Unit 1

Computer Graphics

1.1 Introduction
 Computer Aided Design:
“The use of computer systems to assist in the creation,
modification, synthesis, analysis and optimization of a design of any
product, machine or component of machine is defined as Computer
Aided Design.”
 Computer Aided Manufacturing:
“The use of computer systems to plan, manage and control
the manufacturing operations by interfacing of computer system
to manufacturing machine is defined as Computer Aided
Manufacturing”
 Computer Graphics:
“Computer Graphics is the technology that deals with the
generation, transformation and modification of a 2D of 3D model or
simply a picture using a computer software or an application.”

1.2 Geometric Transformation and Formulation

 Geromtric Formulation:
“The construction of a geometric model by using the
computer Graphics is called as Geometric Formulation.”
Any 2D graphic element is constructed out of two or more points.
While the the formulation of a 3D model requires two or more
planes.
 Geometric Transformations:
“Geometric Transormation is the change of the orientation,
shape and size of the geometric model in the database and graphic
image in the computer graphics.”
 Basic Geometric Transformations:
The basic geometric transformation used in modelling in computer
graphics are:
a) Translation
b) Shear
c) Rotation
d) Scaling
e) Reflection
1.2.1 Translation:
“Translation is defined as the movement of every point on the
geometric model in the same direction by same distance.”
1.2.2 Shear:
“A transformation in which all points along a given line remain
fixed while other points are shifted parallel to by a distance
proportional to their perpendicular distance is shear
transformation.”
 Shearing a plane figure does not change its area.
 The distorted shape appears as if the object were composed
of internal layers that had been caused to slide over each
other.
Types of shear:
i. X – direction shear:

Fig. X – direction shear of graphic element

 ii. Y – direction shear:

Fig. Y– direction shear of graphic element

1.2.3 Rotation:
“A rotation is a transformation in which the object is rotated
about a fixed point.”
 The direction of rotation can be clockwise or anticlockwise.
 The fixed point in which the rotation takes place is called the
center of rotation.
 The amount of rotation made is called the angle of rotation.
1.2.4 Scaling:
“A scaling transformation alters size of an object.”
 In the scaling process, we either compress or expand the
dimension of the object.
 The scaling of any graphic element is the scaling of all the
points of that element.
 Scaling is used to enlarge or reduce the size of the element.
 Fig. Scaling

1.2.5 Reflection:
“Rotation is the transformation in which the object is flipped
or reflected about a line.”
 It is like a mirror image.
 Reflection of any graphic element is the reflection of all the
points of that element.

Reflection can be about various lines such as:

a. Reflection about X- axis:
 Fig. Reflection about X- axis

b. Reflection about Y- axis:

 Fig. Reflection about Y- Axis

c. Reflection about origin:

 Fig. Reflection about origin

d. Reflection about line y=x:

 Reflection about y=x

e. Reflection about line y=-x:

 Fig. Reflection about y=-x

1.3 Homogeneous Representation:

 The rotation of a point, straight line or an entire image on the
screen, about a point other than origin, is achieved by first
 moving the image until the point of rotation occupies the
origin, then performing rotation, then finally moving the image
to its original position.
 The moving of an image from one place to another in a
straight line is called a translation. A translation may be done
by adding or subtracting to each point, the amount, by which
picture is required to be shifted.
 Translation of point by the change of coordinate cannot be
combined with other transformation by using simple matrix
application. Such a combination is essential if we wish to
rotate an image about a point other than origin by translation,
rotation again translation.
 To combine these three transformations into a single
transformation, homogeneous coordinates are used. In
homogeneous coordinate system, two-dimensional coordinate
positions (x, y) are represented by triple-coordinates.
 Homogeneous coordinates are generally used in design and
construction applications. Here we perform translations,
rotations, scaling to fit the picture into proper position .
Example of representing coordinates into a homogeneous
coordinate system:
For two-dimensional geometric transformation, we can choose
homogeneous parameter h to any non-zero value. For our
convenience take it as one. Each two-dimensional position is then
represented with homogeneous coordinates (x, y, 1).
Basic 2D geometric transformation in homogeneous co-ordinate
system are:
1.4 Composite (Concatenated) Transformation:
A number of transformations or sequence of transformations can be
combined into single one called as composition. The resulting matrix
is called as composite matrix. The process of combining is called as
concatenation.
Suppose we want to perform rotation about an arbitrary point, then
we can perform it by the sequence of three transformations
1. Translation
2. Rotation
3. Reverse Translation
The ordering sequence of these numbers of transformations must
not be changed. The composite transformation is performed by
multiplying matrix in order from right to left side.

Example showing composite transformations:

The enlargement is with respect to center. For this following
sequence of transformations will be performed and all will be
combined to a single one
Step1: The object is kept at its position as in fig (a)
Step2: The object is translated so that its center coincides with the
origin as in fig (b)
Step3: Scaling of an object by keeping the object at origin is done
in fig (c)
Step4: Again translation is done. This second translation is called a
reverse translation. It will position the object at the origin location.
General Pivot Point Rotation or Rotation about Fixed Point:
1) For it first of all rotate function is used. Sequences of steps are
given below for rotating an object about origin.
 2) Translate object to origin from its original position as shown in fig
(b)
3) Rotate the object about the origin as shown in fig (c).
4) Translate the object to its original position from origin. It is called
as reverse translation as shown in fig (d).

