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Experimental testing of cool colored thin layer asphalt and estimation of its
potential to improve the urban microclimate

Article in Building and Environment · January 2011

DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.06.014

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 Building and Environment 46 (2011) 38e44

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Building and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Experimental testing of cool colored thin layer asphalt and estimation of its
potential to improve the urban microclimate
Afroditi Synnefa a, *, Theoni Karlessi a, Niki Gaitani a, Mat Santamouris a, D.N. Assimakopoulos b,
C. Papakatsikas c
a
Group Building Environmental Studies, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Applied Physics, Physics Department, Building of Physics e 5,
University Campus 157 84 Athens, Greece
b
National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Department of Applied Physics, Physics Department, Building of Physics – 5, University, Campus 157 84 Athens, Greece
c
Aktis S.A. Odysseos 13, Thessaloniki 54629, Greece

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Urban Heat Island refers to the temperature increase in urban areas compared to rural settings, exac-
Received 4 March 2010 erbating the energy consumption of buildings for cooling. The use of highly reflective materials in
Received in revised form buildings and urban structures reduces the absorbed solar radiation and contributes to mitigate heat
24 June 2010
island. This paper presents the results of a study aiming to measure and analyze the solar spectral
Accepted 25 June 2010
properties and the thermal performance of 5 color thin layer asphalt samples in comparison to a sample
of conventional black asphalt. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation is used for evaluating the
Keywords:
thermal and energy impact of applying the samples in outdoor spaces (roads). The spectrophotometric
Cool paving materials
Colored thin layer asphalt
measurements showed that the colored thin layer asphalt samples are characterized by higher values of
Solar reflectance solar reflectance compared to the conventional asphalt, which is mainly due to their high near infrared
Near infrared reflectance solar reflectance. From the statistical analysis of the surface temperatures it was found that all the
Thermal performance colored thin layer asphalt samples demonstrate lower surface temperatures compared to conventional
Heat island mitigation asphalt. The maximum temperature difference recorded was for the off-white sample and was equal to
12
C. The CFD simulation results show that surface and air temperatures are decreased when applying
the color thin layer sample.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction is central to the energy balance of the surface, helps to determine

the internal climates of buildings and has an impact on the energy
The urban microclimate is mainly influenced by increased exchanges that affect the comfort of city dwellers [19]. Pavements
building density with the canyon geometry, the use of materials (roads, parking spaces etc.) cover an important percentage of
with inappropriate optical and thermal properties and the lack of a city’s surface and their thermal characteristics play a dominant
green spaces, increased anthropogenic heat and increased air role in the formation of the urban heat island effect. Paved surfaces
pollution [1,2]. The Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, with tempera- contribute to sunlight’s heating of the air near the surface and they
tures in urban areas higher by several degrees compared to the can transfer heat downward to be stored in the pavement subsur-
surrounding rural areas, has been documented in over 30 cities face, where it is re-released as heat at night [20e22]. Asaeda [23]
worldwide [3e10]. The UHI has the effect of increasing the demand found that pavement heat flux in Tokyo is equal to about half the
(and peak demand) of energy for cooling and energy prices, energy consumption rate of the city. Conventional pavements are
accelerating the formation of harmful smog, as increasing energy usually impervious made of concrete and asphalt, with solar
demand generally results in greater emissions of air pollutants from reflectance values ranging between approximately 4% and 45%
power plants and higher air temperatures also favor the formation [24,22], which can reach peak summertime surface temperatures of
of ground-level ozone, and causing human thermal discomfort and 48e67
C [2,22,25,26], as reported from several experimental
health problems by intensifying heat waves over cities [1,2,11e18]. studies for hot summer climatic conditions.
The surface temperature is of prime importance as it modulates One of the heat island mitigation strategies that has been
the air temperature of the lowest layers of the urban atmosphere, it proposed by researchers and has gained a lot of interest in the last
years is the use of materials that present high reflectivity during the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ30 2107257533; fax: þ30 2107295282. summer period [27,28]. Cool materials are characterized by high
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Synnefa). solar reflectance and infrared emittance values. These two

