTICAL FIBER

Twisted pair cable Co-axial cable Optical fiber

Transmission of Transmission of Signal transmis-

signals take place signals take place sion takes place
in the electrical in the inner con- in an optical form
form over the ductor of the ca- over a glass fiber.
metallic conduct- ble
ing wires.

Noise immunity is Higher noise Higher noise

low. Therefore immunity than immunity as the
more distortion the twisted pair light rays are un-
cable due to the affected by the
presence of electrical noise.
shielding
conductor

Affected due to Less affected due Not affected by

external magnetic to external mag- the external mag-
field netic field netic field.

Short circuit Short circuit Short circuit is

between the two between the two not possible
conductor is conductor is
possible possible

Cheapest Moderately ex- Expensive

pensive

Can Moderately high Veryhigh data

support low data rate rates.
data rates
Low bandwidth Moderately high Very high band-
bandwidth width

Easy to installed Installation is Installation is diffi-

fairly cult
easy
 UNIT TWO
Transmission Methodologies: Digital Transmission- Digital to digital Conversion, Analog to digital conversion,
Transmission Modes. Analog Transmission- Digital to Analog conversion, Analog to Analog conversion. Band-
width utilization- Multiplexing, Spread Spectrum
Digital and Analog Transmission
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the infor-
mation in digital data. Figure 5.1 shows the relationship between the digital information, the digital-to-analog modulat-
ing process, and the resultant analog signal.

A sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude, frequency, and phase. When we vary anyone of these charac-
teristics, we create a different version of that wave. So, by changing one characteristic of a simple electric signal, we can
use it to represent digital data. Before we discuss specific methods of digital-to-analog modulation, two basic issues must
be reviewed: bit and baud rates and the carrier signal.
Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Before we discuss specific methods of digital-to-analog modulation, two basic issues must be reviewed: bit and baud
rates and the carrier signal.

Data Element Versus Signal Element

Data element is the smallest piece of information to be exchanged, the bit. We also defined a signal element

as the smallest unit of a signal that is constant.

Data Rate Versus Signal Rate

We can define the data rate (bit rate) and the signal rate (baud rate). The relationship between them is
S= N/r baud
where N is the data rate (bps) and r is the number of data elements carried in one signal element. The value of r in
analog transmission is r =log2 L, where L is the type of signal element, not the level.

Carrier Signal

In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a base for the information signal.
This base signal is called the carrier signal or carrier frequency. The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the car-
rier signal that it expects from the sender. Digital information then changes the carrier signal by modifying one or more of
its characteristics (amplitude, frequency, or phase). This kind of modification is called modulation (shift keying).
Any of the three characteristics can be altered in this way, giving us at least three mechanisms for modulating digi-
tal data into an analog signal: amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying
(PSK).

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion.

1. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal elements. Both fre-
quency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes. Although we can have several levels (kinds)
of signal elements, each with a different amplitude, ASK is normally implemented using only two levels. This is
referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK). The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0;
the other is the same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency. Figure 5.3 gives a conceptual view of binary
ASK.

2 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data. The frequency of the mod-
ulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal element, but changes for the next signal element if the data
element changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements. One way to think about
binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier frequencies. In Figure 5.6, we have selected two carrier
frequencies,f1 andf2. We use the first carrier if the data element is 0; we use the second if the data element is
1. However, note that this is an unrealistic example used only for demonstration purposes. Normally the
carrier frequencies are very high, and the difference between them is very small.

2. Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more different signal elements.
Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes. Today, PSK is more common
than ASK or FSK. The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we have only two signal elements, one with a
phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of 180°.
 Analog To Analog Conversion Techniques
Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the representation of analog information
by an analog signal. Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a band-
pass channel is available to us.
An example is radio. The government assigns a narrow bandwidth to each radio station. The
analog signal produced by each station is a low-pass signal, all in the same range. To be able to
listen to different stations, the low-pass signals need to be shifted, each to a different range.
Analog-to-analog conversion can be accomplished in three ways:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation (PM)

1. Amplitude Modulation:
In AM transmission, the carrier signal is modulated so that its amplitude varies with the chang-
ing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The frequency and phase of the carrier remain the
same. Only the amplitude changes to follow variations in the information. The following figure
shows how this concept works. The modulating signal is the envelope of the carrier.