1.5 Inverse Transformation:

“These are also called as opposite transformations.”
If T is a translation matrix than inverse translation is representing
using T-1. The inverse matrix is achieved using the opposite sign.
During the development of composite transformation matrix, many
a times, it is necessary to use the inverse of some basic geometric
transformation matrices.
 Various Geometric Transformation matrices for 2D geometric
transformation are:

1.6 Coordinate System:

There are three major types of coordinate system commonly used in
CAD modeling.
1. Model Coordinate system (MCS) or World Coordinate
system or Global Coordinate System (GCS):
“The model coordinate system is the reference space of model
with respect to which all the geometrical data of model is stored
in database.”
This is the only coordinate system that modelling software
recognizes when storing or retrieving the graphical information in
or from model database.
The CAD software stores the graphical information in the
model database with reference to the coordinate system known
as model coordinate system.
2. User Coordinate System (UCS) or Local Coordinate System
or Working Coordinate System (WCS):
“User Coordinate System is defined by the user for the
convenience of input of the graphical information.”
In CAD modelling, the user inputs the graphical information
with reference to the coordinate system known as user
coordinate system.
If the geometric model has a complex geometry or a specific
orientation, it is highly inconvenient to input the graphical data in
a model coordinate system.

3. Screen Coordinate system:

 “Screen Coordinate system is a 2D Cartesian Coordinate
System whose origin is located at the corner of the graphics
display screen.”
This system is display-device dependent.

Fig. Screen Coordinate System

1.7 Geometric Mapping:
“Mapping of the Geometric model changes the graphical
description of model from one coordinate system to another without
changing the position, orientation, size and shape of the model.”
In CAD modelling, the user inputs the graphical information
with reference to the working or user coordinate system (UCS or
WCS) of the sketch plane, while CAD software stores the graphical
information in the model database with reference to Model
Coordinate System (MCS).
Mapping is used to convert the coordinates of points on the
model from one coordinate system to another.
Types of Geometric Mapping:
1.7.1 Translation Mapping
“If the axes of the two coordinate systems are parallel, then
the mapping is called translation mapping.”
Let, dx = distance of the origin of original system (O) from the
origin of the new coordinate system (O’) along X-direction.
dy = distance of the origin of original system (O) from the
origin of the new coordinate system (O’) along Y-direction.
Coordinate of point P in new coordinate system are:
x’ = x + dx
y’ = y + dy
1.7.2 Rotational Mapping:
“If both the coordinate systems have common origin but the
axes are at an angle, then the mapping is called rotational
mapping.”
Let, ɸ = angle made by the axes of original coordinate system
with the axes of new coordinate system.
Coordinate of point P in new coordinate system are:

x’ = x cos ɸ - y sin ɸ
y' = x sin ɸ + y cos ɸ

1.7.3 General Mapping:

“It is the combination of rotational and translational mapping.”
Coordinate of point P in new coordinate system are:
x’ = x cos ɸ - y sin ɸ + dx
y' = x sin ɸ + y cos ɸ + dy
1.8 3D Transformation:
The geometric transformations play a vital role in generating
images of three Dimensional objects with the help of these
transformations. The location of objects relative to others can be
easily expressed. Sometimes viewpoint changes rapidly, or
sometimes objects move in relation to each other. For this number
of transformation can be carried out repeatedly.
The method of 2D transformations can be extended to 3D by
including Z-coordinate.

Some of the 3D geometric transformation matrices are as follows:

1.9 Projection:
“It is the process of converting a 3D object into a 2D object.”

It is also defined as mapping or transformation of the object in

projection plane or view plane. The view plane is displayed surface.

1.9.1 Perspective Projection:

In perspective projection farther away object from the viewer, small
it appears. This property of projection gives an idea about depth.
The artist use perspective projection from drawing three-
dimensional scenes.
Two main characteristics of perspective are vanishing points and
perspective foreshortening. Due to foreshortening object and
lengths appear smaller from the center of projection. More we
 increase the distance from the center of projection, smaller will be
the object appear.

Vanishing Point:
“It is the point where all lines will appear to meet. There can
be one point, two point, and three point perspectives.”

One Point:
“There is only one vanishing point.”
Two Points:
“There are two vanishing points. One is the x-direction and
other in the y –direction.”
Three Points:
“There are three vanishing points. One is x second in y and
third in two directions.”

In Perspective projection lines of projection do not remain

parallel. The lines converge at a single point called a center of
projection. The projected image on the screen is obtained by points
of intersection of converging lines with the plane of the screen. The
image on the screen is seen as of viewer's eye were located at the
centre of projection, lines of projection would correspond to path
travel by light beam originating from object.

Important terms related to perspective

1. View plane: It is an area of world coordinate system which is

projected into viewing plane.
2. Center of Projection: It is the location of the eye on which
projected light rays converge.
3. Projectors: It is also called a projection vector. These are rays start
from the object scene and are used to create an image of the object
on viewing or view plane.
1.9.2 Parallel Projection:
Parallel Projection use to display picture in its true shape and
size.
“When projectors are perpendicular to view plane then is
called orthographic projection.”
The parallel projection is formed by extending parallel lines
from each vertex on the object until they intersect the plane of the
screen. The point of intersection is the projection of vertex.
Parallel projections are used by architects and engineers for
creating working drawing of the object, for complete
representations require two or more views of an object using
different planes.
1. Isometric Projection: All projectors make equal angles generally
angle is of 30°.
2. Dimetric: In these two projectors have equal angles. With respect
to two principle axis.
3. Trimetric: The direction of projection makes unequal angle with
their principle axis.
4. Cavalier: All lines perpendicular to the projection plane are
projected with no change in length.
5. Cabinet: All lines perpendicular to the projection plane are
projected to one half of their length. These give a realistic
appearance of object.