0360-1323/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2010.06.014
 A. Synnefa et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 38e44 39

properties result in lower surface temperatures. If the surface is on developed a new type of pavement that satisfies both high albedo
the building envelope, the heat penetrating into the building will be and low brightness based on the application of an innovative paint
decreased, if it is any surface of the urban environment it will coating on conventional asphalt pavement. The pigments and
contribute to decrease the temperature of the ambient air as the coating structure used are effective in achieving low reflectivity in
heat convection intensity from a cooler surface is lower [29]. the visible part of the spectrum (23%) and high near-infrared
Cool roofing products are made of highly reflective and emissive reflectivity (86%). Field measurements show that the maximum
materials, are usually bright white and can remain approximately surface temperature of the paint-coated asphalt pavement is about
up to 30
C cooler than traditional materials during peak summer 15
C lower than that of the conventional asphalt pavement.
conditions [30,31]. Researchers and manufacturers, have also been In this paper we report our work on five different colored thin
developing cool colored roofing materials for the cases where the layer asphalt samples that we developed and can be applied over
use of light colors creates glare problems or when the aesthetics of new or existing asphalt pavements in good condition, in order to
darker colors is preferred [32e34]. The Cool roofs technology and increase solar reflectance but maintaining a dark color. This study
market is well established with measurement standards related to reports the results of the spectral analysis based on the measured
Cool Roof products (e.g. those by ASTM reported in [20]), organi- optical properties of the samples, the analysis of the thermal
zations rating and promoting cool roof products [3,35e38] and performance of the samples under summer weather conditions and
energy codes including them. the evaluation of the impact of applying the samples in outdoor
Unlike cool roofing materials, cool paving materials technology spaces using a computational fluid dynamics model.
is still under development, no official standards or definitions exist
and more research in this field is required [15]. Cool pavements
refer to a range of established and emerging materials that tend to 2. Experimental procedure
store less heat and may have lower surface temperatures compared
with conventional products [22]. As reported in [39], possible In the framework of this study five (green, red, yellow, beige and
mechanisms for creating a cool pavement that have been studied to off-white) color thin layer asphalt samples have been developed by
date are a) increased surface reflectance, which reduces the solar an industrial partner of the University of Athens and were
radiation absorbed by the pavement; b) increased permeability, submitted for testing. The color thin layer asphalt samples were
which cools the pavement through evaporation of water; and c) developed by mixing an elastomeric asphalt binder (colorless) and
a composite structure for noise reduction, which also has been adding special pigments and aggregates of special sizes and colors.
found to emit lower levels of heat at night. This paper focuses on The tested samples are shown in Fig. 1. In addition, a sample of
the first mechanism. conventional black asphalt was also tested and used as reference.
Increasing the solar reflectance of a paved surface keeps it cooler For the testing, the asphalt samples have been applied on asphalt
under the sun, reducing convection of heat from pavement to air membranes at a thickness of 0.5 cm. The dimensions of the samples
and also thereby decreasing the ambient air temperature. Lower air were 33  33 cm for the temperature measurements.
temperatures decrease demand for cooling energy and slow the In order to study the optical properties and the thermal
formation of urban smog. Measured data reported by [40], clearly performance of the coatings the following parameters were
indicate that increasing the pavements’ solar reflectance by 0.25 measured:
causes significant decrease of the pavement temperature by 10
C.
Simulations of the influence of pavement albedo on air tempera- (a) The spectral reflectances of the samples. These were
ture in Los Angeles predict that increasing the albedo of 1250 km2 measured in the lab using a UV/VIS/NIR spectrophotometer
of pavement by 0.25 could potentially reduce air temperature by (Varian Carry 5000) fitted with a 150 mm diameter, inte-
0.6
C, which would result in significant benefits in terms of lower grating sphere (Labsphere DRA 2500) that collects both
energy use and reduced ozone levels. More specifically, it would specular and diffuse radiation. The reference standard
result in cooling energy savings worth $15 million per year, and reflectance material used for the measurement was a PTFE
smog-related medical and lost-work expenses reduction by $76 plate (Labsphere). Spectral reflectance measurements were
million year1 [41,42]. Many studies report the combined effect of performed according to ASTM E903-96: Standard Test
increasing the albedo of both roofs and pavements, which can
reduce the summertime urban temperature and improve the urban
air quality [40,41,43e45]. In addition, increasing urban albedo can
result in less absorption of incoming solar radiation by the surface-
troposphere system, countering to some extent the global scale
effects of increasing greenhouse gas concentrations. It has been
estimated that increasing pavement albedo in cities worldwide by
0.15, could achieve reductions in global carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions equivalent to 20 Gt, worth about $500 billion [46].
In addition to reduced air temperatures, energy use and air
quality benefits, it has been shown, that reduced pavement surface
temperatures can result in increasing the useful life (durability) of
pavements and reduce waste from maintenance. Furthermore,
reflective pavements can enhance visibility at night, potentially
reducing lighting requirements and saving money and energy [47].
A potential drawback from raising the solar reflectance of
pavements is that it could create glare problems, when driving for
example, reducing also visibility of the white line; or it may not be
appropriate in places where people will be uncomfortably exposed Fig. 1. The five (1. beige, 2. off-white, 3. green, 4. red, 5. yellow) tested color thin layer
to the reflected radiation for long periods, as in a children’s play- asphalt samples (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the
ground. In order to avoid these problems, Kinouchi et al. [48] have reader is referred to the web version of this article).
40 A. Synnefa et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 38e44