AM is normally implemented by using a simple multiplier because the amplitude of the

carrier signal needs to be changed according to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
2. Frequency Modulation
In FM transmission, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing volt-
age level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and phase of the carrier sig-
nal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the frequency of
the carrier changes correspondingly.
The following figure shows the relationships of the modulating signal, the carrier signal, and the
resultant FM signal. FM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator as with
FSK. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the input voltage which is the ampli-
tude of the modulating signal.

Standard Bandwidth allocation for FM Radio:

 The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) broadcast in stereo is almost 15 kHz.
The FCC allows 200 kHz (0.2 MHz) for each station.

3. Phase Modulation:
In PM transmission, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to follow the changing voltage
level (amplitude) of the modulating signal. The peak amplitude and frequency of the carrier sig-
nal remain constant, but as the amplitude of the information signal changes, the phase of the
carrier changes correspondingly. It is proved mathematically that PM is the same as FM with
one difference.
In FM, the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal; in PM the instantaneous change in the carrier frequency is proportional to
the derivative of the amplitude of the modulating signal. The following figure shows the relation-
ships of the modulating signal, the carrier signal, and the resultant PM signal.

PM is normally implemented by using a voltage-controlled oscillator along with a deriva-

tive. The frequency of the oscillator changes according to the derivative of the input
voltage which is the amplitude of the modulating signal.
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use
the data, it must be in discrete digital form.Similar to data, signals can also be in analog
and digital form. To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first converted to digital form.
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in two
ways, line coding and block coding. For all communications, line coding is necessary
whereas block coding is optional.
Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital
data is found in binary format.It is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.There are three
types of line coding schemes available:
Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes
use single voltage level to repre-
sent data. In this case, to represent
bi- nary 1, high voltage is trans-
mit- ted and to represent 0, no
volt- age is transmitted. It is also
called Unipolar-Non-return- to-
zero, because there is no rest condi-
tion i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.
Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar
encodings is available in four types:

 Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)

It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage represents 1
and negative value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.

NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.

NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I changes voltage when
a 1 is encountered.

 Return to Zero (RZ)

Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the next bit is
started, in case when sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized.

RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to represent 0 and zero voltage for none. Sig-
nals change during bits not between bits.

 Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves. It transits in
the middle of the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.

 Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at the middle of the bit but
changes phase only when 1 is encountered.
Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage repre-
sents binary 0 and bit 1 is represented by altering positive and negative voltages.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated is
analog data. To transmit this analog data over digital signals, we need analog to digital con-
version.

Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is dis-
crete. To convert analog wave into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).

PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form. It
involves three steps:

 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding.
Sampling

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate at
which analog signal is sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at
least two times of the highest frequency of the signal.
Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows the
amplitude of the analog signal at that instance. The quantization is done between the maxi-
mum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude value. Quantization is approximation of
the instantaneous analog value.
 Encoding

In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Multiplexing-FDM,TDM,WDM

MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the devices, the link can
be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link. In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link. Figure 6.1 shows the basic format of a multi-
plexed system. The lines on the left direct their transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines them into a
single stream (many-to-one). At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates the
stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their corresponding lines. In the figure,
the word link refers to the physical path. The word channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission be-
tween a given pair of lines. One link can have many (n) channels.

There are three basic multiplexing techniques:

Frequency-division multiplexing, wavelengthdivision multiplexing, and time-division multiplexing. The first two are tech-
niques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals.
1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz)
is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending de -
vice modulate different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal
that can be transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the mod-
ulated signal. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various signals travel. Channels can be sepa -
rated by strips of unused bandwidth- guard bands-to prevent signals from overlapping. In addition, carrier frequencies
must not interfere with the original data frequencies. Multiplexing Process Figure 6.4 is a conceptual illustration of the
multiplexing process. Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer, these similar sig-
nals modulates different carrier frequencies. The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite
signal that is sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodateit.
 Demultiplexing Process The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its con-
stituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their
carriers and passes them to the output lines. Figure 6.5 is a conceptual illustration of demultiplexing process.
2. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable. The opti-
cal fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable. Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line
wastes the available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one. WDM is conceptually the
same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through fiber-optic
channels. The idea is the same: We are combining different signals of different frequencies. The difference is that the
frequencies are very high. Figure
6.10 gives a conceptual view of a WDM multiplexer and demultiplexer. Very narrow bands of light from different
sources are combined to make a wider band of light. At the receiver, the signals are separated by the demulti-
plexer.
One application of WDM is the SONET network in which multiple optical fiber lines are multiplexed and de-
multiplexed.

3. Time-Division Multiplexing
Time Division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth
of a linle Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared. Each connection occupies a por-
tion of time in the link. Figure 6.12 gives a conceptual view of TDM. Note that the same link is used as in FDM;
here, however, the link is shown sectioned by time rather than by frequency. In the figure, portions of signals
1,2,3, and 4 occupy the link sequentially.
 UNIT 3
Data Link Layer: Error detection and correction, Block Encoding, Linear Block Encoding, Cyclic codes, Check-
sum. Data link Control- Framing, Flow and Error Control, Noiseless Channel, Noisy Channel, HDLC, Point to
point protocol.

Data Link Layer (OSI Model - Layer 2)

1. Introduction to the Data Link Layer
The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI model and is responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error-free
communication between devices on the same physical network. It ensures that data is properly framed and transmitted
over the physical medium (Layer 1) without errors, providing mechanisms for addressing, flow control, and error control.

Main Functions of the Data Link Layer:

Framing: The process of breaking the data from the Network Layer into manageable chunks called frames. Each frame is
encapsulated with necessary headers (like source and destination addresses) for proper routing.

Addressing: The Data Link Layer adds Media Access Control (MAC) addresses to the frame, ensuring that data reaches the
correct device in a network.

Error Control: It detects and corrects errors that may occur during data transmission, ensuring the integrity of the data.

Flow Control: Prevents data overflow in slow receivers by regulating the rate of data transfer.

Access Control: Determines how devices gain access to the physical medium (like Ethernet or Wi-Fi) and manage collisions
when two devices attempt to send data simultaneously.

Example: In Ethernet networks, the Data Link Layer defines how devices are addressed using MAC addresses and how they
handle data collisions using Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

2. Data Link Control Concepts

a) Framing
Framing refers to the process of breaking the data into frames, which are the basic units of transmission at the Data Link
Layer. Each frame contains the data, along with necessary control information, such as the start and end of the frame,
source and destination addresses, error-checking data, and control flags.

Framing Techniques:

Character Count: The first field in the frame specifies how many characters (or bytes) are in the frame. It is a simple
method but not very reliable since if the character count itself gets corrupted, the frame becomes unrecognizable.

Byte-Oriented Protocol (Byte Stuffing): Special escape characters are inserted before any special control byte (like 0x7E in
PPP). This ensures that data bytes do not conflict with control bytes.

Bit-Oriented Protocol (Bit Stuffing): In protocols like HDLC, bit stuffing is used where a '0' bit is inserted after five consecu-
tive '1's to prevent confusion with special flag sequences like 01111110 (used to denote the start and end of a frame).

Example: HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) uses bit stuffing, where a '0' is inserted after five consecutive '1's to avoid
misinterpretation of the frame boundaries.

b) Flow Control
Flow control mechanisms prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed with data from the sender. These techniques
manage the pacing of data transmission.
Flow Control Techniques:

Stop-and-Wait Protocol: The sender sends one frame and waits for an acknowledgment before sending the next. Al-
though easy to implement, this method can be inefficient as the sender must wait after every transmission.

Sliding Window Protocol: The sender and receiver maintain a window (a set of frames that can be sent before receiving
an acknowledgment). This method supports full-duplex communication and allows the sender to transmit multiple frames
at once, improving throughput.

Example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) uses a sliding window mechanism to manage flow control in a connection,
allowing multiple packets to be sent and acknowledged without waiting for one packet at a time.

c) Error Control
Error control ensures that data is transmitted without corruption by detecting errors in transmitted frames and requesting
retransmission if necessary.