Method for Solar Absorptance, Reflectance, and Trans- to the visible reflectance. Even the dark colored samples (low
mittance of Materials Using Integrating Spheres. visible reflectance), have high near infrared reflectance. For
(b) The surface temperature of the samples on a 24 h basis. The example, the green thin layer asphalt sample is characterized by
basic experimental equipment consists of surface temperature a very low visible reflectance (10%), its near infrared reflectance
sensors (thermocouples type K) connected to a data logging reaches 39%. On the contrary, the conventional black asphalt
system. Instantaneous values were measured and saved on sample demonstrates very low visible reflectance (3%) and also
a computer hard disc every 15 min. The temperature sensors very low near infrared reflectance equal to 4%.
were placed on the centers of the surfaces of each tile. An This high near infrared “invisible” reflectance, explains the fact
infrared camera (AGEMA Thermovision 570, 7.5e13 mm wave- that the color thin layer asphalt samples are characterized by high
length) was also used to depict the temperature differences solar reflectance values. This is because although sunlight is more
between samples. intense in the visible range, it also emits a substantial amount of
energy in the invisible ultraviolet (UV) and near infrared (NIR). In
For the testing of their thermal performance the samples were fact, about half of all solar power arrives as invisible near-infrared
placed on a specially modulated platform covering a surface of radiation.
20 m2. The platform was horizontal, unshaded during the whole
day and insulated from below in order to eliminate the heat
4. Study and analysis of the thermal performance of the
transfer effects between the platform and the samples. The
samples
experimental procedure took place during the month of July 2008.
Measurements of the ambient climatic conditions, recorded
Based on the surface temperature measurements, the mean
from a meteorological station near the experimental site, include
diurnal surface temperature (07:00e19:00 LST) and the mean
ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, global and
nocturnal surface temperature (00:00e07:00 and 19:00e00:00) were
direct solar radiation on a horizontal surface and have been used to
calculated for each sample. The results of the calculations are shown in
characterize the outdoor climatic conditions. The experimental
Table 3. The differences of the mean and the mean maximum surface
period is characterized by typical clear sky conditions. The ambient
temperature between the conventional black asphalt and the five
temperature, the relative humidity, the monthly average daily
color thin layer asphalt samples are also shown in Table 3.
direct and global solar radiation (W/m2) on a horizontal surface
Fig. 4 shows the 24 h distribution of the mean hourly surface
during the experimental period are described in Table 1.
temperatures of the tested samples during the experimental
period. Mean hourly values of the ambient air temperature are also
3. Analysis of the measured spectral optical properties of the depicted.
tested samples During the day all the samples demonstrate surface temperatures
that were higher than the ambient air temperature. During the night
The results from the spectrophotometric measurements are the air temperature is always higher than the surface temperature of
shown in Fig. 2. Spectral reflectance data were used to calculate the the tested samples. This is because all the samples are characterized
solar reflectance of each sample. The calculation was carried out by by high values of emissivity and thus have the ability to release faster
weighted-averaging, using a standard solar spectrum as the the heat they have absorbed due to night sky radiative cooling.
weighting function. The spectrum employed is that provided by As it is shown in Table 3 and Fig. 4, all the 5 colored thin layer
ASTM (see standards ASTM E903-96 and ASTM G159-98). Addi- asphalt samples demonstrate lower surface temperatures
tionally, the solar reflectance values for the ultra violet (UV, compared to the black conventional asphalt. The mean diurnal
300e400 nm), visible (VIS, 400e700 nm), and near infrared (NIR, temperature of the color thin layer samples ranges from 39
C for
700e2500 nm) part of the spectrum were calculated. These values the off-white asphalt sample to 43.6
C for the red sample. The
for each sample are shown in Table 2. corresponding temperature for the black conventional asphalt
The reflectance of the color thin layer asphalt samples was sample is 46.7
C. The mean maximum diurnal surface temperature
found to be higher than the reflectance of the conventional black of the colored thin layer samples ranges from 48
C for the off-
asphalt in all the cases as it appears in Table 2 and Fig. 3. The solar white asphalt sample to 55.8
C for the red sample. The corre-
reflectance of the samples ranges between 27% (red and green sponding temperature for the black conventional asphalt sample is
samples) and 55% (off-white sample), and the solar reflectance of 60 C, which means 12
higher than the off-white sample. It can be
the conventional black asphalt is 4%. Furthermore, all the samples concluded that the red sample has a maximum surface temperature
present quite high absorptance in the UV (300e400 nm), ranging that is by 7% lower compared to the surface temperature of the
from 90% to 96% (Fig. 2 and Table 2). black conventional asphalt, the green sample by 8%, the beige and
In the visible part of the spectrum, the reflectance depends on yellow by 13% and 15% respectively, and the greatest difference was
the specific color. The highest visible reflectance was measured for recorded for the off-white sample that equals 20%. Given the fact
the off-white colored sample (45%) and the lowest for the black that all the samples are characterized by similar (about 0.9) values
conventional asphalt (3%). of thermal emittance then these temperature differences between
As it is shown in Table 2 and Fig. 2, all the color thin layer asphalt the samples can be explained if we take into account the solar
samples demonstrate quite high reflectance values in the near reflectance values of the samples. More specifically, the higher the
infrared part of the spectrum, ranging from 39% to 56%. For all the solar reflectance, the lower the surface temperature, as less solar
samples the NIR solar reflectance is significantly higher compared radiation is absorbed by the sample.