Error Control Mechanisms:

Error Detection: Methods like Parity, Checksum, and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) are used to detect errors in transmit-
ted data.

Error Correction: In cases where errors are detected, data can be corrected using techniques like Automatic Repeat Re-
quest (ARQ), where frames are retransmitted when an error is detected.

Acknowledgment and Retransmission: The receiver sends an acknowledgment (ACK) to the sender if the frame was re-
ceived correctly, or a negative acknowledgment (NAK) to request a retransmission.

Example: The Go-Back-N ARQ protocol uses sequence numbers to track frames. If an error is detected in a frame, all sub-
sequent frames are resent, even if they were transmitted correctly.

3. Types of Communication Channels

a) Noiseless Channel
In a noiseless channel, no transmission errors occur. This is an idealized scenario where data is transmitted perfectly.

Features:

No need for error detection or correction.

Protocols are simpler since the assumption is that no errors will occur during transmission.

Use Case: Noiseless channels are often used in theoretical scenarios or simulations where focus is placed on flow control
and framing without complicating factors like noise.

b) Noisy Channel
A noisy channel is a real-world scenario where data can get corrupted due to noise, interference, or signal attenuation. In
this case, error detection and correction mechanisms are necessary.

ARQ Protocols:

Stop-and-Wait ARQ: After sending a frame, the sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK). If no ACK is received, the
frame is retransmitted.
Go-Back-N ARQ: The sender can send several frames, but if any frame is lost or corrupted, all frames from that point are
retransmitted.

Selective Repeat ARQ: Only the frames that were detected to be in error are retransmitted, making it more efficient than
Go-Back-N.

Example: Wi-Fi and Ethernet use error detection codes like CRC to handle errors and ensure the integrity of data over
noisy channels.

4. Error Detection and Correction Techniques (Expanded)

a) Error Detection
Error detection techniques are used to identify corrupted data during transmission.

Parity Check: A single bit (parity bit) is added to the data to make the total number of 1's either even or odd. If the total
number of 1's doesn't match the expected parity, an error is detected.

Checksum: The sender divides data into equal-sized parts, calculates a checksum (the sum of all parts), and sends it along
with the data. The receiver recalculates the checksum and compares it with the sent value.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): A more robust error detection technique where data is treated as a polynomial and di-
vided by a pre-defined generator polynomial. The remainder of this division is appended to the data as a CRC value.

b) Error Correction
Error correction goes a step further by not only detecting errors but also correcting them without needing retransmission.

Hamming Codes: These are a class of codes that can correct single-bit errors and detect two-bit errors by adding redun-
dant bits at specific positions.

Linear Block Codes: These codes add redundant bits to data to form a codeword (a combination of data and redundant
bits) that can be used to detect and correct errors.

Cyclic Codes (CRC): Used primarily for error detection, but when paired with error correction methods, they can correct
errors as well.

Example: Ethernet uses CRC-32 for error detection and correction in frames.

5. Data Link Layer Protocols

a) HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)
HDLC is a bit-oriented synchronous data link layer protocol used to control communication between network devices.

Frame Types in HDLC:

I-frames (Information Frames): These carry the actual data and sequence numbers.

S-frames (Supervisory Frames): Used for flow control and error control.

U-frames (Unnumbered Frames): Used for link management, such as establishing or terminating a connection.

Modes of Operation:

Normal Response Mode (NRM): In this mode, the primary device controls the communication link.

Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM): Both devices can initiate communication, making it more efficient.
Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM): A less commonly used mode.

Use Case: HDLC is commonly used in point-to-point and multipoint communication links, such as in WAN (Wide Area Net-
work) communication.

b) PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

PPP is a byte-oriented protocol used to establish a direct connection between two nodes, often over serial connections
like telephone lines or ISDN.

Features of PPP:

Supports multiple network layer protocols like IP and IPX.

Provides authentication through PAP (Password Authentication Protocol) and CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication
Protocol).

Uses LCP (Link Control Protocol) for link management and error checking.

Use Case: PPP is commonly used in dial-up internet connections and VPNs (Virtual Private Networks).

UNIT 4
Unit 4 Multiple Access & Local Area Networks: Multiple Access, Random Access-CSMA, CSMA/CD,CSMA/CA. Controlled Access-Reser-
vation, Polling, Token Passing in FDDI and CDDI. Channelization- FDMA, TDMA, CDMA. Wired LANs: Ethernet, IEEE standards, Standard
Ethernet, Changes in the Standard, Fast Ethernet, Bridges, Functions of a bridge, Bridge Protocol Architecture, Fixed routing, Spanning
tree approach, Connecting devices like Repeaters, Hubs, Bridge Gigabit Ethernet. Wireless LANs, Applications, Architecture, IEEE
802.11, Architecture and Services, Medium Access Control, Physical layer.

1. Introduction to Multiple Access and LANs

Multiple Access refers to the method that allows multiple devices to share the same communication medium efficiently. It solves the
issue of medium contention when more than one device attempts to transmit data simultaneously.

Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and other devices within a small geographical area such as a home,
office, or campus. LANs offer high data transfer rates, low latency, and are typically based on Ethernet and Wi-Fi standards.

Applications of LANs:

· Educational Institutions: Used for e-learning and access to shared resources.

· Corporate Offices: Sharing files, databases, and printers.
· Home Networks: Connecting smart TVs, PCs, smartphones, and IoT devices.
· Cyber Cafés and Gaming Centers: Multiplayer gaming and internet access.

2. Multiple Access Techniques

a. Random Access Protocols

In random access methods, no device is given special priority. Devices transmit when they are ready and handle collisions if they occur.

i. ALOHA

ALOHA is one of the earliest random access protocols developed at the University of Hawaii.

Pure ALOHA:
 · Devices transmit data whenever they want.
· If a collision happens, they wait for a random time and retransmit.
· Throughput Formula: S=G⋅e−2GS = G \cdot e^{-2G}, Maximum throughput is 18.4% at G=0.5G = 0.5

Slotted ALOHA:

· Time is divided into discrete time slots.

· Devices must wait until the beginning of a slot to transmit.
· Throughput Formula: S=G⋅e−GS = G \cdot e^{-G}, Maximum throughput is 36.8% at G=1G = 1

Example: In satellite communication, ALOHA helps devices communicate with a central hub.

Diagram: Pure vs Slotted ALOHA Timeline

ii. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

CSMA improves ALOHA by checking the channel before transmitting.

Types:

· 1-persistent CSMA: Transmits immediately if the channel is idle; causes collisions if many nodes act simultaneously.
· Non-persistent CSMA: Waits random time if channel is busy; reduces collisions.
· p-persistent CSMA: For slotted channels; sends with probability p when idle.

Example: Ethernet uses CSMA to detect idle channel.

iii. CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

Used in traditional Ethernet.

· Listens to the channel while sending.

· If collision occurs, stops transmission and sends a jamming signal.
· Binary Exponential Backoff Algorithm: Waits random time increasing exponentially after each collision.

Diagram: CSMA/CD Flowchart

iv. CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)

Used in Wi-Fi where collision detection is not practical.

· Devices wait for channel to be idle.

· Use RTS/CTS (Request to Send / Clear to Send) messages.
· Adds backoff timers to avoid collisions.

Example: IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi standard uses CSMA/CA.

b. Controlled Access Protocols

In controlled access, the right to transmit is managed by protocols to avoid collisions.

i. Reservation

· Time is divided into intervals.

· Devices reserve slots in advance.

Example: TDMA cellular systems use slot reservations.

ii. Polling

· A master device polls each slave device in a round-robin manner.

· Only the polled device can transmit.

Example: Used in master-slave communication systems like industrial networks.

iii. Token Passing

· A special frame (token) circulates.

· Only the holder of the token can transmit.

Used in: FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface), CDDI (Copper Distributed Data Interface)

Diagram: Token Ring Network

c. Channelization Protocols

Multiple users are allowed to use the same channel simultaneously using separation techniques.

i. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

· Channel bandwidth is divided into frequency bands.

· Each user gets a unique frequency band.