Table 1
Ambient climatic conditions during the experimental period (Source: National Observatory of Athens).

Time Air temperature (
C) Relative Wind speed Monthly average daily direct Monthly average daily
humidity (%) (m/sec) solar radiationa (W/m2) global solar Radiation (W/m2)
Mean Max Min
1st e 31st July 2008 28.7 39.3 20.5 44 3.7 6536 8004
 A. Synnefa et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 38e44 41

Fig. 2. The five (A. beige, B. off-white, C. green, D. red, E. yellow) tested color thin layer asphalt samples and the conventional black asphalt (F) (For interpretation of the references to
color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).

Infrared thermography was used to investigate the temperature

distribution of the samples and to depict the differences in their
thermal performance. Fig. 5 represents a visible and an infrared
image of the six tested coatings. It was found that the sample
temperatures were quite uniform. The visible and IR photos were
taken during peak surface temperature time and for a hot summer
day. As expected the black conventional asphalt sample that pres-
ents the lowest solar reflectance (0.04), appears as the hottest,

Table 2
Solar reflectance values (SR, 300e2500 nm) and solar reflectance values in the UV
(300e400 nm), VIS (400e700 nm) and NIR (700e2500 nm) part of the spectrum of
the five tested samples and the sample of conventional black asphalt.

Sample SR (%) SRUV (%) SRVIS (%) SRNIR (%)

Beige thin layer asphalt 45 10 31 56
Off-white thin layer asphalt 55 10 45 63
Green thin layer asphalt 27 8 10 39
Red thin layer asphalt 27 6 11 40
Yellow thin layer asphalt 440 8 26 51
Fig. 3. The solar reflectance of the five tested color thin layer asphalt samples and the
Conventional black asphalt 4 4 3 4
conventional black asphalt.
42 A. Synnefa et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 38e44

Table 3
Mean and mean maximum diurnal and nocturnal surface temperature of the tested
samples during the experimental period.

Sample Surface temperature (
C)

Diurnal Nocturnal

Mean DTmean Mean max DTmax Mean

Black conventional 46.7 e 59.9 e 21.6
Off-white 39 7.7 48 11.9 21.1
Yellow 40 6.7 50.7 9.2 19.4
Beige 40.5 6.2 52 7.9 19.1
Red 43.6 3.1 55.8 4.1 20.7
Green 43.5 3.2 55.1 4.8 19.7