Example: Used in analog cellular systems.

Diagram: FDMA Spectrum Allocation

ii. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

· Time is divided into time slots.

· Each user gets a time slot to transmit.

Example: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)

Diagram: TDMA Frame Structure

iii. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

· All users use the full bandwidth simultaneously.

· Each user has a unique code for data transmission.

Mathematical Representation: r(t)=∑i=1ndi(t)⋅ci(t)r(t) = \sum_{i=1}^{n} d_i(t) \cdot c_i(t) Where di(t)d_i(t) is user data and ci(t)c_i(t) is
the spreading code.

Example: Used in 3G mobile networks.

3. Wired LANs

a. Ethernet Overview

Ethernet is the dominant wired LAN technology, governed by the IEEE 802.3 standard.

b. IEEE Ethernet Standards

 · 802.3: 10 Mbps (Standard Ethernet)
· 802.3u: 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)
· 802.3z / ab: 1 Gbps (Gigabit Ethernet)
· 802.3ae: 10 Gbps (10-Gigabit Ethernet)

c. Changes in Standards

· Topology: Bus to Star

· Cable: Coaxial to Twisted Pair/Fiber
· Access Control: CSMA/CD to full-duplex switching

d. Ethernet Frame Format

Fields:

· Preamble: 7 bytes sync + 1 byte Start Frame Delimiter (SFD)

· Destination MAC: 6 bytes
· Source MAC: 6 bytes
· Type/Length: 2 bytes
· Data: 46-1500 bytes
· CRC: 4 bytes for error checking

Diagram: Ethernet Frame Structure

4. Ethernet Infrastructure Devices

a. Repeaters

· Regenerate signals
· Physical Layer (Layer 1)

b. Hubs

· Multiport repeater
· No traffic filtering

c. Bridges

· Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

· Forward frames based on MAC address

d. Bridge Protocol Architecture

· Learning: Learns MAC addresses of devices

· Forwarding: Forwards frames to correct port
· Aging: Removes unused addresses after time

e. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)

· Prevents loops in networks

· Elects a root bridge and blocks redundant paths

Diagram: Spanning Tree Topology

5. Wireless LANs
a. Applications

· Homes, offices, public hotspots

· Smart homes, IoT
· Mobile computing

b. IEEE 802.11 Architecture

Components:

· Station (STA): Device with wireless interface

· Access Point (AP): Acts as a bridge to wired network
· Basic Service Set (BSS): AP + clients
· Extended Service Set (ESS): Multiple APs connected via backbone

Diagram: ESS Architecture

c. Medium Access Control

· Distributed Coordination Function (DCF): Based on CSMA/CA

· Point Coordination Function (PCF): Optional polling-based access

d. Physical Layer

· Frequencies: 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz

· Modulation Techniques:
o DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
o FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
o OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

unit 5
Network Layer and Transport Layer: Internetwork protocols, principles of Internetworking, Internet protocol operation, IPV4: ICMP,
ARP, IPV6, Internetwork Operations, Multicasting, IGMP, Routing Protocols-distance Vector, Link State routing, path-vector routing,
Border Gateway Routing, OSPF, Integrated service Architecture, Differentiated services, service level agreements. Connection oriented
transport protocol mechanism, TCP, TCP congestion control, UDP

Application Layer: Domain Naming System, Remote Logging- Electronic mail & File Transfer, WWW and HTTP, webdocuments,
HTTP transactions, Network Management system, SNMPV2, V3.

1. Network Layer

A. Internetworking Concepts

Internetworking refers to connecting multiple networks together to function as a single large network. The goal is seamless data trans-
fer across different types of networks.

Principles of Internetworking:

· Transparency: Data should move across different networks without user awareness of the underlying technologies.
· Scalability: Should support growing numbers of devices and networks.
· Robustness: Must handle errors, congestion, and network failures.

Internetwork Protocols:

· The main protocol used for internetworking is the Internet Protocol (IP).
B. IP Protocols

IPv4:

· 32-bit addressing scheme allowing ~4.3 billion unique addresses.

· Packet contains source and destination IP addresses, Time To Live (TTL), header checksum, etc.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):

· Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses within a local network.