having surface temperature above 70
C, followed by the red

(SR ¼ 0.27), the green (SR ¼ 0.27) which present temperatures Fig. 4. 24h distribution of the mean hourly surface temperatures of the tested samples
around 70
C, while the yellow (SR ¼ 0.40) and the beige (SR ¼ 0.45) and air temperature during the experimental period (July 2008).
are about 8
cooler, as shown at the temperature scale of Fig. 5. The
off-white thin layer asphalt sample with the highest solar reflec-
tance (0.55) appears to have the lowest temperature, around 55
C. used in order to investigate the maximum impact of the materials.
The examined area is a main, commercial road (Ag. Ioannou st. Agia
5. Evaluation of the impact of applying the samples in Paraskevi) situated in the suburbs of Athens (Fig. 6A), surrounded
outdoor spaces mainly by a residential area and where cool asphalt materials were
decided to be applied. The specific location has been chosen
Decrease of the outdoor ambient air temperature has a very because a lot of field data were available from an experimental
important impact on the cooling load of buildings. To evaluate the campaign carried out in the area in the framework of a project. The
possible drop of the ambient temperature, computational fluid solution domain is illustrated in Fig. 6.
dynamics (CFD) techniques have been used. The exact impact of cool There are 4e5 story buildings adjacent to the road. The grid of
asphalt on air temperatures at local scale between a base case where the calculation domain has dimensions of 1380(x)  1704(y)  150
conventional asphalt was used and another case using the off-white (z) m and consists of 80  140  50 cells at each axis respectively.
(SR ¼ 0.55) sample has been investigated. The evaluation of the Concerning the interference coming from boundaries to the flow
current as well as the proposed situation after the application of the and the necessary flow to develop, the distance between the object
examined cool material for microclimatic modification was achieved and the domain boundaries was arranged 6 times of the charac-
with the use of PHOENICS CFD (http://www.cham.co.uk/) model. teristic length for the position of the inlet (6H), 8 times for the
The PHOENICS CFD package has been configured to solve the position of outlet (8H) and 5 times for the lateral boundaries (5H).
Navier Stokes equations and it is a useful and efficient tool in the The top and side boundaries were treated as the symmetry
simulation of fluid flow. To represent the effects of turbulence conditions. For the ambient climatic conditions data from the
the standard k-e model was applied. The boundary conditions National Observatory of Athens have been used.
convey the necessary information about the temperature and wind According to the results of the simulations for the case where
field of the fluid on entry. The values of the surface temperatures the conventional black asphalt (SR ¼ 0.04 and maximum surface
were introduced as a boundary to PHOENICS and simulations of the temperature 60
C) is applied on the road, the air temperature at
ambient temperature and wind speed distributions have been 1.5 m height, ranged between 37
C and 47
C (average 42
C). For
performed. At the inflow boundaries, the wind field is specified. the second case, where the off-white thin layer asphalt (SR ¼ 0.55
Simulations were performed for the summer period for and maximum surface temperature 45
C) was applied on the road,
a leading north wind of 2 m/s at 10 m height (representative the air temperature at 1.5 m height, ranged between 36
C and
summer conditions) and the measured surface temperatures and 41
C (average 37
C).
solar reflectance of the samples reported in Sections 3 and 4 have Fig. 7, describes the air temperature field at 1.5 m height for the
been taken into account in the model. For the ambient temperature simulated area for the case of the black asphalt (A) and for the case
the mean daily maximum value for the summer period has been of the off-white thin layer asphalt (B).

Fig. 5. Visible (A) and infrared (B) images of the five color thin layer asphalt samples and black conventional asphalt sample: 1. off-white, 2. yellow, 3. green, 4. black (conventional)
5.beige, 6. red (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article).
 A. Synnefa et al. / Building and Environment 46 (2011) 38e44 43

Fig. 6. Satellite image (A), geometry and calculation domain (B) of the simulated area.

Fig. 7. The air temperature field at 1.5m height for the simulated area for the case of the black asphalt (SR ¼ 0.04)(A) and for the off-white thin layer asphalt (SR ¼ 0.55)(B).

Comparing the results of the first and second case it can be reflectance values and lower surface temperatures compared to
concluded that the application of the off-white thin layer asphalt on conventional black asphalt. CFD simulations showed that replacing
the road, resulted in a significant air temperature reduction in the conventional asphalt in a road could lead to an average air
simulated area equal to 5
C on average under low wind speed temperature decrease of 5
C under low wind speed conditions. The
conditions. Higher wind speeds may decrease the thermal contribu- results of this study indicate that the use of color thin layer asphalt
tion of cool asphalt as warm air will be transferred to the area by in roads and pavements can have significant impact in lowering
advection processes. This is explained by the fact that a surface with surface and air temperatures, mitigating thus the heat island effect
higher solar reflectance (e.g. off-white thin layer asphalt) will remain and its consequences. It should be pointed out that although cool
cooler under the sun compared to the surface covered with conven- pavement technologies like the one investigated in this paper are
tional absorbing dark asphalt, as it was verified experimentally. already available, local governmental agencies lack the information
Consequently, from a cooler surface less heat will be transferred to the and incentives to apply these in a coordinated and consistent way
surrounding ambient air through convenction and radiation. throughout city areas. It is important to create a strategic plan to
Considering the fact that in most urban areas pavements cover promote cool pavements including measurement standards,
a large percentage of the surface, a large scale application of this defined rating and evaluation procedures as well as and financial
cool thin layer asphalt could have a significant impact in lowering incentives and policies for their application.
surface and air temperatures, contributing to the mitigation of the
heat island effect and its consequences. References

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