· Example: If a device wants to communicate with 192.168.0.10, ARP helps find its MAC address.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):

· Used for diagnostic and error messages.

· Examples: Ping, Destination Unreachable, TTL Exceeded.

IPv6:

· 128-bit addressing scheme supporting 21282^{128} addresses.

· Simplified header, improved security, and auto-configuration.

Comparison with IPv4:

· No need for NAT

· Built-in IPsec
· Larger address space

C. Internetwork Operations

Packet Forwarding:

· Routers examine destination IP and forward the packet accordingly.

Fragmentation:

· If a packet is too large for a network, it's split into smaller fragments.
· IPv6 avoids this by enforcing path MTU discovery.

D. Multicasting

Multicasting: Sending data to multiple specific recipients (not all).

IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol):

· Manages group memberships in IPv4.

· Devices use IGMP to join or leave multicast groups.

E. Routing Protocols

1. Distance Vector Routing:

· Routers share information with neighbors.

· Example: RIP (Routing Information Protocol).
· Metric: Hop count.

2. Link State Routing:

· Each router builds a map of the entire network.

 · Example: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First).
· Metric: Cost (bandwidth).

3. Path-Vector Routing:

· Used in inter-domain routing (between different AS).

· Example: BGP (Border Gateway Protocol).

4. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):

· Hierarchical routing protocol using areas.

· Reduces routing overhead.

F. Quality of Service (QoS)

Integrated Services (IntServ):

· Flow-based model where resources are reserved.

· Uses RSVP protocol.

Differentiated Services (DiffServ):

· Packet-based model.
· Traffic classified and marked (EF, AF, BE).

Service Level Agreements (SLAs):

· Contracts defining QoS between providers and customers.

· Metrics: Bandwidth, delay, jitter, packet loss.

2. Transport Layer

A. Overview

· Enables end-to-end communication.

· Segmentation and reassembly.
· Error recovery and flow control.

B. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

Characteristics:

· Connection-oriented.
· Reliable delivery.
· Ordered data transfer.

TCP Segment Structure:

· Fields: Source Port, Destination Port, Sequence Number, Acknowledgment Number, Flags, Window Size, etc.

Connection Establishment:

· Three-way handshake:
1. SYN
2. SYN-ACK
3. ACK
Flow Control:

· Uses window size to control the number of bytes sent.

Error Control:

· Checksums used to detect errors.

· Retransmissions upon error.

Congestion Control:

· Slow Start: Start with small congestion window.

· Congestion Avoidance: Linear increase of window.
· Fast Retransmit & Recovery: Retransmit missing segments quickly.

C. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Characteristics:

· Connectionless.
· No error recovery or flow control.
· Suitable for time-sensitive applications like video streaming and DNS.

UDP Segment Structure:

· Source Port, Destination Port, Length, Checksum.

3. Application Layer

A. Domain Name System (DNS)

Purpose: Resolves domain names (e.g., www.example.com) to IP addresses.

Hierarchy:

· Root Servers
· Top-Level Domains (TLDs)
· Authoritative Servers

Types of Records:

· A: Maps name to IPv4

· AAAA: Maps name to IPv6
· MX: Mail server

B. Remote Access and Communication

1. Remote Logging (Telnet, SSH):

· Telnet: Unsecure remote terminal access.

· SSH: Secure shell, encrypted communication.

2. Electronic Mail:

· SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Sending mail.

· POP (Post Office Protocol): Download mail to local device.
· IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol): Access mail while keeping it on server.
3. File Transfer:

· FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Client-server protocol to transfer files.

C. Web Services

1. WWW and HTTP:

· WWW: Collection of web pages.

· HTTP: Protocol to transfer web documents.

2. HTTP Transactions:

· Request/Response model.
· Methods: GET, POST, PUT, DELETE.

3. Web Documents:

· Static: Fixed content.

· Dynamic: Generated in real-time (e.g., PHP, JSP).

D. Network Management

Network Management System (NMS):

· Monitors, controls, and configures network devices.

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):

· SNMPv2: Enhanced performance.

· SNMPv3: Adds security features (authentication, encryption).